January2013

INSTITUTO SUPERIOR R TECNICO, IS ST

REPORT TONM MSWMANAGE EMENT TIMPAC CTON G GHGEMISSIO ONSFOR RGHAN NA,SOU UTHAFRICA F & NIGERIA A

WASTE ETOENERGY(MEG GE) |FEL LIX AMAN NKWAHD DIAWUO

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

Table of Contents
Tableof fContents. .................. ..................................................... .................. .................. .............1 ListofF Figures....... .................. ..................................................... .................. .................. .............2 ListofT Tables ......... .................. ..................................................... .................. .................. .............3 ListofA Abbreviation ns.............. ..................................................... .................. .................. .............4 Executiv veSummary ry............... ..................................................... .................. .................. .............5 SECTION N1:MSWM MANAGEME ENTPRACTI ICESFORAC CCRA(GHAN NA),CAPETOWN T (SOU UTH AFRICA) )&LAGOS( (NIGERIA).. ..................................................... .................. .................. .............6
1.1Ge eneralIntrod duction........ ...................................... ...................................... .................................6 1.2MSWinAccra, ,Ghana....... ...................................... ...................................... .................................9 1.2.2WasteGene eration........... ....................... ............................................ ....................... ....................................... 9 ectionandTransfer.............. ............................................ ....................... ....................................... 9 1.2.2WasteColle 1.2.3Recyclingan ndComposting.................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 11 osal................ ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 12 1.2.4WasteDispo 1.3MSWinCapeT Town,South hAfrica........................... ...................................... ...............................14 1.3.1WasteGene eration........... ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 14 1.3.2WasteColle ectionandTransfer.............. ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 15 1.3.3Recyclingan ndComposting.................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 15 osal................ ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 16 1.3.4WasteDispo 1.4MSWinLagos, ,Nigeria...... ...................................... ...................................... ...............................18 1.4.1WasteGene eration........... ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 18 ectionandTransfer.............. ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 19 1.4.2WasteColle 1.4.3Recycling......................... ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 20 osal................ ....................... ............................................ ....................... ..................................... 20 1.4.4WasteDispo 1.5MSWCompara ativeAnalysisforAccra,LagosandCapeTown...................... ...............................22

SECTION N2:MSWA ANDITSIMP PLICATIONF FORCLIMATECHANGE E................. .................. ...........24

2.1Ge eneralIntrod duction........ ...................................... ...................................... ...............................24 2.2Ho owSolidWas steImpactsonClimateChange C ........ ...................................... ...............................25 2.3An nalysisofGH HGsfromMSWComparin ngGhana,Ni igeriaandSo outhAfrica.. ...............................26

SECTION N3:CONCLU USION....... ..................................................... .................. .................. ...........30 REFEREN NCES......... .................. ..................................................... .................. .................. ...........31 APPEND DICE........... .................. ..................................................... .................. .................. ...........34

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

List of f Figures
Figure1. .1:Flowdiag gramofInteg gratedMSW WSystem[1]................... . ................... .................... ..............7 Figure1. .2:Graphof fWaste%Co ompositionin nAccra........ ...................................... .................... ..............9 Figure1. .3:Graphof fWasteGene eratedvs.Co ollectedperyear y vs.GDP, P,Accra........ .................... ............10 Figure1. .4:Graphof fPercentageofRecycling gandcompos stinginAccr ra................ .................... ............11 Figure1. .5DumpsiteAreawithScavengers[7 7] ................ ...................................... .................... ............12 Figure1. .6:Graphof fPercentageofWasteDis sposal,Accra a .................................... .................... ............12 Figure1 1.7:Graphof fWasteGene erationpery yearvs.GDP P,CapeTown n.................. .................... ............14 Figure1. .8:Graphof fWaste%Co omposition,Cape C Town... ...................................... .................... ............15 Figure1. .9:Graphof frecyclingRa ate(%),CapeTown......... ...................................... .................... ............16 Figure1. .10:Grapho ofAverageW WasteTonnag geGenerate ed/year,Lago os................ .................... ............18 Figure1. .11:Grapho ofMSWperce entage,Lago os................ ...................................... .................... ............19 Figure1. .12:GraphA AverageGene eratedWast tevs.Collect tedperyearvs.GDP,Lag gos............... ............20 Figure1. .13:Grapho ofWastesPer rcentageCha aracteristics s..................................... .................... ............22 Figure1. .14:Grapho ofPerCapita, ,Collection&Population nIndicators.................... .................... ............23 Figure2. .1Simplified dschematico ofwasteman nagementsy ystemandG GHGemission ns(inurbanM MSWM) [20]....... ...................................... ...................................... ...................................... .................... ............25 Figure2. .2:Graphof fLevelsofGH HG(Gg)from mallSectors................... . ................... .................... ............28 Figure2. .3:Graphof fGHGfromMSW M ............................... ...................................... .................... ............28 Figure2. .4:GHGProp portionsfrom mWaste,exc cludingLUCF F.................................... .................... ............29

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

List of f Tables
Table1.1 1:Informatio ononAfricaandWasteM Managemen ntinAfrica[5 5,23].......... .................... ..............8 Table1.2 2:Thewaste etypeandco ompositionin ntheAccram metropolitan nareaGhana[6]............ ..............9 Table1.3 3:Volume&Dailytonna ageofwastecollectedinAccraovert thepast6yea ars[7]......... ............10 Table1.4 4:WasteMa anagementO OptionsinAc ccra,Ghana[8] ................................. .................... ............13 Table1.5 5:Volumeof fSolidwaste egeneration ninCapetow wnSouthAfri ica[9]......... .................... ............14 Table1.6 6:Thewaste etypeandco ompositionin ntheCapeto ownSouthAfrica A [7]..... .................... ............17 Table1.7 7:Volumeof fSolidwaste egeneration ninLagosNig geria[13]...................... .................... ............18 Table1.8 8:Thewaste etypeandco ompositionin nLagosNige eria[13] ......................... .................... ............19 Table1.9 9:Natureof fsolidwastedisposalinatypicalNige erianCity[14 4]............... .................... ............21 Table1.1 10:PerCapit taMSWgenerationandHouseholdc collection(Ye ear,2000)[1 15,23].......... ............22 Table2.1 1:SummaryofPotential lClimateCha angeandthe eirImpacts[2 21].............. .................... ............26 Table2.2 2:Aggregate eEmissionsa andRemova alsofCO2,CH H4andN2Oin nCO2Equiva alentbyMajo or Source/S SinkCategor ry,includingandexcludin ngLUCF(GgandPercent tage)[22].... .................... ............27 Table2.3 3:Breakdow wnofEmissio ons(excludin ngLUCF)fort threeGases(Year,1994) )[22]............ ............27 Table2.4 4:Breakdow wnofEmissio onsinWaste e(excludingL LUCF)forthr reeGases(Ye Year,1994)[2 22].......29 3

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

List of f Abbrevi iations

CCWL CFCs CDM CO2 CH4 CMA Gg GDP GHG GWP HFCs IPCC IEA LAWMA LCA LUCF MBT MSW MLC N2O OECD PPM PFCs SF6 UNFCC 4 City&CountryW WasteLimited d Chlor rofluorocarb bons Clean nDevelopme entMechani ism Carbondioxide hane Meth Cape eMetropolita anArea Giga agrams GrossDomesticProduct P enhouseGas Gree GlobalWarmingPotential rofluorocarbo ons Hydr Inter rgovernment talPanelonClimateCha ange Inter rnationalEne ergyAgency Lago osStateWasteManagem mentAuthori ity Lifec cycleAnalysi is Land dusechange eandForestr ry Mech hanicalBiolo ogicalTreatm ment MunicipalSolidWaste W Councils MunicipalLocalC Nitro ousOxide Orga anisationforEconomicCo ooperationandDevelop pment Parti iclesPerMill lion Perfl luorocarbons s Sulph hurHexafluo oride Unite edNationsF FrameworkC Conventionfo orClimateCh hange

