MATE 202: Introduction to Materials Engineering

Introduction
Chapter1

The force-distance and energy-distance curves for a covalent bond, and visualization of atomic interaction between atoms of Silly PuttyTM. Atoms become closer and deform under high compressive force (requiring energy), and a long range interaction under tensile forces remains (also requiring energy).

Chapter 1: Introduction and Bonding

Interatomic bonding is a major determining factor in how materials are classified and how they behave in response to various stimuli and service conditions (e.g., mechanical stress, temperature, pressure, electromagnetic radiation, chemicals, etc.). Bonding is the most basic of foundations for understanding materials behaviour. 1.1 Definition of materials engineering Materials engineering encompasses many functions, including: Transformation of minerals and recycled materials into usable and valuable forms Adjustment of materials processing to elicit different materials properties and performance Proper selection and use of materials Design of new materials and processes to enhance performance Testing of materials Materials engineers, for the most part, are involved with the design and selection of materials for various applications, and they use the materials paradigm in design. 2

MATE 202: Introduction to Materials Engineering The materials paradigm:

STRUCTURE
Atomic scale and up

PERFORMANCE & COST

PROPERTIES

PROCESSING

Figure 1.1 The Interaction of Properties, Processing and Structure on Performance and Cost. The structure of a material dictates its properties, and the structure is in turn influenced by how the material was made (processed). Hence, the materials paradigm is an interdependent set of criteria that must be optimized in order to achieve the desired performance at the specified cost. Many properties are often considered in materials selection and design. THINK LIKE AN ATOM If you understand how atoms behave and the implications of the bonds that form between different elements then you will be able to predict properties, and then choose suitable processes to take advantage of materials. List of all the engineering materials that are present in the classroom. 1.2 Classes of Engineering Materials All engineering materials can be categorized into one of the 5 classes of materials based on their primary type of atomic bond, which are listed in green in the above list. In some cases materials can be crosslisted for the sake of application, but in most cases we classify according to bond type only. There are also secondary bonds in all materials, these are dipole-dipole interactions of different types known by a variety of names such as van der Waals, London dispersion forces, Keesom forces etc. The energy of these secondary bonds is typically less than 10% of that of the primary bonds. In this course you will learn concepts that can be applied to pretty much any situation you may encounter. I will give you the opportunity to learn concepts and fundamentals, in addition to some discipline specific declarative knowledge that will allow you to select, use, and be able to work with materials in your engineering career.

1.3 Example of materials engineering Electric guitar strings. An electric guitar string is metal steel in fact, and some are wound with nickel plated steel. When tuned up to a very high note the B string on a guitar will fail (all will for that matter!) Why ? Think about why the guitar string failed - on an atomic level. Below is a performance level that you should attain by the end of this courseyou should be able to produce an answer to this problem with at least 75% agreement to what is discussed. 3

Chapter 1: Introduction and Bonding Why does a guitar string break? (from an atomic scale standpoint) Turn the machine head way too much!

The string breaks about here or it breaks down here by the ball end of the string do you know why?

Figure 1.2 The electric guitar and details of the string fracture First of all we need to know the material, and some of the reasons it was chosen, then the properties of the material, and what happens to the atomic structure under stress this is the key to understanding the result, and to understanding how we apply materials engineering. Material: B string: carbon steel (mostly iron with less < 1wt% C) 0.36mm in diameter, tension at 8.07kg Metals are crystalline (formed of many tiny grains) This steel is processed to be in a very strong metastable phase called martensite Why steel? Very strong, relatively stiff wont permanently deform under stress, otherwise it couldnt be easily tuned, or hold its note. Martensitic steel is magnetically susceptible, so it works with the electronic pickups to allow amplification Corrosion resistance to human sweat is decent, but not great (which is one of the reasons we need to replace guitar strings over time). Corrosion products will be ceramics, and metal salts Steel is relatively inexpensive (buy a pack of 6 guitar strings for about $8 which means they cost a lot less to produce!) Steel is easily formed and heat treatable to attain different properties While the final form is martensite, the initial structure would have been a much softer structure (phase) allowing easy formation and wire drawing through a die After attaining the proper size the steel would have been heat treated to form metastable martensite (austenitized first and then rapidly quenched from high temperature to form martensite) So, why does the string break? Some metals can deform elastically to rather high stresses in tension (up to 2-3GPa). Elastic deformation once the stress is released the dimensions return to their original values. Elastic deformation is completely reversible - the atomic bonds are stretched, but no atoms permanently change position. If the metals are stressed past their elastic limit (proportional limit) the deformation is permanent, called plastic deformation. The stress at which plastic deformation occurs is called the yield stress. Plastic deformation is irreversible - the atomic bonds are stretched so much that atomic defects (dislocations) propagate through the metal crystals causing permanent rearrangement of atoms through bonds breaking and reforming. Martensite, while strong (high yield strength), is not very ductile which means it cannot handle 4

