NUTRITION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

NUTRITION DEFINED - Nutrition is a broad interdisciplinary subject - Nutrition : the study of the interaction between human organism and its food - Nutrition : integrated science, applied science, since it is concerned with solving practical problems ( Alfred Harper ) - Scope of nutrition and food sciences : 1. Disciplines that look within cells or in vitro environment ( analytical chemistry, biochemistry, cell biology, immunology, molecular biology, molecular genetics ) 2. Disciplines that look at specific organs ( clinical sciences, medical genetics, medical and special foods, pathology, physiology, psycholog, physiological chemistry ) 3. Disciplines that look at entire populations ( anthropology, demography, ecology, economics, education, epidemiology, food and health policy, political science, sociology ) 4. Disciplines that look at food supply ( agriculture, animal husbandry, environmental waste management, food engineering, food processing, food production, food toxicology ) THE ROLE OF NUTRITION IN GROWTH AND DEVELOMPENT - Growth : a measurable increase in size ( height, weight, metabolic studies in which body retention of substances are determined e.g. calcium and nitrogen ) - Development : an increse in complexity of function and is characterized by differentiation and maturation - Cellular growth and differentiation Tissue growth result from : mitosis and hyperplastic growth, hyperthropic growth, combination of hyperplastic and hyperthropic Three general patterns of growth in human tissue : 1. In regenerating tissues : cell continually dying and being replaced by new cell, e.g. skin cell, red blood cell Germinal cell : cell in a primitive stage of development from which other cells are grown 2. Non regenerating tissues : formed early in life and meant to last for a lifetime, they are highly specialized and can only divide early in life, e.g. nerve and muscle cells 3. Renewing tissues : they do not continually replace thenselves, but under special situation such as in response to injury or increased demand, they can undergo mitosis and proliferate, e.g kidney and many secretory tissues throughout the body. - Heredity, environment and nutrition Human growth and development is a result of the continuous and complex interaction between heredity and environment Each individual inherits a set of genes from his or her mother and father. Each gene is a linear portion of the DNA. DNA through the formation of mRNA directs the assembly of structural and functional proteins from amino acid precusors. Genes elaborate a master plan that codes for the development of the persons phenotype, however the final expression of phenotype iss strongly influenced by the environment.E.g. monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins Nutrition is a major environmental influence on phenotype, afffecting from clearly visible characteristics to the mor subtle attributes of blood pressure and concentration of blood chloesterol.

Critical period of development : - describred the time of greatest vulnerability to a specific action of insult. - Critical periods are typically times of rapid cell division. If cell division is limited during a critical period of organ growth, the final cell number in the organ can be irreversibly reduced and the organ permanently damaged. - The embryonic period of human development is a particularly critical time for aduquate nutrition - Recovery is usually possible if nutritional deprivation occurs at a least crucial time in development. - Rapid growth occuring after a period of growth impairmnet is referred to as catch-up growth Vitamin A : A paradigm of the influence of nutrient on heredity - Vitamin A can directly affect gene expression - Vitamin A taken up by cells, combines with specific binding proteins and passes into cell nuclei. In the nucleus, vitamin A interacts with DNAm regulating gene transcription ( the production of mRNA from DNA ) - By influencing gene expression, vitamin A promotes the differentiation of epithelial cells from simpler to more specialized forms. - The effect of vitamin A begin early in embryogenesis, plays a fundamental morphogenetic role in the organization of the embryo. - Later in childhood, vitamin A continues to influence growth and development; inadequate dietary vitamin A impairs functioning of immune system. - In the later stages of life, vitamin A is a vital component of cellular mechanisms of maintenance and repair. Adequte vitamiin A status may reduce the risk of certain cancers, inluding mouth and breast cancers. Nutrition and Inborn Errors of Metabolism - Inborn errors of metabolism are inherited diseases caused by impairment of normal metabolic pathways - A number of these disorders result form mutations in specific genes. The mutation leads to the deletion or impariment of the protein which is usually an enzyme. This result in the production of a toxic by product or the deficienscy of an important metabolite. The diseases have been shown to be amenable to nutritional therapy. E.g. phenylketonuria

OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - Life Cycle versus Lifespan Human life cycle : fertilized egg ( conception ) development intra uterine birth childhood puberty ( sexual maturity : begin to produce eggs or sperm that will form next generation ) Human development includes the entire lifespan : physical growth ceases, degenerative changes appears, but individuals continue to develop and mature psychologically and socially Optimal nutrition, vital for growth and development in early life, continues to be important in supporting maintenance and repair throughout the lifespan