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

Execu utive Sum mmary

Even tho ough, waste e manageme ent sector co ontribution to Greenhou use Gas (GH HG) is minor r, which is estimate edtobewith hin35%ofh humancause eemissions,h howeverthewastesecto orcanmovef frombeing justami inoraspecto ofglobalemissionstobec comingacrit ticalandcruc cialsaverofemission. e Thisisdueto the fact that proper treatment and disposal, the prevent tion and reco overy of wast te reduces significantly emissions in all the other r sectors of t the economy y including; energy, fore estry, mining, transport all the e andman nufacturingsectors. ough, LCA stu udies have p provided extr remely usefu ul analyses of f the potenti ial climate im mpacts and Even tho benefits of various w waste mana agement opt tions, but ye et still the unavailability of real data a makes it the full mag gnitude of these emissio ons in terms of worldw wide waste g generation, difficult to analyze t anagement and inaccurac cies in emissions models. Waste generation, both h domestic composition and ma ustrialcontinuestoincrea aseworldwid deintandem mwithgrowth hinconsump ption. andindu In developed count tries, per ca apita waste generation increased i ne early threef fold over the last two , reaching a level five to o six times h higher than t that in devel loping count tries. With in ncreases in decades, populationsandlivin ngstandards, ,wastegenerationindev velopingcountriesisalsoincreasingrapidly,and ubleinvolum meinthecurr rentdecade.Ifcurrenttre endscontinu ue,theworld dmayseeafive f (5)fold maydou increaseinwastegen nerationbyt theyear2025 5. In all the ese analyses s, it been est tablished tha at OECD countries gener rate the high hest levels of f methane, those of f developing g nations ar re anticipate ed to increase significan ntly as bette er waste ma anagement practices s lead to mo ore anaerobi ic, methaneproducing conditions in landfills. A high proport tion of the waste co ould be recycled by the e urban poo or generatin ng income fo or themselves and prot tecting the environm ment. There is a need to develop an integrat ted approac ch where th he public, private and commun nity sectors work toget ther to dev velop local solutions pr romoting su ustainable so olid waste managem ment This repo ort seeks to establish the e waste cont tribution to GHG in three (3) differen nt countries within the African Continent namely; Ghan na, Nigeria and South A Africa by an nalyzing their Waste Ma anagement s in terms of Waste G Generation, Collection, Recycling & Composting and Lan ndfilling. A Practices compara ative analysis s of MSW ma anagement w would be link ked to their c correspondin ng contributi ionof GHG emission nlevelsandit tspotentialf fortheClima ateChange.
InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

SECTION 1: MS SW MANA AGEMENT T PRACTI ICES FOR R ACCRA ( (GHANA), , CAPE N (SOUTH H AFRICA A) & LAGO OS (NIGER RIA) TOWN
1.1 Gen neral Intr roduction n
al Solid Waste (MSW) is can be defin ned as any s scrap or solid d material which is discarded by its Municipa owner, u user or producer. The MS SW is usually y a term ofte en used in co ontext of heterogeneous s collection of waste e produced in i urban are eas, in which h its nature or composit tion varies fr rom one reg gion to the other. T The content characteriza ation and qu uantity of MSW M generated in a particular region though dependhugelyonth hepopulation n,GrossDom mesticProduc ct(GDP),livingstandardandthelifes styleofthe ant to ackno owledge the fact that the e regions resources is also a major inhabitants but it is very importa MSW in an u urban descrip ption is divid ded into com mponents ref ferred to as; Organic and d Inorganic factor. M waste and a can be categorized d into Haza ardous and Nonhazard dous waste. Within th he Organic arrangem ments, they could be subdivided s into i Putresc cible, fermen ntable and nonfermentable. The Putrescib ble are the o one that eas sily decompo oses rapidly and usually gives an un npleasant sm mell and an eyesore, , e.g. of whi ich is food waste. w The fermentable f also decomposes but without w the unpleasant u smell wh hiles the non nfermentable tries to re esist decomp position and hence slow down the break down process. The leve els of these c categories and its composition vary from develo oped country y to develop ping nation with scie entific facts that, the de eveloping cou untries tend to have hig gh proportions of organic waste as compare edtothedev velopednatio ons.Sinceth hese,wastegenerated g fro omresidentialareasthro oughtothe industria al areas pose es some environmental and health ris sks and there efore proper r management of these wastes is s very critica al for the ent tire sustainability of both h humans an nd enviroeco ological exist tence. This has ther refore necess sitated the n need to implement some e good management skill to curb th he negative impact of o these wast te materials. Countries all a over the w world have a adopted som me strategies in tackling thisbyhierarchicallystipulatingt thebestprac cticestoadop ptstartingfrom; 1. Prevention P (W Wastesourcereduction) 2. Reuse R 3. Recycle R andcomposting 4. Incinerator I u use 5. Landfilling L ough many c countries ha ave not been n able to ad dopt the prin ncipal goal of o Prevention n, but it is Even tho generally y accepted a as the best way w to bring to bear the e optimization levels that t the Integra ated Waste Managem ment approa ach seeks to be realized. . Many countries within Europe adop pt the Reuse e, Recycling & compo osting approach whileso omecountrie es in Asia still l adopt the Incineration approach. a Ev ven though some co ountries in A Africa are m moving up th he ladder but still there e is still the e landfilling/ /dump site approach and even a times open nly burning/combusting these waste es. The Figure e 1.1 below shows the stagesofwas stemanagem mentpractice es. variouss

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

Figure 1.1 1: Flow diagram of Integ egrated MSW W System [1 1] aste genera ation rates and composition vary across Africa in relatio on to local economy, Solid wa industria al developm ment, waste management system and a lifestyle e applicable to each country [2]. Theavailabilityandqualityofdataonsolidwastege enerationan ndmanagem mentinAfri icaisvery r nonexiste ent [2,3]. The T collectio on of waste e related data d and sta atistics has improved poor or substant tiallyinman nyAfricanterritoriesdu uringthelas stdecade,e.g. e Republic cofSouthAfrica; A but at prese ent there is a lack of comprehens sive waste data d for Africa [4]. It is also ackn nowledged that waste manage ement activities vary sig gnificantly w within indivi idual territo ories, let alo one across tinent. thecont Within this report, th hree (3) diffe erent countr ries within Af frica have be een chosen for f analysis in i terms of tionsandthe eirmanagem mentsituation n;thesecoun ntriesareGh hana,NigeriaandSouth theirwastecomposit Furthermore, , for the dis scussion of MSW, some e populous u urban cities within thes se selected Africa. F countries would be analyzed, w which include es; Accra (G Ghana), Lagos (Nigeria) a and Cape to own (South due to the fact that, m modern sett tlement has s drifted to the Urban centres and d this has Africa) d necessita atedforsom meplanningr reformstom managethehu ugewastege enerationtha athasagrea atpotential of Clima ate Change a and most im mportantly Public P health h related iss sues. The Ta able 1.1 belo ow gives a generaloverview o ofs somestatisti icswithinthe eAfricancon ntentingene eral.

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

Table 1.1: Informa ation on Afr rica and Wa aste Manage ement in Af frica [5, 23] ry Qua antity Categor No of co ountries 61 Populati ion 934 4,046,079 Mean Gr ross Domest tic Product $4,1 186 Populati ion of Ghana a, GDP 25M Million,$3919 99.7Million Populati ion of South h Africa, GDP P 50.6 6Million,$40 08,236.80Million Populati ion of Nigeri ia, GDP 162.5Million,$2 243,985.8Million Popu ulation Perc centage Rural 60% % Urban 40% % Greenhou use gas(GHG G) emission ns Average e for Africa 1.33 3tCO2equiva alentpercap pita/year Percenta age of Africa a on GHG in the world 6% La andfill Gas D Data CH4 glob bal warming g potential (G GWP) 21xCO2GWP CH4 con ntent of land dfill gas 50% % CH4 generated per t tonne of wet t MSW 243m3 Wa aste Produc ction Waste P Production p per capita 292kg/capita/ye ear Urban organic MSW W waste prod duction in Af frica 50M Mt/annum MSW wa aste compos sition 58% %organic Ave erage Africa an Urban MSW Compos sition MSW typ pe Mea an Food wa aste 48.9 9 Paper an nd card 10.6 6 Textile 2.1 Plastic 8.4 Grass/w wood 6.7 Leather 0.8 Rubber 1.4 Glass 3.5 Metal 2.6 Other 15.1 1 Total 100 0.0 Inert/no oncombusti ible 17.2 2 Organic/ /biodegrada able/combu ustible 56.0 0

