Genetics

James Watson made the statement DNA makes RNA makes protein. This has been referred to as the central dogma of molecular biology.
Information flows from the DNA to RNA to Protein DNA to RNA to Protein (transcription) (translation)

DNA A (Adenine) T (Thymine) G (Guanine) C (Cytosine) Paired together by hydrogen bonds. Genome: all of the genetic material in its cells

Transcription: Cell copies gene DNA and RNA to an RNA molecules (copies DNA sequence to a complementary RNA molecule.)
Called transcription because in this phase the information from the DNA is transcribed. RNA polymerase pulls the DNA apart Inside the nucleus, an enzyme first transcribes the genes DNA sequence to a complementary sequence of RNA When RNA is produced, uracil pairs with the adenine of the DNA instead of thymine Steps
1) Enzymes unzip the DNA double helix, exposing the template strand. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, a DNA sequence that signals the genes start 2) RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand in a 3 to 5 direction, adding nucleotides only to the 3 end of the growing RNA molecule 3) A terminator sequence signals the end of the gene. Upon reaching the terminator sequence, the RNA polymerase enzyme separates for the DNA template and releases the newly synthesized RNA. The DNA molecule then resumes its usual double-helix shape. 4) The final shape determines which RNA is becomes

Introns are portions of the mRNA that are removed before translation.

Exons are portions of an mRNA that is translated after introns are removed

Translation: assembly of an amino acid chain according to the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA (creates proteins out of mRNA information)
Translates information from mRNA to proteins

Template strand: original copy After some modification, the RNA emerges from the nucleus and binds to a ribosome At the ribosome, amino acids are assembled in a specific order to produce the protein. Translation occurs in the ribosome Steps
1) 5 end of the mRNA molecule bonds with a small ribosomal subunit. Usually starts with AUG which signifies the start of a polypeptide. 2) A tRNA molecule carrying the second amino acid binds to the second codon (assembly line chain) The two amino acids, align, and a covalent bond forms between them. With that peptide bond in place, the ribosome releases the first tRNA, which will pick up another and be used again. 3) Stop codon stops the process.

Codons and Anticodons

Lock and key sort of thing. Only one Anticodon for a codon tRNA nucleotides are the anticodon three letter word such as UAC mRNA nucleotides are the codon three letter word such as AUG

Genetic code: The set of rules to follow when making proteins Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the information that specifies a protein.
Each group of three mRNA bases in a row forms a codon, which is a genetic code word that corresponds to one amino acids

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):combines with proteins to form a ribosome, the physical location of protein synthesis.
Help correctly align the ribosome and mRNA while others catalyze formation of the bonds between amino acids in the developing protein

Transfer RNA (tRNA): molecules are connectors that bind an mRNA codon at one end and a specific amino acid at the other.
Carries each amino acid to the ribosome at the correct spot along the mRNA molecule

Mutation: is a change in a cells DNA sequence, either in a protein-coding gene or in noncoding DNA such as an enhancer.
A change in sequence is like changing a letter in a sentence like Qhe (The) Point-mutation changes one or a few base pairs in a gene; larger-scale mutation may also occur. They produce genetic variation which in turn can change a phenotype

Gene: sequence of DNA that cods for a specific protein or RNA molecule Allele: one or two or more alternative forms of a gene Locus: physical location of a gene on a chromosome Genotype: an individuals combination of alleles for a particular gene Phenotype: observable characteristics of an organism Selection
Directional Selection: one extreme phenotype is fittest Disruptive selection: two or more extreme phenotypes are fitter than intermediate phenotype (camouflaged) Chromosome: a continuous molecule of DNA wrapped around protein in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell; also, the genetic material of a prokaryotic cell

