JOURNAL OF THE DRYLANDS 1(2): 206-211, 2006

Role of agroforestry in improving food security and natural resource management in the drylands: a regional overview
Bashir Jama1, Eyasu Elias1* and Kebadire Mogotsi1
Bashir Jama, Eyasu Elias and Mogotsi K (2006): Role of agroforestry in improving food security and natural resource management in the drylands: a regional overview. Journal of the Drylands 1(2): 206-211. Various agroforestry technologies are finding enormous application in the East and Central Africa (ECA) region and are lifting many out of poverty and mitigating declining agricultural productivity and natural resources. Notable examples are: a) fertilizer trees that when integrated with inorganic fertilizers can double or triple crops yields in degraded lands, b) fodder trees that can be used in smallholder zero-grazing systems in ways that supplement or substitute commercial feeds, c) improved varieties of temperate and tropical fruits that can be used to supplement household incomes and nutrition, d) medicinal trees that are utilized on farm and conserved insitu, and d) fast-growing timber and fuelwood trees that can be grown in various niches within the farm and in commercial woodlots and plantations. While thousands of smallholder farmers are using these technologies, we are yet to reach the millions that need them. To achieve this goal, the key challenges that we must address include supply of quality germplasm, responsive extension services, policies that provide adequate incentives for investments in planting trees and natural resource management, and access to markets. This paper presents promising institutional innovations for overcoming these challenges that could be used to scale up impact of agroforestry for managing better the complex nexus between poverty, food security, and natural resource management in the dry lands in ECA countries such as Ethiopia. Key-words: woodlots, parklands, home gardens, hedges, crop yield, intercropping
1 *

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), P.O Box 30677, Kenia Author for correspondence: Eyasu Elias, E-mail: e.elias@cgiar.org

Received December 2004, Accepted July 2006

Background
Arid and semi-arid lands occupy considerable portion of the total landmass of ECA countries as much as 80% of Kenya, 67% of Ethiopia, 50% of Tanzania and 40% of Uganda. Pastoral and agro-pastoral production is the main livelihood strategy in the drylands. The dryland areas in Ethiopia include arid areas (Length of Growing Period (LGP) < 45 days), dry semi-arid areas (LGP=40-60 days) and moist semiarid areas (LGP=60-120 days) and substantial part of the moist zone with variable LPG. According to location, dry areas of the country are classified as: x Northern drylands including the whole of Tigray region and many parts of Welo, Gondar and North Shewa in the Amhara region; x Eastern dryland areas (the whole of Afar and Somali regions). x Central dryland areas (rift valley areas such as Alem Tena, Bulbula, Ziway, Shashemene, etc)

South and south-eastern dryland areas (Borena, many parts of South Omo) The drylands are considered marginal due to poor soil quality (shallow and stony soils with poor water holding capacity), inadequate and erratic rainfall and short growing period usually between 1-4 months. Drought and crop failure are common problems making rain fed agriculture problematic in these areas. Temperatures are high leading to high rates of evapotranspiration. Food insecurity, extreme poverty and environmental degradation nexus are the most challenging in the drylands. Land holdings and per capita food production are on the decline. Low and erratic rainfall and soil fertility depletion are fundamental biophysical limitations responsible for declining productivity. The drylands have the lowest development indicators and the incidence of poverty is the highest with the majority of the population in these areas living below the poverty line. Droughts, conflicts, famine and food

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insecurity are common features of the drylands (EARO 2000, Eyasu 2002).