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

1.2 MS SW in Accr ra, Ghana

TheMSW Wmanageme entisstudied dinAccraGh hana,basedontheWasteGeneration n,Collection, ,Recycle& Compost tandWasteDisposal 1.2.2 W Waste Genera ation The estim mation of to otal waste qu uantities and d quantities per capita is s required fo or planning e efforts and theestim mation of inv vestment nee eds. It is est timatedthat the average wastequantity generate ed in Accra around 1,500 tons per day [6] ], approxima ately 200 to ons of organ nic waste is directed in nto Accras compost ting plant an nd 300 tons is left uncollected while e the remain ning 1,000 to ons is transf ferred to a dumpsite e. In the composition of f the waste generated, there is an indication th hat the organic wastes constitut te the highe est percentile proportio on of about 65% [6]. T The Table 1. .2 and the Figure 1.2 represen ntationindica atethisasser rtion. Table 1.2: The was ste type and d compositi ion in the A Accra metro opolitan are eaGhana [6 6] WasteTy ype Or rganici.eFoo od Paper Textile Plastic Gla ass Metal Inert Others &Plant Proporti ion(%) 65 5 6 1.7 3.5 3 2.5 17.1 1.2

%ofwaste eCompos sition,Acc cra

1.2 O Organici.eFoo od&Plant 1 17.1 2 2.5 3 3.5 1.7 6 65 Paper Te extile Plastic G Glass M Metal In nert O Others

Figure 1.2: 1 Graph o of Waste % Composition in Accra These st tatistics give e an affirmation to the varying diff ferences in d developing country c and that of a industria alized countr ry in terms of o their comp positions and d again the fa act that coun ntries located in humid andtrop picalareasha avehugecollectionofpla antdebrisac contributoro oftheorganic cwastelevel ls. 1.2.2 W Waste Collect tion and Tr ransfer Solid waste collection is a proble em in Accra w where at least 42% of pe eople practice open wast te disposal. ,000 tons of solid waste collected pe er year alone e represent o only 60% of waste gener rated. Solid The 300, waste co ollection in A Accra involve es removal of o waste from m neighborh hoods and tr ransport to a discharge
InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

point at the dumpsit te. This is the e most expensive part of f the solid waste manage ement system m in Accra, g over 70% of the total solid waste managemen nt budget [7 7]. Main cost t components includes requiring equipme ent capital c cost, running g costs of fu uel, spare pa arts, tires, etc. Labor co ost constitute es a much smaller amount a that t of equipme ent. The Table 1.3 below w shows some statistics o of the waste generated andtheeffortsmade einthecollectionofthes sewasteonadailybasis. Table 1.3: Volume & Daily ton nnage of wa aste collecte ed in Accra over the pa ast 6years [ [7] Year Av Average to verage tonn nage genera ated/day onnage coll lected/day 1998 75 50 450600 1999 96 60 600800 2000 16 650 12001500 2001 17 700 13001500 2002 17 720 13001500 2003 18 800 13001500 ountry Wast te Limited (CCWL) is the newly appointed waste m management t company fo or Accra. It City & Co isdeterm minedtomak kethemetro opoliscleanerandsafertoaidgoodhealthbytheendofthefi irstdecade of the ne ew millenniu um. The inve entory of CCW WL equipment includes 5 52 compacto or trucks, 15 roll on/off trucks, 2 bulldozers, , a tanker tr ruck, a tippe er truck, a refuse r compactor, and a weight brid dge at the entrance etothelandf fill[7].

Avera ageTonna ageGen./C Collectedv vsGDP

900000 800000 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 1998 199 99 2000 20 001 2002 2 2003 Averagetonn nage generated/ye ear Averagetonn nage collected/yea ar GDP(0.00001 1$Million)

Figure 1.3: : Graph of Waste W Gener rated vs. Collected per y year vs. GDP P, Accra[A2 2 ] From the e Figure 1.3 above, ther re exist some e difference in the waste e that is gen nerated and the efforts made in collecting e especially the e widening d differences a as the year passes p by as against the GDP; thus ome challeng gesespecially yin situation ns wheremuch of thewa aste content is organic an ndhas high posesso 10

InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

potentia al for possible fermentat tion after 24 4hrs of not collection a and also bec comes a fee edstock for rodentssuchasrat. Neverth heless, the CCWL has opt timized the cost of colle ection by ana alyzing the fo ollowing fact tors: roads accessibility, road co onditions, tra affic speeds, distance of collection zo ones to dispo osal site, interest rates al, and cooperationfrom m residents w with collection containers s and schedu ules. The mos st common on capita collection vehicles are open tipp per trucks an nd rearloadi ing compacti ion trucks fo or doortodo oor service where th he residents use househo old garbage bins which to otaling 20,00 00 across Acc cra [7]. Cont tainer hoist trucks, such s as skip and arm rol ll trucks are also in use for commun nal service to o inaccessibl le areas or thosewh hereresidents aretoo po oortoprocureanduse household du ustbins. Intheseplaces, la arge waste disposal containers a are accessible for residen nts without c charge. When the contain ner is full, it is taken to d replaced by y the empty y one. In som me places, co ontainers are e picked up a as often as the disposal site and mesperday. threetim 1.2.3 Re ecycling and d Composti ing With the Urban city y, Accra unre egulated dum mping seems s to be the c cheapest me eans of waste disposal, s in this field are poorly y stimulated d and supported by loca al governments. Municip pal policies activities undermi ine smallsca ale recovery activities. In n Accra, was ste pickers sort s through refuse from m incoming garbage trucks, before and immediately af fter unloading. They of ften prevent t the compa actor from essing the ne ewly disposed waste. Pic cked items are stored on n side of the road until leveling and compre t recyclable waste buyer. There is s only a limi ited proport tion of recov verable mate erial in the sold to the wasteflo ow.Themate awayfromth hewasteatthe t househo oldlevelwheresuchitem msasempty erialiskepta bottles, plastic containers, met tal cans, et tc., are salv vaged and k kept for domestic use. They are donsiteand dsoldforasm mallprofitto otheinterme ediarymenw whooccasion nallycollect additionallycollected wrepresentsthepercenta agesofwaste ecompositio onsthathave ebeenable recyclables.TheFigure1.4below rrecycleorcompost. toeither

%of fRecycling gandCom mposting,Accra

15 40 25 Metal Paper Organic 90 Plastic Glass

Figure e 1.4: Graph h of Percent tage of Recy ycling and co omposting in Accra AccraMe etropolitanA Authority(AM MA)operatesacomposti ingplantthathasanoperationalcapa acityof 200tons sperdaysinc ceitsoperati ioneversinc ce1974andaresultofitsage,itbreak ksdownfrequently; thisnega ativelyaffect ttheproduct tioncapacity y.
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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

1.2.4 W Waste Dispos sal Asemic controlleddu umpisthefir rststageinth hecountryseffortstoup pgradelandfills.Controlle eddumps operatewithsomefo ormofinspectionandrec cordingofincomingwast te,thepracti iceofextens sivewaste tionandtheapplicationo ofsoilcover.Operateddu umps,howev ver,impleme entonlylimit ted compact measure estomitigate eotherenvir ronmentalim mpacts.Figure1.5illustrat testhenatur reofthedum mpsite withsom mescavenger rstryingtocollectsomerecyclable r m materials. Figur re 1.5 Dump psite Area w with Scaveng gers [7] The dum mpsite is the only open, s semicontrolled solid was ste disposal facility in Ac ccra. The typ pe of waste managem ment, if unm managed well can pose a great enviro onmental eff fect alongsid de health rela ated issues duetoth hepossibility yoftherelea aseofleachat teandlandfi illgasespeciallyduringra ainyseasons.

%ofWasteDispos sal,Accra
4.4 4 0.7 19.5 5 Wastecollectedbyagents Bur rnedbyhouse ehold 12.2 Pub blicdump Dum mpedelsewhe ere Bur riedbyhouseh hold 51.4 4 Oth hers

11.6

Figure 1.6: : Graph of P Percentage o of Waste Dis sposal, Accr ra

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InstitutoSupe eriorTecnico,IS ST|FelixAmank kwahDiawuo

Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

The Figu ure 1.6 above e and the Ta able 1.4 belo ow give an ac ccount of the waste man nagement op ptions that are prac cticed as of now. The most dangero ous of all the e burning/co ombustion of f these wast te which is really an n arcade way of managi ing waste du ue to its ser rious health implication especially when w burnt alongside with haza ardous waste e such as b batteries. Ag gain burying some of th hese wastes with pre nt can have some unple easant situation of mixing with ground water an nd again contaminating treatmen thesoila aswell. Table 1.4: Waste M Managemen nt Options in n Accra, Ghana [8] al means rcentage (% %) Disposa Per Waste co ollected by a agents 19.5 5 Burned by househol ld 12.2 2 Public d dump 51.4 4 Dumped d elsewhere 11.6 6 Buried b by household d 4.4 Others 0.7 Recycli ing and Com mposting Metal 90 Paper 40 Organic 15 Plastic 2 Glass 5

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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