Major Developmental Stages ( used in this book ) Developmental Stage Prenatal Embryonic Fetal Infancy Newborn Early infancy Late infncy Childhood Early ( Preschool ) Late ( School age ) Adolescence Females Males Adult Older adult Approximate Age 0 8 weeks 8 weeks birth First month after birth 1 month 1 year Second year 2 5 years 5 10 years 10 18 years 12 20 years 18 or 20 to 65 years Greater than 65 years

Prenatal period - Development begins as a single cell ( the fertilized ovum ) and during the first few days after conception, the rapidly dividing ovum is self-sufficient, livin off food stored in its yolk sac. - About a week after fertilization the ovum has developed into a blastocyst and buries itself in the endometrium of the uterus. As the placenta forms, the embryo becomes completely dependent on nutrition derived from the maaternal bloodstream. - Growth is modest during the embrionic period, rapid differentiation of all major organs. The fetal period is characterized by further development and extraordinary growth. - Simple substrates from maternal diet and maternal stores are transffered in a continuous stream across the placenta to the fetus. Infancy - At birth, the newborn infant must begin to process and assimilate good - Digestion and absorbtion of complex substances must occur before nutrients are available for energy production and growth - The ability to digest certain substances varies with age, e.g. starch, lactose Childhood and adolescence - Physical growth is slow but steady during childhood. Psychological and social development is brisk, and there is increasing coordination of function as intellect and personality develop. - Human and primates have a period of accelerated growth in early adolescence. - Adolescence si characterized by growth spurt, puberty and the attainment of sexual maturity - Human achive maximum stature after about 2 decades of growth ( about 21 years of males and 17 for females ). - Muscle mass usually continues to increase into the mid 20-s and skeletal mass into the early 30s. Adult and older adult - Psychosocial development conitunes through adulthood. - Nutrient needs for physical frowth cease, but adequate nutrition continues to be important to support maintenance and repair. - Senescence, the state of later maturity, is characterized by a gradual loss of cells from tissue and functional decline in tissues throughout the body.

Aging is inherent and genetically determined. The rate of aging process is strongly influenced by the environment and diet. Many chronic degenerative disesase can be prevented or favorably influenced by diet.

RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT INTAKES AND DIETARY GUIDELINES - Recommended Dietary Allowances ( RDAS ) The level of intake of essential nutrients that are judged to be adequate to meet the known nutient needs of practically all healthy persons, on the basis of scientific knowledge Established by estimating the average physiological requirement for an absorbed nutrient by sex and age, adjusted to compensate for variaton in the requirement among individuals and the bioavailibility of the nutrient in the food supply. Fairly generous allowances that actually exceed the requirements of most individuals, except for energy requirement. Only the mean requirement energy is offered for each age group to avoid the intake of excess energy Purposes : 1. Evaluating the adequacy of food supplies and planning food suplies for populations 2. Interpreting food consumption surveys 3. Establishing standards for food assistance programs 4. Designing nutrition education programs 5. Developming new products in industry Most appropriate for populations, not individuals. Comparing long-term individual intakes to the RDAs allows an estimate about the probable risk of deficiency for that individual Dietary Guidelines Diet annd Health Guidelines by NAS give advice on foods individuals should include, limit, or avoid to reduce the risks of chronic disease Nutrition Objectives of Healthy People 2000 21 objectives that focus on nutrition Aimed at decreasing the prrevalence of obesity and irondeficiency anemia, reducing coronary heart disease death rates, reversing the rise in cancer mortality. Specific dietary changes : - decreasing consumption of total fat to 30% or less of kcalories, saturated fat to less than 10% of kcalories and cholestorol to less than 300mg daily - increasing consumption of grains, or starches and othre complex carbohydrates - maintain protein intake at moderate level - limit total daily intake of salt ( sodium chloride ) to 6grams or less - increasing consumption fruits and vegetables, - maintain adequate calcium intake - balance food intake nd physical activity to maintain appropriate body weight - for those who drink alcoholic beverages, limit consumption to the equivalent of less than 1 ounce of pure alcohol in a single day. Pregnant women should avoid alcoholic beverages - Avoid taking dietary supplement in excess of the RDA in any one day - Maintain optimal intake of fluoride particularly during the years of primary and secondary tooth formation and growth.