Agroforestry: a platform sustainable development in drylands

for the

individual houses managed by family labour. The home gardens are characterised by high species diversity and usually 3-4 vertical canopy strata tree layers upper storey, herbaceous layer near the ground and intermediate layers in between. The ensete-coffee-livestock tree system of southwestern Ethiopia represents a typical multistorey home garden. The upper storey is dominated by broad-leaved trees (e.g., Cordia, Croton, Millettia) fruit crops (avocado, mango), the middle storey containing ensete, coffee and maize while vegetables, spices, herbs cover the lower canopies. This results in a continuous food production throughout the year. Trees on soil conservation structures Planting trees/shrubs on earth structures such as soil and stone bunds, terraces, raisers, etc combines soil conservation with production of various products such as fodder, fruit or fuelwood. This makes productive use of the land because trees would use the area along the structures where other crops cannot be grown. A wide range of species, both exotic and indigenous, are planted along terrace bunds by farmers (e.g. trees for fodder, timber or edible fruits). It is common to find Leucaena sp, Grevillea, Faidherbia albida and sometimes high value fruit trees (e.g. mango, citrus and papaya) planted on conservation bunds. The challenge to guard against is some of the species introduced for soil conservation are becoming weeds. An example of this is Prosopsis juliflora initially a very good fodder but has now become an ecological disaster in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Kenya and Ethiopia (Sanchez and Jama 2000). Soil conservation hedges A contour hedge is a horizontal strip of multipurpose trees or shrubs that is used for soil erosion control on sloping lands. The hedges at the same time provide high quality fodder (e.g. Leucaena hedges), firewood, stakes for climbing beans and mulch material. Contour hedges control erosion by providing a physical barrier as well as through increased infiltration as a result of leaf litter layer creating good soil structure. Over the long-term, these hedges result in the formation of terraces on the upper side of each hedge In many parts of Africa, fodder trees/shrubs (Leucaena, Gliricidia, Calliandra), fruit trees (mango, citrus, avocado) and timber trees (Grevillea) are also grown as upperstory in the contour hedges. Woodlots A woodlot is a small patch of land planted with trees to provide fuelwood, pole or timber products to rural

Agroforestry, defined as a land use system in which trees and shrubs are grown in association with crops or animals in the same land unit, has the potential to arrest land degradation and rural poverty in the drylands through its service and productive functions. Service functions include soil fertility maintenance through erosion control and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), watershed protection, maintain ecological stability, conservation of bio-diversity and carbon sequestration. Agroforestry has the potential to increase carbon sink capacity thereby contributing to climate change mitigation. Productive functions: high value fruits for income and nutrition security, supply high quality fodder for livestock, wood for household energy, timber/poles for construction and income generation.

Indigenous agroforestry systems

In many parts of Africa, farmers traditionally practice agroforestry. Trees are planted in agricultural or silvopastoral systems to provide shade, windbreak, medicines, or to meet household energy needs. Traditional agro-forestry system takes the form of trees scattered on crop fields, woodlots, homestead tree planting and multi-storey home garden (Eyasu Elias 2002. Trees on crop fields parklands Parkland is random scattering of trees in fields with crops grown understorey. Management of trees in this system requires pruning of branches and the tops to reduce shading. The trees provide valuable products such as fuelwood, charcoal, construction materials and fodder for livestock. In Ethiopia some tree species traditionally managed in this system include Faidherbia albida, Acacia tortilis, Balanites aegyptiaca, and Acacia raddiana. The service functions of trees include improving soil fertility, conserving soil moisture and improving micro-climate resulting in increased crop yields. Experiments conducted in Debre Zeit and Alemaya showed that wheat and maize yields increased by over 50% under F. albida canopy (within 1.4 m radius) compared to those further away from the base of the tree (Dechasa Jiru 1989, EARO 2000). Multi-storeyed home gardens Tropical home gardens consist of an assemblage of multi-purpose trees and shrubs with annual and perennial crops and livestock within compounds of

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communities as well as for purposes of environmental regeneration. Area closures and community woodlots are important community resources in Tigray. A study showed that nine out of ten villages have community woodlots and on average there are nine woodlots per tabia with average size of 8 ha (Gebremedhin et al 2002). These are established primarily for ecological regeneration than economic and managed by the community at village level.

3 years to replenish fertility of extremely degraded soils through improved or planted fallows (Kwesiga and Chisumpa 1992). The trees and shrubs are interplanted with crops (e.g., maize) during the main rainy season and are left to grow alone during the dry season tapping subsoil water with deep roots. Right before the next rainy season, farmers harvest the fallows, removing the fuel wood and incorporating the biomass (leaves, soft stems and leaf litter) into the soil prior to planting maize. The benefits of improved fallows are manifold: Nitrogen production: Planted fallows can increase the amount of available nitrogen in the topsoil in the order of 100 - 200 kg N ha-1 within 0.5 2 years (ICRAF 2003). This is shown in Table 1 for the three most popular species for improved fallows used by farmers in Western Kenya Crotalaria grahamiana, Sesbania sesban and Tephrosia vogelii. Approximately 2/3 of the nitrogen captured by the fallows come from biological nitrogen fixation and the rest from deep nitrate capture from the subsoil. Upon subsequent mineralization, these improved fallows provide sufficient nitrogen for one to three subsequent maize crops, doubling to quadrupling maize yields at the farm scale.
Table 1. Nitrogen yield of biomass (leaves plus twigs < 2 cm diameter) of 6-month old improved fallow species in Western Kenya in a researcher managed on-farm trial near Maseno, Kenya. Fallows were established from 2-month old seedlings (Source: Sanchez and Jama 2000) Species Crotalaria grahamiana Tephrosia vogelii Sesbania sesban SED Nitrogen yield (kg N ha ) 152.6 121.3 85.4 11.5
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Agroforestry research experience at ICRAF

