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Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Deformation
8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.6
Behaviour of Mnterials Under Stress Brittle nnd Ductile Deformation Factors Controlling Behaviour of Materials Mechanisms of Rock Deformation Fundamental Structures Structural Levels
8.5 Faults
8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 8.5.5 8.5.6 8.5.7 8.5.8 8.5.9 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4
Elements of a Fault Plane Movement along Faults Classification of Faults Complex Fault Types Recognition of Faults in Field Active and InactiveFnults I Seismic Faulting Effects of Faulting on Disrupted Beds Significance of Study of Faults Geometric Classification Geuetic Classification Quantitntive Description of Fractures/Joiuts Significance of Joints
8,6 Joints
8.8 Significance of Structural Geology 8.9 Summary 8.10 Key Words 8.11 Further Readings 8.12 Answers to SAQs
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural geology is the study of geometrical arrangement of planes, lines, deformed surfaces hl rocks. These structures are produced by the action of forces acting on or within the earth's crust. In other words, the term 'structure' is used to indicate features created by deformation of rocks. These deformations are caused by various endogenic processes. Deformation commonly forms a part of the progress of a regional metamorphic cycle. As a result, a succession of mineral and structural transformation may take place during metamorphism. Each rock possess different mechanical properties and these properties depend on conditions under which deformation takes place. The phenomenon is complicated by the great range of chemical and mineralogical compositions that rocks may have and the large range in physical'and chemical environments in which deformation occurs. In this, the role played by pore fluid pressure in modifying mechanical properties of rocks is very important. Thus, study of interactions between deformation and metamorphic processes is fundamental to the understanding origin of structures in deformed rocks. Deformation of rocks and metamorphism are thus, closely related phenomena.
A structural geologist cmies out his work in two phases : a) Observation of degree of deformation and measurement of various geometric parameters; and b) Interpretation of the deformation path.
It is seen that attitude of these structures indicates the interrelationship between the deforming forces and pre-existing rock mass. In this unit, we shall study how rocks are deformed at different structural levels and find out their significance. To understand deformation, it is necessary to discuss behaviour of different parameters, like temperature, pressure, strain-rate etc. Three dimensional analysis of geological structures, along with other geological investigations, is an essential component in deciding stability of many civil engineering operations.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
-8.2
define and identify various deformation structures in tlle field, analyse and interpret their deformation path, and appreciate influence of these structures on the stability of rnajorlrninor man made structures.
DEFORMATION
Deformation is the process responsible for the development of observed geological struclures. I nother words, it is the process that changes size or shape of a rockmass. Often, some rigid body rotation may also be involved in deformation. Study of stress-strain relationship is very imporlant in structural geology.
The forces acting on rocks of earth's crust are predominantlyin the form of gravitational forces 'and are also created due to movement of rocks at depth, which give rise to a set of stresses and constitute strain in rocks.
A force (F) exerted on a unit surface area can be resolved into a normal stress and a shear stress (Figure 8.1 (a)) in which normal stress acts perpendicular to lhe surface and shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In three dimensions, shear stress can be further resolved inlo two components which are normal to one another (Figure 8.1 (b)).
Normal stress o is perpendicular to the plane, and shear stress zis parallel to the plane developed by force F acting on the plane in two dimensions and in three dimensions, shear ,at right angles yielding three stresses, resulting from force F. stress 2 is resolved into 21 and z
When principal stress is unifonn, the stress is called hydrostatic stress. In this state, a change in volume of deformed rock is visualised. The condition is similar to the stress state of a fluid. Stresses in rocks at depth are created due to overburden or weight of overlying rocks,
called as lithostatic stresses. If the principal stresses are not uniform, the system is called deviatoric stress system Ulat leads to distortion in a body. Strain is the response of a deforming body L o a stress system. It falls into four categories. a) Rigid body translation is the movement of a body without any change in shape (Figure 8.2 (a)). The lines drawn before deformation will have same orientation after deformation. Rigid body rotation is the movement of a body wilhout any change in shape The b) lines drawn before deformation will rotate around a single point (Figure 8.2 (b)). c) Distortion involves change in shape of the body (Figure 8.2 (c)). d) Dilation causes positive or negative ch'anges in volume with no change in shape (Figure 8.2 (d)).
Structural Geology
Strain is homoge~ieous, if it is conslant throughout a body and helerogeneous, if deformation varies throughout a body. However, it can be said thal strairi in rocks is generally heterogeneous but in smaller domains strain may be homogeneous. In homogeneous strain, straight lines remain slr;iight, parallel lines remain parallel and a circle is deformed into a strain ellipse (Figure 8.3). In case of heterogeneous strain lines become curved and parallel lines become non-parallel (Figure 8.4).
( a ) Undeformed state
( b ) Deformed state
( a 1 Undeformed
state
( b ) Deformed
state
Strain Ellipsoid
The fmite strain TI a deformed body is defined by comparing the size and shape of the ellipsoid with the size and shape of initial sphere. This ellipsoid is called as strain ellipsoid. X, Y and Z are the maximum, intermediate and miniurn principal strain axes, respectively. The homogeneous strain has two major components, pure shear and simple shear. Pure shear is also called as irrotational deformation or irrotational strain. In this, thc deformation history is translational (Figure 8.5 (a)). Simple shear is a uniform volume rotational homogeneous deformation (Figure 8.5 (b)).