1.3 MS SW in Cape Town, S South Africa

The MSW W managem ment is stud died for Cap pe TownSou uth Africa, based on th he Waste G Generation, Collectio on,Recycle&Compostan ndWasteDis sposal 1.3.1 W Waste Genera ation The was ste quantity estimates per capita va ary across Ca ape Town, d depending on n the concen ntration of commercial activities and the ty ype of comm munity. The major conce ern is that waste w genera ation rates se with economic growth and rising standards of living an nd quickly e exceed the c capacity of could ris existing and planned d waste dispo osal facilities s in Cape Tow wn. Waste ge eneration ha as been onth he increase n yearon sta atistics, due to the population rise an nd influx of t tourist activities. The Tab ble 1.5 and based on Figure 1. .7below rep present some e forecasted annual waste generation n levels andthe t correspo onding GDP levels; Table 1.5: Volume of Solid wa aste generat tion in Cape e townSouth Africa [9 9] Ton nnage of Wa aste Genera ation/year Year 1996 650 0000 2001 1079014 2004 2158523

Wastegeneratio g nvsGDP
2000000 0 1800000 0 1600000 0 1400000 0 1200000 0 1000000 0 800000 0 600000 0 400000 0 200000 0 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Tonnage eofwaste Generate ed GDP($Million)

Figure 1.7: Graph o of Waste Ge eneration pe er year vs. G GDP, Cape T Town [A1]

Theprop portionofco omponentsfo oundinthew wastemateri ialhastheOrganicpartas a thehighes stsegment. The Figu ure 1.8 below indicates that nearly 30% of the residential and comme ercial waste stream by weight consists c of organic waste e such as kitc chen and garden waste, nearly 20% consists of plastic and 20% con nsists of pape er and cardb board. These e three comp ponents acco ount for app proximately 7 70% of the residential and commercial wast te stream, w with glass, m metal, textiles and timbe er accounting g for more %byweight. than20%

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%ofWasteCompositio on,CapeT Town

3.25 4 4.72 6.8 7.16 17 7.51 18.63 10.76 31.17 Organic Plastic Paper Glass Metal Textile Timber Other

Figure 1.8 8: Graph of Waste % Co omposition, , Cape Town n With the e tourist industry, that a attracts both h local and fo oreign touris st with an an nnual turnov ver of over 10billion n Rand (as of f year, 2000), it would be e suicidal for r the city to a allow itself to t be swallow wed by the levelofu unmanagedwaste w genera ation. 1.3.2 W Waste Collect tion and Tr ransfer Collectio on of solid waste in the C Cape Metrop politan Area (CMA) is a re esponsibility of the Municipal Local Councils(MLC).Colle ectionisperf formedlargelyatcurbsidethroughouttheCMAby ymeansofc compacting ollection is conducted c either e directly by the m municipality or o contracte ed through collection trucks. Co w haulers. privatewaste Generally, mixed wa aste and gar rden refuse is collected using black bags or sta andardsized bins, with f the inform mal areas bei by skips. Bec cause many of the exis sting disposa al sites are some of ing served b relatively yclosetothe epointsofw wastegenerat tion,mostof fthewastethatiscollect tedishauleddirectlyto a nearby y landfill site e for disposal. There is only one large e transfer station, the At thlone Refus se Transfer Station, which deals strictly with h a portion o of Cape Town ns waste. Unsorted was ste from the Athlone is nd hauled b by rail to the t Cape M Municipal Cou uncils landf fill at by th heir respecti ive former baled an municipa alitiesandstillservingthem[10]. 1.3.3 Re ecycling and d Composti ing The prim mary reason for the high h recycling rate of indus strial waste m materials is that it is pro ofitable. In South Af frica, the thr ree major materials that t are recycled d in the indu ustrial sector are metal, paper and glass. A d deposit syste em is used to o encourage the return o of bottles, tin n and alumin num cans. Ad dditionally, special marked m containers are po ositioned at Greens Depots for the e dropoff of f bottles and d cans. The countryhasasizeabl letinminingandprocess singindustry, ,withademandforther recycledmat terial,since e containers. The Figure 1.9 represents the prop portions of Aluminum is process sed for use in beverage hatarerecyc cled. thesecomponentsth

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R RecyclingR Rate(%),CapeTow wn
0 6 10 7.5 Paper Glass Metal 45 Plastic Organic c

Figure 1 1.9: Graph of o recycling Rate(%), C Cape Town Recycling g of materia als from dom mestic, comm mercial and industrial i wa astes, such a as metal, pla astic, glass, and pap per, compost ting of domestic waste, and the be eneficial reus se of wastew water treatm ment plant accounts s for approx ximately 24% % of the tot tal solid waste stream in Cape Tow wn while most of the recycling g occurs in th he industrial sector. Of th he total resid dential and c commercial waste w stream ms, only an estimate ed 6.5% of th he waste is recycled. With significant mandates a and programs s in place for recycling, a recycling rate of20 0to25% ofthe t domestic c and comme ercial waste is i expectedt tobeachieva ablebythe 30[11]. year203 The recy ycling of residential and commercial waste that t takes place w within the Ca ape Metropo olitan Area (CMA) is s done largely in an infor rmal way, me eaning there e is no under rlying policy, , mandate or r programs that are led by any level of gov vernment au uthorizing bo ody. One notable except tion is the recovery of materials at the Bellville composting g facility. Re ecycling of m materials fro om the resid dential and waste m commercial waste st tream is driv ven by poverty and as a means of survival. s The retrieval of recyclable s butiso oftenunorga anizedandco onductedinunsafe u and materialfromwasteoccursonafairlylargescale, hy conditions s, and throug gh means that are not necessarily en nvironmentally sound. Th he industry unhealth response e to the use of recycled materials as s a "raw ma aterial" is gre eater than any movemen nt towards recycling gbeingincorporatedasp partoftheev verydaylifest tyle. Compost ting is a sma allscale acti ivity in South Africa, and d performed d mostly by private entrepreneurs. Compost ting isnot se eenasa viable wastedisp posal option.There isonly a limited market m forco ompost,as the industry is still in n a primary stage. s Althou ugh expansio on is taking p place in this a area, it is not seen as a waste reducti ion or resource recovery y option. Approximately 41,000 tons s per year of o collected major w domestic c and commercial solid wastes w are co omposted at t several com mposting faci ilities in the CMA. Over 80% of the compos sting occurs at two fac cilities locate ed in Bellville and Paro ow (Radnor), with the hellsPlainfacilityadjacen nttotheSwa artklipdispos salsite[11]. remainderoccurringattheMitch 1.3.4 W Waste Dispos sal More than 95% of domestic, d tra ade, industrial and hazar rdous waste is landfilled d, and this re emains the dely used method in Sou uth Africa an nd still the ch heapest option. There ar re approxima ately 1,200 most wid landfills, mostly own ned and ope erated by municipalities m cated on sites such as . Many of these are loc
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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

abandon nedquarriesandravines. .Only214(1 18%)siteshav velicensesa andaredulypermitted.Alargepart of the cu urrent problem with ma anagement o of solid waste appears to o be due not so much to a lack of legislatio on,but inthe e oversight a andlack ofen nforcement ofexisting la aws and regu ulations[12]. . Currently, only a fe ew landfills in developing g countries c currently rec cover the lan ndfill gas (LFG G) for flaring g or energy producti ion,LFGreco overyforene ergyproducti ionmayhave emorewidespreadapplicationsthrou ughoutthe ing world. Th he minimum m requiremen nts instituted d in South Af frica offer on nly limited gu uidance on developi landfillg gasmanagem ment.Thereis snolandfillg gasmanagem mentintheC CMA. Just like in most countries on A African continent, South h Africa also has most of o the existin ng landfills d.Operating gpracticesge enerallydonotincludeco ompactionor rtheapplicat tionofdailycover.This unfenced may refl lect the absence of app propriate equipment or other resou urces to carr ry out these e practices. Addition nally, large n numbers of waste picke ers may scour the landf fills for mat terials of ec conomic or personal l value. The returns from m the sale o of these materials go to the waste pickers, p and not to the agency operating the facility. The Table 1.6 below gives some summary of statistics of waste eristicsinCap petownSout thAfrica. characte Table 1.6: The was ste type and d compositi ion in the Ca ape townS South Africa a [7] al Per rcentage (% %) Materia Organic 31.1 17 Plastic 18.6 63 Paper 17.5 51 Glass 7.16 6 Metal 6.80 0 Textile 4.72 2 Timber 3.25 5 Other 10.7 76 Vo olume of So olid waste g generation i in Cape tow wnSouth Af frica Year Ave eragetonnag gegenerated d/day 1998 190 002000 R Recycling Ra ate Materia al Perc centage (%) Paper 10 Glass 7.5 Metal 45 Plastic 6 Organic 0

