Housing systems Cattle can be housed under very different conditions.

The welfare of the animals in a given system will depend on details in design.

The feed manger must be placed at least 5-20 cm (2-8 in.) above floor level to allow easy access to the food (Figure 2). The back of the manger must be low enough so that it does not hamper the species-typical range of action during feeding (Figure 3) and the forward movements of the animal when getting up (Figure 4).

In the group-housing system there must be enough feeding space so that all animals can eat at the same time. The width of the individual eating place must correspond to the size of the animals and the size of their horns. Adequate bars to separate cows and reduce competitive interactions at the manger are important. Feeding barriers which can separate and restrain the animals at the manger can be used with advantage during handling procedures. However, restraint should be avoided as far as possible (Editor's note: With patience and gentle firmness cattle can readily be conditioned to allow routine procedures such as blood collection and injection without being restrained and without showing signs of stress.)

Cows have a fairly constant need for rest (Figure 1). The resting area should be relatively soft and well heat-insulated to account for the fact that the animals spend a major portion of the time lying. Therefore, all animals should have free access to comfortable resting sites on a bedded floor at all times. Straw bedding is a speciesappropriate resting material for cattle and should be used whenever possible (Figure 5).

Group-housed animals must have sufficient space allowance to avoid agonistic conflicts arising from situations in which rank-dependent social spacing is impossible. There should always be at least one lying place (e.g., one cubicle) and one eating place per animal in order to forestall competition and minimize aggression. (Editor's note: Stable social relationships are a prerequisite that members of a group/herd of cattle get along well with each other. A group's composition should therefore not be changed unless there is a specific veterinary reason).

It is extremely important to make sure that the walking areas are dry and not slippery so that the animals can walk without the risk of losing their balance and possibly injuring themselves. Walking areas used as traffic and exercise areas should be wide enough for the animals to freely pass one another. Competition exists around food and water, therefore these sites should allow enough space for avoidance.

The dimensions of cubicles and tie-stalls must meet the cow's spatial requirements when she stands and lies and when she is getting up or lying down. It should be remembered (Figure 4) that cattle need free space in front of them so that the whole sequence of the getting-up behavior can take place unhampered.

In tied cattle, the tether design must allow the animal free forward and backward movements when rising and lying down (cf. Figure 4). Furthermore, the tether must give the cow sufficient leeway to lick herself over most of the body without being forced to assume unnatural positions with the risk of falling or slipping. Also, the cow should be able to: a) eat in a natural position, b) assume a speciestypical resting posture when lying as well as when standing, and c) step backwards during defecation and urination in order to avoid dung in the stall. Tethered cows should have daily access to a suitable exercise area to enhance their welfare.

Cattle have a need for social contact. Short-term social isolation of cows induces an increase in heart rate, an elevation of plasma cortisol concentration, and increased vocalization (Hopster et al. 1993) indicating that the situation is stressful. Results by Munksgaard and Simonsen (1996) suggest that long-term social isolation is also aversive to cows (Editor's note: Group-housing is strongly recommended to account for the animals' social disposition and to provide optimal methodological conditions

for the collection of research data that are not biased by stress. Single-housing, e.g., tie-stall systems, should be avoided for ethical and scientific reasons.)

CATTLE REARING First of all, starting with beef cattle, you have your mother cows, and your bulls. Bulls mate with cows when the cows are in heat (estrus), cows settle (hopefully all of them), and the gestation period of 283 days begins with the development of the fetus. Most beef cows are bred around the same time (called the "breeding season") so they calve at the same time (called the "calving season.") After ~283 days (depending on the breed), the cow gives birth to a new calf, which gets up within 10 to 20 minutes after being pushed out the birth canal and begins suckling milk from momma. Calves stay on the cows for 6 to 10 months before being weaned and separated from their mothers (sometimes for a short period of time, most often forever). These calves (especially steers [castrated males]) are sold to another farm or feedlot where they are fed a forage-based diet so they grow. After they have reached a target weight (usually between 800 and 1,000 lbs) they are put on a grain diet for a few months as "finishers." They are then slaughtered for meat.

For the last part, there is starting to be more and more steers being grass-finished instead of grain finished. So, they are simply put on pasture until they reach a target weight of around 1200 lbs before they are slaughtered for beef.

Advantages housing systems Improved cow comfort Less risk of injury to hips, heelsand knees Lower ammonia emissions Saving on manure storage Flexible way of building

Advantages of cattle rearing Lower litter costs Suitable under virtually all weather conditions Cows are more spread out over the barn Cleaner cows mostly resulting in a lower cell count Shorter walking distances