and

development

Agroforestry research and development has emerged as a new and vibrant discipline over the past 25 years. It applies scientific principles to find practical solutions to NRM and agricultural production problems. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) was established in 1978 with global mandate of advancing the science and practice of agroforestry to address agricultural and environmental problems in the developing world. In its efforts to improve and support the traditional agroforestry systems, ICRAF and its partners developed and documented various agroforestry technologies over the past two decades. Agroforestry research and development innovations focus on increasing farm productivity, food security, and diversified incomes for improved livelihoods in the drylands of Africa. Soil fertility depletion is the fundamental cause of food insecurity and low income of farmers in Africa. The loss of nutrients due to continuous cropping gradually renders the soil less fertile, resulting in poor yields. The magnitude of nutrient losses from agricultural soils is huge with annual average loss of 22 kg N, 2.5 kg P, and 15 kg K for the whole of SSA region (Stoorvogel and Smaling 1990). Thus, ICRAF has been testing various agroforestry options to enhance soil fertility, and prevent soil erosion while generating much needed income for resource poor farmers. Highlighted below are some. Proven technologies and practices for soil fertility maintenance result in a potential increase in crop yields in many parts of Africa. Improved fallows This is a process of land resting from cultivation, enriched with planting leguminous trees to speed up soil fertility replenishment process. Leguminous trees and shrubs such as Sebania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium, Crotalaria grahamiana, and Cajanus cajan rapidly replenish soil fertility in one or at most two growing seasons. It takes a maximum of

Improved crop yields: In western Kenya, maize yield following improved fallows averaged 4.1 t/ha. That is much higher than maize yield from non-fertilised plots continuously planted to maize (1.7 t/ha) (Sanchez et al 1996, ICRAF 2003). Similar experiments in Malawi showed that maize yields from third year onwards were markedly increased by Gliricidia manuring to an average of 1800-2500 kg/ha (Bohringer and Akinnifesi 2001). Soil and water conservation: Fallows improve soil structure, making the soil easier to till, and facilitate conservation tillage (ICRAF, 2003). Fallows increase the soils water infiltration capacity and are capable

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of deep root development as much as 7 m. Fallows decrease soil erosion, by maintaining a leaf canopy during dry seasons and more vigorous crop growth during the rainy seasons. Better soil conservation results are achieved when fallows are combined with contour hedges planted to fodder species (Sanchez and Jama 2000) Fuelwood production: Fuel wood production is in the order of 15 tonnes ha-1 in 2-year sesbania fallows in Eastern Zambia. Sanchez and Jama (2000) estimated that on average a family consumes about 0.4 tonnes of fuel wood per year. Therefore a tree fallow as small as 0.5 ha, would provide the firewood needed for the family to cook for one year, saving womens time in collecting and carrying heavy loads. In addition, fallows help prevent encroachment of communities in nearby forests and woodlands, and conserve biodiversity. Mixed intercropping with coppicing species Coppicing tree species used for improved fallows include Gliricidia sepium, Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena trichandra. Maize/Gliricidia intercropping has been widely applied in densely populated areas such as Malawi and western Kenya where sizes of land holdings preclude fallows (Sanchez and Jama 2000). The maize and Gliricidia are established concurrently on the same plot. Trees are managed through repeated cutting back so that they do not interfere with the crop. Large amounts of nitrogen rich tree biomass are left on the plot as green manure. The nitrogen equivalent that is added to the soil through the biomass ranges from 60 to 120 kg/ha/yr (Ikerra et al 1999). Biomass transfers The biomass transfer technology involves the growing of trees/shrubs along boundaries or contours on farms or the collection of the same from off-farm niches such as roadsides and applying the leaves on field at planting time. In western Kenya, Tithonia diversifolia became the preferred species used by farmers to grow maize, beans or kale. Tithonia accumulates high concentrations of nutrients in its leafy biomass, which mineralises very rapidly when incorporated in the soil. Green leaf biomass of Tithonia is high in nutrients, in the order of 3.5 4.0% N, 0.35 0.38% P, 3.5 - 4.1% K, 0.59% Ca and 0.27% Mg on a dry matter basis in Western Kenya (Rutunga et al 1999). In many parts of Ethiopia farmers collect leaf litter and polarded branches from selected trees such as Cordia africana, Erythrina absinica, Croton

macrostachyus, etc and incorporated into crop fields to enrich soil fertility on selected sites (Eyasu Elias 2002).