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1.4 MS SW in Lago os, Nigeria a

TheMSW W manageme ent isstudied onLagosNigeria, N based on the Wa aste Generation, Collectio on, Recycle &Compo ostandWast teDisposal 1.4.1 W Waste Genera ation The tren nds in solid waste w sources s, generation n and charac cteristics in N Nigeria are similar to thos se of other third wo orld countries s. The available statistics s indicates th hat waste generation in t this region keeps going up on an nnual basis. As per the T Table 1.7 and d the Figure 1.10 below, represent th he true natur re of waste situation n in Lagos. It t could be re ealized the that the chan nge or differ rence betwee en the years s 1982 and 1985 wa as not that h high, but wit th the wide increase in population area over th he few follow wing years showedthefacttheanthropogen nicnatureof fmanhasrea allycontribut tedtothisincliningstage e. Table 1.7: Volume of Solid wa aste generat tion in Lago osNigeria [ [13] verage tonn nage genera ated/day Average to onnage coll lected/day Year Av 1982 17 700 450600 1985 19 900 600800 1990 21 100 12001500 2000 28 800 13001500

AverageTonnageg generated d
1,200,00 00 1,000,00 00 800,00 00 600,00 00 400,00 00 200,00 00 0 1982 1985 1990 2000 Average etonnage generat ted/year

Figure e 1.10: Grap ph of Averag ge Waste To onnage Generated/yea ar, Lagos Thecom mpositionofwaste w alsosh howsthat,theorganicwa astewhichar relikelyfood dandplantdebrisare ofhigherproportionsrepresentin ngabout56% %oftheentir recontent.T TheTable1.8 8andtheFigu ure1.11 echaracteris sticsnatureo ofthewastecontent. showthe
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Table 1.8: The was ste type and d compositi ion in Lagos sNigeria [1 13] WasteTy ype Orga anici.e Paper Textile Plast tic Glass s Food d&Plant Proporti ion 56 14.0 4 3 (%)

Metal 4.0

Others 19

Perce entage(%), ,Lagos

O Organici.eFoo od&Plant Paper Te extile Plastic G Glass M Metal O Others

Figur re 1.11: Gra aph of MSW percentage e, Lagos

1.4.2 W Waste Collect tion and Tr ransfer Efforts to o stimulate e effective coll lection of wa aste were fav vourably cha anneled towa ards the esta ablishment of multiple collectio on strategies s in Lagos m metropolis. T The method ds are house etohouse, communal n, bulk loading and indu ustrial collect tion system. . In most area, Lagos St tate Waste depots, curbside bin A) installed waste w collect tion containe er to avoid indiscriminate dumping Management Authority (LAWMA e on the stre eet. In the m metropolis of f Lagos, colle ection and tr ransportation n of MSW is s totally on of waste division of labor. L LAWMA coll lects from commercial and indust trial centers while private sector ation (PSP) is s actively involved in dom mestic wastes collection. On a largescale s situatio on, LAWMA participa and othe er well estab blished private sector participants us se trucks and d compactors s for transpo ortation. In some ca ases where t the landfill o or dumping site is not f far, some pr rivate individ duals render r collection services to various households and receive their pay directly d from m their custo omers. The w wastes are rtedinthisca asewiththeaidoftheirpulling p openbedcart.Ev venthoughth hereseemst tobesome transpor efforts but, b it is awf fully inadequ uate because e with regards to the Fig gure 1.12 be elow, the dif fference in waste ge eneration and collection is too wide. Thus promo oting some e environmenta al challenges s especially with the e fact that hu uge proportio on of this wa aste are putr rescible in na ature and subject to earl ly decaying andprov vidingground dsfornightr rodents.

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AverageG Generated dvsCollec ctedperyearvsGDP

1,200 0,000 1,000 0,000 800 0,000 600 0,000 400 0,000 200 0,000 0 1 1982 1985 Yea ar 1990 2000 Averagetonnage generated/year Averagetonnage colle ected/year GDP P(0.0001*$Million)

Figure 1.12: Gr raph Averag ge Generate ed Waste vs s. Collected per p year vs. . GDP, Lagos s [A3]

1.4.3 Re ecycling In Lagos s, due to the e huge market of electr ronic stuffs, the electronic waste co ollection and d recycling activities s are largely organized around the main m sources of obsolete electrical an nd electronic c products. Theinformal wastec collectors(alsoreferredt toasscaven ngers)move allaroundL Lagoswithha andcartsto containing w wastes. Mostl ly, these coll lectors buy s such waste collect ewaste together with other metalsc devices for small am mounts of money from businesses b or private households. Th he collection n prices for e and nonrepairable equ uipment vary y greatly but range aroun nd 50 Naira (US$ 0.34) fo or one CRT obsolete monitorand100Naira(US$0.67 7)foronefrid dgeoronede esktopPC(w withoutmonitorandperip pherals).In tors that du ue to severe e financial li imitations, c cannot pay for metal addition, there are also collect ng wastes an ndtherefore focus on wh hat is freely a available, e.g g. on roadsid de waste dum mps. As the containin city of La agos is too large to easil ly bring the collected ma aterials to a central recycling site, this informal collection system makes m use o of many small and me ediumsized scrap metal l yards, whe ere metal ng wastes ar re manually dismantled, assorted, sto s. Fractions o of no value containin ored and sold to traders totheworkersaredi iscardedoni irregulardum mpsitesorbu urned. 1.4.4 W Waste Dispos sal Disposal of solid wa aste generat ted in a com mmunity is the ultimate e step in a SWM system m. In the ies, disposal is preceded by engineer ring activities s such as sor rting, volume e reduction advanced technologi The open du ump method d of solid wa aste disposal is consider red as both naive and and (or) receding. T because the leachate effe ect (i.e the c chemical and d biological contaminant c in wastes) dangerous. This is b stitute a dire ect risk to hu uman health. Table 1.9 shows that t the highest percentage of o waste is will cons disposed datanautho orizedarea,w whichisreall lyasourceo ofconcernforenvironmentalandhea althrelated issues.

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Table 1.9: Nature o of solid was ste disposal l in a typica al Nigerian City C [14] Type of f dumping d deposit Fre equency (%) REMASA AB bin 3.7 Authoriz zed dump si ite 16.2 25 Unautho orized empty y plot 66.2 25 Burning g 3.75 5 Persona al bin 13.2 25 At the in nception of w waste manag gement in La agos state, there are sev veral disposal sites. Thes se sites are not engineer landfill sites but o open dumpe ed turned to o dumping s site. Most a are evacuatio on site for ction, and are later turne ed into dump ping site. As s of 1990, there were eig ght (8) of tho ose sites in construc LagosSta ate. 21

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1.5 MS SW Compa arative An nalysis for r Accra, La agos and C Cape Tow wn
The MSW W management of these e Urban cities s have been discussed th horoughly most m aspects in areas of waste g generation, c collection, re ecycling & c composting and waste disposal. Ba e statistics ased on the provided d previously, some comp parative analy ysis is being made to asc certain the le evels of deve elopments. From the e Figure 1.13 3, it is clear that t the leve el of econom mic developm ment really ha as some imp pact on the proportionsofcomp positionofor rganicwaste intheentire ewastecont tent.CapeTo owninSouth hAfricahas estcontento ofOrganic,bu uthighlevels sofPlastic,P Paper,Glassand a Metal,w whichisanindicationof thelowe itsindustrialbase,th henfollowedbyLagosNig geriaandlastlyAccraGhana.