MATE 202: Introduction to Materials Engineering much plastic deformation once the yield stress has been reached (not much permanent deformation). So, when the guitar string is tensioned, it can handle a great deal of stress before plastic deformation occurs but once plastic deformation ensues there is so much stored elastic strain energy that defects can cause stress concentrations and fracture with relative ease. Once plastic deformation begins not much additional stress is required to cause fracture. At the yield stress atomic line defects (dislocations) are created and propagate causing shearing of the metallic crystals. The shear is a localized atomic motion resulting in atomic steps on the surface of the metal. Dislocations move differently in different directions within crystals, and different amounts when the applied stress is resolved into these directions. Dislocations pile up at grain boundaries (regions between crystals) and when they build up enough a crack can form and travel at the velocity of sound in the material causing fracture. As dislocations move they interact and their density increases. These processes lead to a higher applied stress to cause their motion, and hence the metal becomes stronger as more stress is applied this is called strain or work hardening. Guitar strings strain harden in certain locations at the machine head, and by the ball end. The dislocation density becomes higher in these locations, and the yield stress is higher here eventually, these regions become the localizations of stress concentrations and crack formation which is why the strings fail in these locations. You can also notice that the strings have been permanently deformed because the shape is no longer a straight wire.

A schematic stress-strain curve of two different steels. One that has been heat treated to form martensite, and another to form spheroidite a very soft, weak, and ductile form of steel that requires a long time at high temperature to achieve. We will learn more about stress-strain behaviour in Chapter 2.

Engineering stress, y
Elastic Initially X Fracture

Stress-strain curve approximates a martensitic steel (e.g., guitar string)

Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

Stress-strain curve approximates a spheroidized steel very weak but ductile

X Fracture

engineering strain,
Figure 1.3 Engineering stress-strain curve for two differently heat treated steels. Notice the high yield stress, y, of the upper curve, but low ductility (no plastic deformation). GUITAR STRINGS: Different strings are made out of different materials. Some wound strings are coated with polymers to prevent corrosion; some are steel cores wound with phosphorous bronze wire, or nickel plated steel. Others are wrapped with silver plated copper wire, or are made out of nylon polymersthe list goes on all in the name of tone, longevity, and strength. 5

Chapter 1: Introduction and Bonding

Figure 1.4 A close up of some guitar strings (public domain).

Figure 1.5 A) Schematic view of the investigated samples of electric guitar strings E6, A5 and D4. Samples consist of two different parts: Sn-plated steel core wire which is hexagonal in cross-section and Niplated steel wrap which is round in cross-section. B) SEM micrograph of the cross-section of the core and wrap of electric guitar string E6. C) SEM micrograph of the cross-section of the G3 electric guitar string (same shape also in strings B2 and E1.; difference is only in string diameter. D) Optical micrograph of cross section of E6 electrical guitar string microstructure, etched with 2% nital (2 mL of HNO3 to 98 mL ethanol)

Materials and Corrosion 2009, 60, No. 9999, Study of microstructure and corrosion kinetic of steel guitar strings in artificial sweat solution. I. Rezic*, L. Curkovic and M. Ujevic

MATE 202: Introduction to Materials Engineering

Figure 1.6. Some micrographs of etched cross sections of micrographs showing the structure of the grains (Source: www.cashenblades.com/info/martensite.htm) Crystal structure of Martensite:

Figure 1.7. The unit cell for martensite showing the locations of the C atoms which affect the c/a ratio in this structure. Martensite is a metastable structure transformed from a different crystal structure (FCC austenite) upon cooling a carbon steel from high temperature (above ~727 C). Martensite is very hard and very brittle. These properties are related to its crystal structure, and the nature of the defects and atomistic deformation mechanisms present in metals. Martensite can be transformed by heating back to high temperature (autenitized). When it is subsequently recooled it will form different structures which have different properties depending on the cooling rate. Martensite only forms with relatively rapid cooling! You will learn a lot more about phases and their transformations in Chapters 8 and 9.
Summary of guitar strings Guitar strings hold a rich study of materials engineering applied to real world common applications. Most objects in our world have similarly rich discussion with regard to materials engineering - it is all around you but you may never have known it! or never known why! This course aims to open your mind the fundamentals of materials science and engineering in an accessible way.