Agroforestry Impact demonstrated

Various agroforestry technologies are finding enormous applications in many parts of Africa lifting many out of poverty. Notable among these are fertiliser tree systems that double or quadruple crop production on the farm. Farmers in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe are now adapting the component technologies to their conditions. Productivity is restored on degraded lands and food security has been effectively achieved with these practices. From a survey conducted in western Kenya, it was estimated that over 16,000 farmers are using improved fallow in 2000 (Sanchez and Jama 2000). Hosea Omollo, assistant chief of Siaya District in Kenya summarized the first year results as follows: For the first time there have been no hunger periods in Luero village. Only two ears of maize have been reported stolen this year. (July 7, 1998). One farmer, Charles Ngolo of Vihiga District in Western Kenya, reported that his annual cash income increased ten times with the sale of kale planted following improved fallows. He commented: My wife and I are living the tithonia life. I built a new house with a tin roof and we are going to be able to send our children to school (June 4, 1997). The greatest impact of this work is in Southern Africa where about 30,000 farmers are now using Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium and Cajanus cajan in a 2-year fallow, 2 to 3-year maize rotation. One farmer, Sinoya Chumbe of Kampheta village in Zambia stated: Agroforestry has restored my dignity. My family is no longer hungry; I can even help my neighbours now (April 12, 1999).

Scaling up the Impact

The question now is how to scale up the benefits and impact of agroforestry bringing more benefits to more people (from tens of thousands to tens of millions of farmers in Africa), to make a definitive end to food insecurity. Major challenge facing ICRAF and its national partners because agroforestry technologies are knowledge intensive, and tree seed is often scarce, as many tree species do not seed very quickly after planting. In what follows we

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highlight some concrete scaling up innovations employed by ICRAF.

Scaling up through development partners

research

and

ICRAFs main strategy to achieve impact is working through existing research and development organisations and farmer groups. Key among these are national research and extension agencies, tertiary education institutions, schools, private sector and farmer organisations is a key strategy in scaling up. These are important channels for technology dissemination and platform for experience exchange among stakeholders. ICRAF adds value to the works of partners through capacity building, provision of high quality tree germplasm, information and knowledge sharing. Tertiary education institutions particularly play a critical role in producing graduates better equipped to develop, disseminate and implement sustainable agroforestry and natural resource management practices. ICRAF is working to strengthen these institutes and training centres to develop human resource capacities and create a critical mass of research and extension workers.

monitoring impact at village level and on-farm evaluation of technologies. ICRAFs experience in introducing and adapting the land care movement in the Philippines demonstrates the key role of community organisations in helping and scaling up the adoption and impact of agroforestry. Agroforestry innovations are used as entry points for community action.

Training extension workers

In order to reach hundreds of thousands of farmers and have a real impact, it is inevitable to train farmers and extension workers. Thus, ICRAF provides training to farmer groups and extension workers of range of different organizations including government, NGOs and private sector firms. Training focuses on agroforestry extension, and communication skills.

Enabling policies and institutions

Public policy decision can profoundly affect the uptake and impact of agroforestry innovations tenure security, availability of appropriate credit facilities and inputs, extension services, marketing systems and price fluctuations. ICRAF is increasing efforts to facilitate and catalyse policy change through collaborative research and formal dialogue with important policy and decision makers.

Scaling up projects

through

pilot

development

Conclusions
It has been demonstrated that agroforestry innovations provide options for reducing poverty, improving food and income security and sustaining environmental quality. Ethiopia is a priority country for expansion of ICRAFs research, development and capacity building activities. The main strategic direction is to widely disseminate on-shelf technologies and best practices. The challenge remains to be how to transfer this existing knowledge and experience to those who need it most researchers, DAs, policy makers and farmers. The mechanisms for dissemination of agroforestry technologies can include the use of networks, consortia, policy briefings, and exchange visits, workshops and mass training/demonstration at FTCs. One important innovation in technology dissemination is farmers of the future programme aimed at reaching current and future generation through schools.