WastePercen ntage(%)C Characteristics

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 O Organic P Plastic Pa aper Glass Metal Ac ccra Ca apeTown La agos

Figure 1.13 3: Graph of Wastes Per rcentage Characteristic cs Anotherindicatorfor rassessment twouldbeth heirpercapit tawastegen neration,pop pulationandgarbage collection.TheTable1.10andthe eFigure1.14 4givessomeideaastow whatalevelofmanageme entis takingpl laceasperth heindicators sgiven. Table 1.10: Per Cap pita MSW generation g a and Househ hold collect tion (Year, 2 2000) [15, 2 23] y Cit ty Name Per capita a Hou useholds ation>0.5 G GDP Country Popula ($Billion) MSW wit th Garbage Million n generation Col llection (%) ) kg/day Ghana Acc cra 0.4 60 1.7 4 4.9775 Nigeria Lag gos 0.3 8.0 8.0 4 45.9834 South Af frica Cap petown 2.0 76 2.45 132.8776
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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

MSWP PerCapita, ,Househo oldWasteCollection n,Populat tion,GDP

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 ($Billion) PercapitaMS SW Househo oldswith /day Garb bage generationkg/ Collection(%) Po opulation>0.5 Million GDP

G GhanaAccra N NigeriaLagos S SouthAfricaCapetown

Figur re 1.14: Gra aph of Per Ca apita, Collec ction & Pop pulation Ind dicators Even tho ough, Lagos has the larg gest population, but the waste gene eration per p person was highest h for Capetow wn,whichmeansthatcapetowngen neratesmore ewastethantherestofthetwo(2)urbancities, with Acc cra having th he least of w waste genera ation. The st taggering tru uth is that, L Lagos has a b bad record when it comes to wa aste collectio on, with the lowest collec ction out of the what is g generated, fo ollowed by nd then Cap pe town. Th his is a serio ous concern n for MSW management concern d due to the Accra an environm mental challenges assoc ciated with this kind of f behavior. In the practice of rec cycling and compost ting, it evident that, Cape e town has e enviable succ cess story as s compared t to Lagos and Accra and this deve elopment can also be att tributed to th he growth of f the country y with high G GDP. All of th hem havea challenge when it co omes to was ste disposal, in which all still uses op pen dumping g strategies a and even a mbust some of these wa aste in the op pen air, with hout consideration to the e fact that th hese waste time com mightbe ehazardousa andposeshe ealthchallen nges.Thiscan nbeattribute edtothefac ctthatleasti investment has been n made into o waste colle ection/waste e disposal an nd again inef ffective in ad dopting the Integrated MSWap pproach. In movi ing forward, strategies like capitaliz zation or pri ivatization o of these sect tors could a assist, than always the government being th he sole stakeholder. The informal sec ctor (scaveng gers) can be integrated gement sche eme throughproper polic cies since thi is sector can contribute i in reducing into the MSW manag gespeciallythewastecol llectionsecto or.Moreover r,itisnotonlypumpingm moneyinto thecostofmanaging ogy that reall ly solves the entire probl lem, but also opushing mo oney into ma aking the citizen realize technolo that the ey are also a stakeholde er in this sector through h massive ed ducation. Th his is one of f the most importan ntaspectsof fhelpingreducesourcew wasteandagainencourag ginghouseho oldwastesep paration.
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S SECTION 2: MSW A AND ITS I IMPLICAT TION FOR R CLIMAT TE CHANG GE

2.1 Gen neral Intr roduction n
The indu ustrial revolu ution of the 1 19th century marked a sig gnificant change in the co oncentration n of carbon dioxidea andothergre eenhousega asesintheat tmosphere.W Wenowliveinaworldw whereconcen ntrationsof CO2 have e risen by ap pproximately y 30% to a fig gure of 370p ppm(particles s per million) compared with levels in prein ndustrial times, which was w around 2 280ppm, whi ilst those of methane (C CH4) have inc creased by 145%an ndthoseofnitrousoxide(N2O)by15% %.Tocompo oundthepro oblem,anum mberofnews substances such as chlorofluoro ocarbons (CF FCs), halons, , perfluoroca arbons (PFCs s), hydrofluo orocarbons ( (HFCs) and e (SF6) have entered e the atmospheric c equation. T These gases do not occur in nature sulphur hexafluoride generatedal lmostexclusi ivelybyanth hropogenicac ctivities. andareg Accordin ng to recent estimates, t the waste sector contrib butes about onefifth of f global anth hropogenic methane eemissions[ [16]andmet thanecontrib butiontoclim matechangeisaboutone ethirdtoahalf h ofthat of carbo on dioxide [17]. Waste sector emis ssions have grown stead dily globally and are ex xpected to increase in the com ming decades s especially in developin ng and eme erging econo omic countrie es such as because ofth heincreaseinpopulation nand GDP [1 18].In recogn nitionofthis, the Clean Ghana and Nigeria,b anism (CDM M) establishe ed by Kyoto Protocol in n 1997, reco ognized was ste and its Development Mecha entifiedforgr reenhousegasreduction. disposalasoneofthesectorside nited Nations s Framework k Convention n for Climate e Change (UN NFCC) is a Climate Change as defined by Un ttributable directly d or indirectly to o human ac ctivity that alters the change of climate which is at global atmosphere, which h is, in additi ion to, natur ral climate va ariability observed over composition of the g able time periods [19]. Since S some a already exist ting GHGs ha as the potential of holdin ng some of compara the sun s warmth, the additional GHG ge enerated as a result of f human act tivities such as waste generation and impr roperwaste management causes som me imbalance e in the natu ural setup. Th he increase t rais sesthegloba altemperatu uresbecausestudiesreve ealthat;theglobal g tempe eraturehas inGHGtherefore risen by about 0.6 de egree Celsius s over the la ast 100 years s, with the ye ear, 1998 be eing the singl le warmest arofglobalin nstrumentationrecording g. yearinthe142thyea The rate e of waste de egradation in n landfills depends on wa aste composition, climate e and condit tions in the landfill.B BecausethedurationofCH C 4generationisseveraldecades,es stimationofe emissionsfro omlandfills requires modelling o of waste disp posal prior to o the year w whose emissio ons are of in nterest. The Figure 2.1 G cyclically yfromwaste ecollection,recycling r & showsaschematicarrangementofwastesemissionofGHG tingthroughtothepointwhereitisla andfilled. compost 24

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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

re 2.1 Simpli ified schema atic of wast te managem ment system m and GHG e emissions (in n urban Figur MSWM) [20 0]

2.2 Ho ow Solid W Waste Imp pacts on Cl limate Ch hange

Even bef fore a material or produ uct becomes s a solid was ste, it goes through a lo ong cycle tha at involves removing and proce essing raw m materials, manufacturing g the produc ct, transport ting the mat terials and s to markets s, and using the energy to operate the product t. Each of th hese activities has the products potentia altogenerate eGHGthroug ghoneormo oreofthefollowingmeans: on: Extractin ng and pro ocessing raw materials s, manufact turing prod ducts, and Energy Consumptio rting materia als and products to markets all gene erate greenh house gas em missions by consuming transpor energyfromfossilfuels. e Emissions: When organ nic waste de ecomposes in n landfills an nd dumps, it generates methane, m a Methane greenhousegas. Storage: Tre ees absorb carbon dioxid de, a GHG fr rom the air and store it t in the woo od through Carbon S carbon sequestration s n. Waste pre evention and recycling of f wood and p paper produc cts allow mo ore trees to remain s standing in t the forest, w where they ca an continue to remove c carbon dioxide from the air, which help min nimize climat te change im mpacts. Differ management activities ha ave varying rent wastes and waste m impacts on energy consumptio on, methane e emissions, and carbon n storage. For F example, recycling nting methan ne emissions s from landfi ills or open d dumps and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by preven entingtheconsumptiono ofenergyforextractingandprocessin ngrawmater rials. bypreve

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Table 2.1: Summar ry of Potent tial Climate e Change an nd their Imp pacts [21] Clim mate Potentia al Climate C Change Imp pacts on Wa aste Manage ement Varia able Temperature An nnual warming by 2080s s of between n Increased d water dem mand for bot th workers 10C Cand50C andsiteo operations. Mo ore hot day ys, especially y in the dry y Decline in air qua ality and s subsequent seasons negative impacts on heat of vulnerable groups. Nu umber of cold days decreases s, Impactso onbiologicalprocessesfo orexample especiallyduringtherainyseasons composting,anaerob bicdigestion,etc. Mo ore frequent stagnant summer s anti i Increased d risk of fines ch hanges in cyclones. distributi ionofvermin nandpests. Precipitation Precipitationin ntensityincre easesinrainy y Increased risk of flood ding from seasons g groundwater r, surface water, tidal, a seasurfa and aces. Impacts on b biological pro ocesses, for e example, co omposting, anaerobic d digestion, etc c Cloud Co over Re eductionincl loudcover Risk to workers of skin conditions ed with inc posure to associate creased exp sunshineduringwork kingoutdoors. Humidit ty Sp pecifichumidityincreases s,especially Impactso onoutdoorbiological b pro ocesses. du uringrainyse easons Sea leve el Me ean sea lev vel will be up u to 86 cm m Flooding of waste managemen nt facilities ab bove its curre ent level, du ue to therma al andIncre easederosion nofcoastala areas. ex xpansion andnatural land d movements by ythe2080s.