Chapter 1: Introduction and Bonding

Units in this course related to guitar strings: ALL OF THEM!

Topic Introduction, bonding Mechanical Properties Failure Structure Atom movements Plastic Deformation and strengthening Annealing Phase diagrams Transformations Corrosion Polymers Ceramics Yes or No? YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES

Why do you think all of these units are required for this course? The details of the technology around guitar strings are interesting not only as examples showing the range of materials, but also because we see that the evolution of this technology has been driven by improving materials. This is a common experience in most areas of technology, progress follows from developments in materials and processing. The guitar string example demonstrated that structure, properties, and processing are all important considerations in the performance of materials (the materials paradigm). At the heart of structure is interatomic (intermolecular) bonding, which will be further explained in Chapter 4, but a brief review is given below. 1.4 Bond characteristics and implications (metals, ceramics, polymers) Metals & alloys
+ + + + + + + + +

Metallic bonding 1-3 donated valence electrons - sea of electrons Non-directional bonds atoms can move easily without bond breaking Variable strength

Ceramics & Glasses

Covalent bonding Shared electrons (denoted by : at left) Strong and inflexible bond Electronegativity is comparable Ionic bonding Between + and ions Electron transfer, Coulombic attraction Strong and inflexible bond electrons are tightly bound Large electronegativity difference required Long chains of covalently bound C atoms (usually) Side groups are covalently bound to chain Side group interactions are through secondary bonding (i.e., dipole-dipole interactions such as van der Waals bonds: London, Debye, Hydrogen bonds (Keesom), denoted as at left)

Polymers
Sidegroup Chain

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

MATE 202: Introduction to Materials Engineering Implications of bonding Metals, ceramics, glasses, and polymers differ from each other in a fundamental way with respect to their: Strength Formability Stiffness Electrical conductivity Having an understanding of the above primary bond types is critical for applying materials engineering, because all of the differences in material properties are directly related to atomic bond type, therefore we cannot easily change a class of materials properties. We will talk more about these bond types (and secondary bonds) in Chapter 4 but the information here is review. Table 1 summarizes the bond types, their character, occurrence, properties of materials and implications in materials processing and use. Table 1 Bond type Metallic Bond Characteristics Non-directional (sea of electrons) Shared electrons Directional Seen in materials such as* Metals and alloys Materials Properties Strong Ductile Flexible Electronic conductors Very strong Brittle Stiff Poor electronic conductors Very strong Brittle Stiff Some electronic conduction in defected structures Flexible Weak
(Depends mostly on primary bond type, unless intermolecular interactions are strong, such as in water, diatomic gases etc.)

Implications Easily formed Moderately strong Good for electrical current carrier Hard to form Strong in compression Electrically insulating

Covalent

Ceramics & Glasses Polymers Semiconductors Ceramics

Ionic

Electron transfer Non-directional

Hard to form Strong in compression Electrically insulating

Secondary

Directional Inter-chain Inter-molecular

All materials Polymers

Easily formed

* Composites show a variety of bond type depending on which classes of materials are mixed to form the composite

Chapter 1: Introduction and Bonding SYLLABUS REVIEW Please be familiar with your syllabus, the code of student behaviour, lab schedule, and dates of assignments, exams. Assignments are group assignments, and 1 assignment per group will be graded with each group member getting the same grade. Please understand that the renovations in the CME building are underway and that it will affect the spaces where some of the labs are held. We dont have a choice, and we spent most of the summer trying to make everything as smooth as possible. The high enrollment, lack of extra lab space, and your other courses with labs all affect the lab schedule. Labs may not appear to be following the lecturesit is OK for you to have these feelings. You are simply accustomed to hearing everything in lecture first, then going to the lab. But, you can learn in the lab first it may just seem more stressful, and you will have to be more prepared (i.e., read ahead a bit and do the pre-labs etc.). It turns out that educational research suggests that for deeper and longer lasting learning we should really be teaching in reverse compared to current practice; ideally you would go to the lab first, then a seminar, then come to lecture to hear the big concepts of what you have been discovering. Co-op, or summer engineering jobs set you up for this sort of learning

Statistics show that students working in groups tend to have higher exam test scores and deeper learning than those who work alone. NOTES:

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