Chromatid: collective term for all of the DNA and its associated proteins in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell Homologous chromosomes: The chromosomes are matching by looks (phenotype) and same gene sequence (genotype) Centromere: small section of a chromosome where sister chromatids attach to each other Autosome: a non-sex chromosome (same for both sexes) Sex chromosome: determines the sex of the individual Punnett square: used to predict the offsprings genotype Diploid: cell containing two full sets of chromosomes, one from each parent; also call 2n Haploid: cell containing on set of chromosomes; also call n Dominant is the more present trait while recessive is the trait that is present but hidden by the dominant trait. Linked genes: genes carried on the same chromosome; therefore inherited together Germ cells: cell that gives rise to gametes in an animal Somatic cells: body cell that does not give rise the gametes

Laws
Law of segregation: Mendels law stating that the two alleles of each ge ne are packaged into separate gametes
The genes move apart and separate from each other during gamete production

Law of independent assortment: Mendels law stating that during gamete formation, the segregation of the alleles for one gene does not influence the segregation of the alleles for another gene (provided the genes are on separate chromosomes)

Meiosis
Reduces to half of the number of chromosomes in the cell.

1) Separation of the homologous pairs

2) Separation of the sister chromatids Meiosis 1

Prophase 1 early Chromosomes condense and become visible. Prophase 1 late Crossing over occurs. Spindle forms Nuclear envelope breaks up Metaphase 1 Paired homologous chromosomes align along equator of cell Anaphase 1 Homologous chromosomes separate to opposite poles of cell Sister chromatids remain joined Telophase 1 & Cytokinesis Nuclear envelopes from around chromosomes which may temporarily decondense. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis may divide cell into two

Meiosis 2
Prophase 2 Spindles form. Nuclear envelopes break up Metaphase 2 Chromosomes align along equator of cell Anaphase 2 Centromeres split as sister chromatids separate to opposite poles of the cell Telophase 2 & Cytokinesis Nuclear envelopes assemble around daughter nuclei. Chromosomes decondense. Spindles disappear. Cytokinesis divides cells

Meiosis 1 + Meiosis 2 = Four non-identical haploid daughter cells

Crosses
Monohybrid cross: mating between two individuals that are heterozygous for the same gene

Dihybrid cross: mating between two individuals that are heterozygous for two genes (two genes / two chromosomes)
Each chromosome has two genes on it and both traits effect each other (ear lobe and nail shape)

Genetic linage
Linked genes: genes on the same chromosome Sex linked: describes genes or traits on the X or Y chromosome Incomplete dominance: mode of inheritance in which a heterozygotes phenotype is intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes (red+white = pink) Codominance: mode of inheritance in which two alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote (blood type) Epistatsis: one gene masks another genes expression Pleiotropy: multiple phenotypic effects of one genotype Polygenetic inheritance: inheritance caused by more than one gene Polyploid cell: one or more complete sets of extra chromosomes Nondisjunction: when chromosomes fail to separate at either the first or the second meiotic division

Crossing over is the process in which two homologous chromosomes change genetic material during prophase 1 of meiosis
Means homologous chromosomes physically change places New combinations arise whenever the homologous chromosomes carry different alleles of one or more genes.

Population Genetics
Microevolution: relatively short-term changes in allele frequencies within a population or species Population: interbreeding members of the same species occupying the same region

Gene pool: all of the genes and their alleles in a population Allele frequency: number of copies of one allele, divided by the number of alleles in a population

Hardy-Weinburg Law: states that alleles and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant (in equilibrium from generation to generation unless specific disturbing influences are introduced
If frequency of alleles in a population changes, the population is evolving:
Changes caused by 1) mutation, a random effect 2) natural selection, non-random 3) gene flow 4) non-random mating 5) genetic drift, random

Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium: situation in which allele frequencies do not change from one generation to the next

Genotype frequency: number of individuals of one genotype, divided by the number of individuals in the population
Number of organisms with the alleles out of the total (64/100)

Gene flow: the movement of alleles between populations Genetic drift: change in allele frequencies that occurs purely by chance Reproductive isolating mechanisms Biological species concept: a population, or group of populations, whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Square roots
0.25 = 0.5 0.36 = 0.6 0.49 = 0.7 0.64 = 0.8 0.81 = 0.9