2.3 An nalysis of GHGs G from m MSW Co omparing Ghana, Nigeria and d South Af frica
As per the statistic cs gathered from Unite ed Nations Framework Convention n for Climat te Change C), the greenhouse gas (GHG) comes from the e different sectors s of th he economy including; (UNFCCC Energy, Industry, Tra ansport, Agriculture, Was ste and othe er sectors. Th he Percentag ge that come es from the s highest in t terms of the GHG. The G GHG that com mes from the e Waste is als so significant tespecially energy is forcountrieslikeGha anaandNige eriabecause, ,eventhepe ercentageofGHGfromwaste w outweighsthatof ustrial sector r. Expectedly y, that of So outh Africa is i quite diffe erent, becau use the indu ustrial GHG the Indu generation statistics is a bit high her than that t of Waste, because b they y are industr rialised as co ompared to tries. The Ta able 2.2 and d Table 2.3 g give account t of the GHG G generation n from the the two other count t sectors of the econom my amongst t the three co ountries under study and d again the proportion different typesoftheGHG. 26

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Table 2.2: Aggrega ate Emission ns and Rem movals of CO O2, CH4 and N2O in CO2 Equivalent by Major Source/ /Sink Categ gory, including and exc cluding LUC CF (Gg and P Percentage) ) [22] Country Year Sector Total Total(w with %of LUFC LUCF LUCF) Energy Indu ustrial Agric cultur Was ste without LUCF in Proc cess e Total GHG (Gg) (%) (Gg) (Gg) g,%) (Gg,%) (Gg, ,%) (Gg,%) (Gg 5255 6894.2 Ghana 1994 6567.80 281.80 5.70 473.09 12578 8.3 28 2.2%) (2.2% %) (41.8 8) (3.8 8%) 9 (52 19472.67 154. 8 Nigeria 1994 146361. 1761 1.87 5049 98.55 440 004. 24262 26. 105009 9.9 347636 6.3 43.3 (0.7% %) (20.8 8%) 37 40 8 8 61 0.3%) (18. .1%) (60 361221 South 1994 297566. 3038 86.22 3545 55.52 164 429. 37983 37. 1.4 4.9 Africa (8.0% %) (9.3% %) 07 38 57 18615.96 2 8.3%) (4.3 3%) (78 ***LUCF=Landusechange c andForestry; F Gg=Gigagrams s*** Table 2.3: Breakdo own of Emis ssions (excl luding LUCF F) for three e Gases (Yea ar, 1994) [2 22] C Country Emissions (exc cluding LUC CF) for thre ee Gases CO2(G Gg) CH4 (Gg) N2O(Gg) Ghana 3329.8 80 396 6.95 2.94 Nigeria 11481 15.82 5912.16 11.79 South Af frica 31595 57.24 2057.44 66.69 ***LUCF=Landusechange c andForestry; F Gg=Gigagrams s*** TheFigure 2.2 repres sentstheacc cumulationo ofGHGfromallthesecto orsof theEco onomyexclu uding Land ngeandFore estry(LUCF).Thereisani indicationthat,thecountrywithhigh hestgenerati ionofGHG usechan is South with much of their GHG G contributio ons coming f from the Ene ergy, Agricult ture and the e Industrial GHG is Nigeria, it reflec cts the situat tion, even though Niger ria has the sectors. The second largest of G populationandpopulatio ondensity,butthecontributionfacto orstotheirGDPrelyonth heirrichOil highestp (CrudeO Oil)resourceandalsoagricultureprod duction.

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Report on n MSW Manage ement Impact o on GHG Emissio ons for Ghana, South Africa & & Nigeria

Le evelofGH HG(Gg)fromallSect tors

Sou uthAfrica Nig geria Ghana

1000 000

2000 000

300 0000

400 0000

Figure 2.2 2: Graph of L Levels of GH HG (Gg) from m all Sectors s

heGHGcontr ributionsfromtheirMSW Wwouldbeanalysed a toc checkwhethe ertheirMSW W Again,th managem mentskillsis sreallymakin nganysignifi icantdifferen ncewiththeanalysismad deontheirM MSWfrom theprev viousChapter rinmind.

GH HGfromWaste W
g) GHG(Gg 50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Ghana Nig geria Sou uthAfrica

Figure 2.3: Graph of GH HG from MS SW

ure 2.3, indicates that Nig geria has the e Highest lev vel or propor rtion of GHG G contribution from the The Figu waste se ector. With reference r to o the MSW d discussion in the previou us chapter, it was clear t that waste collection was a problem, becau use the perce ent differenc ce of waste generated g an nd waste collected per daywasclosetoabo out60%(refe erencingfrom manalysisma adeonLagos sUrbanarea ainNigeria).Thefactof ter is that wa aste contribu ution to GHG G within all these countri ies are high, because the ere is still a the matt challenge in their waste w disposa al approach, where open n dumping still s exist wit th huge prop portions of
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methane e (CH4) produ uction as a r result of aero obic decomp position of th hese waste at a the landfill area. The more sta arring fact is that very large emission n of CO2 is also realized d due to the un nauthorized burning of wasteintheopenair randunman nagedinciner rationofthis swastecontr ributesheavi ilytotheGHG Gemission refore increa asing the effe ect of Climat te Change. The T following g Table 2.4 a and Figure 2.4 give the and ther proportionsofGHGc compositionfromtheWa asteemission ns. Table 2.4: Breakdown of Emi issions in W Waste (exclu uding LUCF) ) for three Gases G (Year r, 1994) [22] C Country Waste Emissions (excluding LUCF) for t three Gases s CO2(G Gg) CH4 (Gg) N2O(Gg) Ghana 125.24 4 14.9 93 0.11 Nigeria 20781 1.66 1070.1 2.13 South Af frica 13586 6.2 88.5 5 2.87

GHG Gproportio onsfromW Waste,ex xcl.LUCF

GHG G(Gg) 0.0001 1 0.00001 1 0.000001 1 Ghana 0.0000001 1 1E08 8 1E09 9 CO2( (Gg) 1E10 0 aledtolog10 Sca CH4(Gg) N2O(G Gg) Nig geria Sou uthAfrica

Figure 2.4: : GHG Propo ortions from m Waste, exc cluding LUC CF

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SECTION 3: CONCLUSIO ON
Although h developing g countries a are generally y assumed to o be respons sible for insig gnificant gen neration of GHGs, cu urrent increa ase in popula ation, econom mic developm ment, urbanization, solid d waste gene eration and therathe ercrudeman nagementof fitswasteco ouldresultin nenormousincreaseinGHGsgenerat tion.Thisis particula ar the case w with respect to solid wa aste which is s expected to o grow as th he urban po opulation is projected to increase e by as much h as 20% in t the next 30 y years coupled with the adoption of w western life consumerism msthatchara acterizemost turbancentresespecially yinGhanaandNigeria.T Theissueis styleofc made more significant by the po oor managem ment of solid d waste and dearth of da ata especially y on actual on.Due to la ack ofinform mation dissem minationand awarenessa at thelocal levels,they solidwastegeneratio m and adaptation n measures can be more e successful if they are have little impact. Sustainable mitigation derstood and d again if the ey enable peo ople to enga age in economic activities de for their s that provid well und livelihoo od. ng forward, the medium m term strat tegy would be, b to adapt t recycling a as both mitig gation and In movin adaptation option, because aside the crea ation of wea alth and providing a m means of livelihood to ds of people, recycling activities c can significan ntly reduce the amoun nt of solid w waste that thousand generate es harmful G GHGs. The daunting ch hallenge is how h to inco orporate it into the formal waste managem ment structu ure for it to provide safe er, healthier working con nditions than currently ex xperienced by scave engers on un ncontrolled d dumpsites. L Lastly, mass participation n is of critica al essence th hrough the liberaliza ation of the e current si ituation by government ts through creating conducive and d enabling environm ment for Priv vate compan nies to thrive within all the segments of waste managemen nt delivery. Public&Privatepart tnershipisasure s wayofrescuing r thecontinuoussurgeinwastecontributi iontoGHG ceclimatech hange. andhenc 30