In sub-Saharan Africa, biophysical conditions are more marginal and socio-economic conditions are more diverse. In such diverse and complex settings, the transfer-of-technologies (TOT) approach produces limited impact. ICRAF therefore, conducts pilot development projects in different settings to test, evaluate and adapt technologies with resource-poor farmers. Such projects are considered as important links between research and development so that agroforestry innovations can be conceptualised for wider scaling up. Pilot projects provide opportunities to learn and understand the crucial factors that can lead to success or failure if innovations are scaled up at wider spatial scale (Bohringer, 2002).

Assisting the community

Empowering local communities to control their own decisions and resources is fundamental to any successful development. A trend is emerging in many of the ECA countries towards devolving power to local government and local communities. ICRAF supports local institutions, community groups and CBOs to effectively mobilize both local and external resources for community development. This involves training, establishing community nurseries,

Application in Tigray
In Tigray, ICRAF and its regional partners have initiated a collaborative research and development project called Tigray Agroforestry Initiative (TAFI). The aim of the project is to widely disseminate agroforestry technologies and practices in order to

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increase short-term income and welfare of the farmers and to enhance the natural resource base. To achieve this, the project will disseminate best bet agroforestry technologies that will provide tree products and environmental services. For example, planting broad range of useful trees (e.g., Grevillea, Rhamnus prinoides) on the lower side of bunds and stone terraces can rehabilitate the landscape. Household income and nutrition security can be achieved by disseminating good quality fodder for animals (e.g. Calliandra, Leucaena), fertilisers tree systems to enhance soil fertility (e.g., Gliricidia, Sesbania or Tephrosia) and high value dryland fruits (guava, mango, citrus, opuntia) for income and nutrition security and timber/pole for income generation, etc). Particular areas where ICRAF can enhance impact in Tigray include: x Supply of diverse and high quality tree germplasm to improve rural livelihoods; x Facilitating integrated watershed management (institutional arrangements and technical options); x Capacity building for research, education, development institutions and local communities for scaling up impact of interventions; x Policy research and refinement for improved natural resource management. The Tigray Bureau of Agriculture with facilitation and technical support from ICRAF will implement the project. Other key partners are Mekelle University and Tigray Agricultural research Institute.

Gebremedhin B, Pender J and Tesfay G (2002): Community natural resources management in the highlands of Ethiopia. Paper presented on International conference on policies for sustainable land management in the East African highlands, UNECA, Addis Ababa. ICRAF (2003): Improved fallows for Western Kenya: an extension guideline. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. Ikerra ST, Maghembe JA, Smithson PC and Buresh, RJ (1999): Soil nitrogen dynamics and relationships with mize yields in a Gliricidiamaize intercrop in Malawi. Plant and soil 211: 155-164. Kwesiga F and Chisuma M (1992): Ethnobotanical survey in Eastern province of Zambia. AFRENA Report no 49. ICRAF, Nairobi. Rutunga V, Karanja NK, Gachene CKK and Palm CA Palm (1999): Biomass production and nutrient accumulation by Tephrosia vogelii and Tithonia diversifolia fallows during six month growth at Maseno. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment 3: 237-246. Sanchez P and Jama B (2000): Soil fertility replenishment takes off in east and southern Africa. International symposium on balanced nutrient management systems for the moist savana and humid forest zones of Africa, Cotonou, Benin. Stoorvogel and Smaling (1990): Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa 19832000. Report 28. The Winand Staring centre for Integrated land Soil and Water Research, Wageningen.

References
Bohringer A and Akinnifesi F (2001): The way ahead for the domestication and use of indigenous fruit trees from the miombo in southern Africa. ICRAF, Makoka. Bohringer A (2002): Facilitating the wider use of agroforestry for development in Southern Africa. IN: Franzel et al (editors), 2002. Development and agroforestry: Scaling up the impacts of research. Dechasa Jiru (1989): Evaluation of crop yield under A.albida shade and lley cropping in semi-arid farms. Proceedings of IAR/ICRAFNational agroforestry workshop, IAR, Addis Ababa. EARO (2000): Forestry research strategic plan. Ethiopian Agricultural research organisation, Addis Ababa. Eyasu Elias (2002): Farmers perceptions of soil fertility change and management. SOS Sahel and ISD, Addis Ababa.

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