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REFER RENCES
[1] A ma anual on To ool for calcu ulating Green nhouse Gase es (GHG)in Solid S Waste Managemen nt(SWM) , Authored by ifeu Institut I fr E Energie und d Umweltfors schung Heid delberg GmbH Jrgen Giegrich and Vogt,www.ife eu.de,retrievedon14/11/2012 RegineV idelines for Greenhouse Gas Invento ories. Interg governmental Panel on [2] IPCC,(2006). 2006 IPCC Gui p://www.ipcc cnggip.iges.o or.jp/public/2006gl/index x.html, retr rieved on Climate Change (IPCC), http 012. 15/11/20 W mana agement activities and C Carbon Emiss sions in Afric ca. Waste [3] Couth, R., Trois, C.,(2011). Waste Management31(January(1)),131137. th, R., Trois s, C.,(2010). Carbon reductions in Africa from m improved Waste Management: [4] Cout literature ereview.W WasteManage ement30(No ovember(11 1)),2336234 46. s C., and VaughanJones s S.,(2011) M Modelling of greenhouse e gas emiss sions from [5] Couth , R., Trois alsolidwas stedisposal inAfrica.Int ternationalJ JournalOfGr reenhouseG GasControl,2 2011,Vol.5 municipa (6),pp.14431453 R.O.,Lohmue ellerR.,(2012)TheUseo ofOrganicWa asteasanEc coEfficientEnergySource ein [6]AduR Ghana.JournalofEnvironmentalProtection,2012,Vol.03 3(07),p.553[PeerReview wedJournal] manyo E. D D., (2004) Integration of f Municipal Solid Waste e Management in Accra a (Ghana): [7] Anom Bioreactor Treatmen nt Technology yasan Integ gral part ofth he Managem mentProcess s. HabitatInternational, ol.39,pp.961 104[PeerRe eviewedJournal] 2013,Vo Are the Mun nicipal Solid W Waste Management Prac ctices Causin ng Flooding [8] Sam Peter A. Jr (Dr.) (2002) A the Rainy Season in Ac ccra, Ghana, , West Afric ca? Departm ment of Geo ography/Envi ironmental During t Studies,Universityof fKansas.Ret trievedon05 5/12/2012fromweblink: fricanenviro.org/SWMVis si.htm http://af eProvisionin ntheWester rnCape(Source:StatsSA A,Census199 96and2001).Retrieved [9]SanitationService 2/2012onth heweblink: on07/12 www.the epresidencyd dpme.gov.za/MediaLib//Home/Public cations2/San nitation%252 20Report.pdf f rsons & Asso ociates, (199 97) Waste D Disposal in a and Around the Cape M Metropole, Status S Quo [10] Par Report, prepared for r Cape Metropolitan Cou uncil, Report t # 010/CMC C2. Cape Tow wn, South Af frica, June. omPersonalP PrintedMate erial(on15/1 12/2012) Readfro
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[11] CMC, (1998) In ntegrated Wa aste Manage ement Feasibility Study Report. Dire ectorate of W Water and T Sou uth Africa. . Retrieved on 1 12/12/2012 from w web link: Waste. Cape Town, wic.org.za/do ocuments/23 35.pdf www.saw hannessen, L L.M. and G. . Boyer, 199 99. Observations of Solid Waste L Landfills in D Developing [12] Joh Countrie es: Africa, Asia, A and Latin America. Urban Development Div vision, Waste e Manageme ent Anchor Team, th he Internatio onal Bank fo or Reconstruc ction and De evelopment/ /The World Bank, B Washington, DC. Retrievedon14/12/2 2012fromw weblink:www w.worldbank k.org/urban/s solid_wm/er rm//uwp3.p pdf. begu A.B.,(20 011) Solid Waste W and Its Implication ns for Climate Change in Nigeria. J Hum Ecol, [13] Nab 34(2):6773(2012). www.krepublishers.com m/02Journa als/JHE/JHE3 34000011Web/JHE34 4200011 F/JHE3420 067112189NabeguAB/JHE B 34206 67112189Nabegu N ABTt.pdf AbstPDF begu A.B.,(20 008) An asses ssment of Re efuse Manag gement and S Sanitation Bo oard (REMAS SAB)s Solid [14] Nab wastemanagementi inKanometr ropolis.Tech hnoScienceAfricana A Jour rnal,1:101108. 2003)Globalization, Urba anizationand dMunicipalS SolidWaste Managemen ntinAfrica, [15]AchankengE.,(2 tyofAdelaid de.Retrievedon15/12/20 012fromwe eblink: Universit www.inc clusivecities.o org/wpconte ent/uploads/ /2012/07/Achankeng_Glo obalization_U Urbanization n_MSW_M gmt.pdf , (2005) CO2 2 Emissions from fuel co ombustion 1 1971 to 2003 3. 2005 edition. IEA, Par ris, France. [16] IEA, Volume2005,Number30,Decem mber&U47;D D&U233;cembre2005,pp p.i559(559) nsen, J. & Sat to, M., (2001 1) Trends of measured climate forcing agents. Pro oc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA [17] Han 98(26),pp. p 14778to14783. C, (2000) Special report on emission ns scenarios. . Nakicenovic c, N. & Swar rt, R. (eds). Cambridge [18] IPCC Universit tyPress,Cam mbridge,UK,570p. limate Chang ontribution o of Working G Group III to the Third [19] IPCC, (2001) Cl ge 2001: Mitigation. Co governmenta al Panel on Climate Cha ange (IPCC). Metz, B., Da avidson,O., Assessment Report of the Interg R. & Pan, J. (eds.) Camb bridge Unive ersity Press, Cambridge, UK. www.ip pcc.ch/pdf/as ssessment Swart, R report/a ar4/wg3/ar4wg3chapter r1.pdf nt Programm me (2010), W Waste and C Climate Chan ngeGlobal Trends T and [20] United Nations Environmen .Retrievedon12/12/20 012fromtheweblink: StrategyFramework spc%2FWaste%26Climate eChange%2F FWaste%26ClimateCha www.unep.or.jp%2Fietc%2FPublications%2Fs nge.pdf ete I.C., (201 10) Potential l Impacts of Climate Cha ange on Solid Waste Management In Nigeria. [21] Ene Journalo ofSustainabl leDevelopmentinAfrica(Volume12, ,No.8,2010) )ISSN:15205509
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), Inventories of anthro opogenic em missions by s sources and removals by b sinks of [22] UNFCCC (2005) ouse gases compiled a as part of t the Sixth compilation c and synthe esis of initia al national Greenho commun nicationsfrom mPartiesnot tincludedinAnnexItotheConventio on.Retrieve edon15/12/ /2012from weblink k: http://un nfccc.int/doc cumentation/documents/advanced_s search/items s/6911.php?priref=60000 03580 ormationonC CurrentPopu ulationandG GDPstatistics s(2011)forG Ghana,South hAfricaandNigeria, N [23]Info retrieved don13/01/2 2013onthew weblinks:http://data.wo orldbank.org/ /country/gha ana; http://da ata.worldban nk.org/count try/southafr rica;http://d data.worldbank.org/country/nigeria rey L. and S Snyman Dr., (2012) Mod deling the g generation o of domestic waste for [24] Phiri A., Godfr nicipal waste e services. International l Journal of Water Reso ources and supporting the planning of mun mental Eng gineering Vol. V 4(6) ), pp. 17 71191, Jun ne 2012 Available o online at Environm http://w www.academicjournals.or rg/IJWREE DOI: 10.58 897/IJWREE11.030 ISSN N 1991637X 2012 Academi icJournals
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APPEN NDICE
TableA1 1:Forecasted dAverageto onnageofWa asteGenerat tionandGDP PforCapeTo own[23,24] ] Years Tonnageofwast teGenerated GDP($Million) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 16 629620 16 667621 17 702952 17 738283 17 773614 18 808945 18 820863 18 832780 18 844698 18 856616 18 868534 18 870668 132877.6 1 118479 111100.8 168219.3 219092.9 247064.3 2 261007 286171.8 273870.1 283012.4 363523.2 408236.8

TableA2 2:Forecasted dAverageto onnageofWa asteGenerat tionandGDP PforAccra[7,23] Year Averagetonnage ted/year generat 273750 350400 602250 620500 627800 657000 Averag getonnage collec cted/year 191625 5 255500 0 492750 0 511000 0 511000 0 511000 0 GDP(0 0.00001$Million)

1998 7 747400 1999 7 770988 2000 4 497750 2001 5 530920 2002 6 615960 2003 7 762420 TableA3 3:Forecasted dAverageto onnageofWa asteGenerat tionandGDP PforLagos[13,23] Year Averaget tonnage Averag getonnage GDP(0.0001*$Million) generate ed/year collec cted/year 1982 625,399 1916 625 4 497634 1985 681,394 2555 500 2 284079 1990 786,079 4927 750 2 284725 2000 998,081 5110 000 4 459834 34

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