When strain is itrotational w i t h no change in x and y during progressive deformation, it is known as Pure shear.
(a)
Irrotational strain
When strain is rotational and x and 2 rotate i n a clockwise manner during progressive deformation, it is known as simple shear.
( b 1 Rotational strain
'
t
14
plastic
Note that laboratory tests are not adequate criteria to visualise behaviour of similar rocks during deformation caused by orogenic compressive stress, as laboratory results yield h ~ deformation, factors like presence of iluids, composition exaggerated values. ~ u r natural of material, temperature, pressure, elc. are influential.
5..
Strain ( % )
Figure 8.7 :Effect of L~creaving Confining Pressure on the Stress-shin Curves of Marble (atYer Gdggs, 1967) for Ute Experimental 1)ebrma~on
b)
Temperature : An increase in temperature may change a rock from brittle to ductile stage of deformation (Figure 8.8).
Strain ( '1. I
Figure 8.8': Effect of Increasing Temperature on the Stmss-strain Curves for the Exlrc~imenl;d Deformation of Marble at 5 kbars Confining Pressure (after Griggs, 1967)
c)
Pore-fluid Pressure : The presence of fluid may have great influence on mechanical properties and mineralogy of rocks. Mechanical properties of rocks are altered, when pore-fluid pressure approaches the magnitude of the confining pressure, the 1) rock deforms in a brittle manner. high fluid pressure reduces the strength of rock. This is best explained in 2) Figure 8.9. Effect of pore fluid pressure on the stress-strain curves for the experimental deformation of wet and dry natural quartz at different temperatures, 15 kbars confining pressure and a strain rate of 0.8 x loe5 sec.
950 k (wet I
6
Strain ( "A 1
Figure 8.9 : Efted of Pore Fluid Pressure on Natural Quartz (After Griggs, 1967)
Experimental results have shown that under the influence of high fluid pressure, minerals, like quartz, undergo ductile deformation at lower temperature and pressure condition than otherwise (Figure 8.10).
Strain ( % )
a) Dry nnd Wet Quartz
Strain ( % 1
b) Dry and Wet Olivi~~e
Figure 8.10 : EfTect of l'ore-lluid Pressul.~ on t l ~ Stress-strain c Curves for the Experimc~~W Dcfurmatior~
d)
Strain Hate :and Time : Rocks, when subjected L o a uniform stress field for a long tinlc (monlhs, years), show a slrairi thal may be explained in lllree sleps (Figure 8.11). Thesc are Primary creep : rocks behavc in an clastoviscous manner, 1) Secondary creep : rocks exhibil viscous flow, and 2) Tertiary creep : rocks lead to failure. 3)
Tertiary I creep
I
Failure
Accelerated viscous
C
I
F
Time
Figure 8.11 : Striin-time C ~ ~ r for v c Lor~g Time Pcriud (Crccp)
It can be said that at low tcmperature and pressure, strain rale is fasl, il decreases wiLh increase
in lemperature and pressure conditions.
At high temperature and low stress level, deformation is usually achieved by Islocation, creep and glide. In both brittle and ductile types of deformation, strain is induced by the glide of dislocations.
8.2.5 Fundamental Structures Rocks in field exhibit following structures. They are defmed here and described in appropriate sections. 1) Fractures : Fracture is a discontinuity along which the cohesion of the material is lost. Fractures are characteristic of competent rocks and generally develop at upper structural level. Two major types of fractures are recognised : a) Faults :Faults are fractures that accommodate appreciable displacement parallel to the discontinuity surface (Section 8.5). Soinb : Joints are discontinuities along which therc is negligible or no movement b) parallel to the plane of the fracture (Section 8.6). Folds : A fold is a structure that forms, when an original planar surface becomes 2) beds or very curved as a result of deformation. Folds are best displayed by inco~npctent plastic rocks (Section8.4). Foliation and Lineation : These are planar and linear structures commonly developed 3) in deformed metamorphosed rocks (Section 8.7).
Figure 8.12 : Theoreticd Cross-section of a Folded Portion of the Earth's Crust Showing the Deformation Style at the Different Structural Levels (After Mattauer, 1 % 7 )
Quantitative analysis of h e structures is an essential colnponant in the preliminary geological investigations carried out as a part of feasibility study in many civil engineering operations. m e data in the form of these structures are gathered in the field and presented in maps and sections. The infornution collecled sliould be sufficient to derive the lunematic movements and dynamics, responsible for the development of these structures. The observed structure may vary in size from microscopic to nlacroscopic with the magnitude of several kilometers. However, as the terminology used in descriptive and non-genetic, there is hardly any difference in the terminology and description of small and large sc'ale structures. Rocks usually show a planar structure along which splitting is easy. This is represented in sedimentary rocks by bedding planes, stratification etc. A bed is a tabular body of rocks with upper and lower planar bounding surfaces. A bed is distinguished from the one above or the one below by differences in physical or chemical characters and general appearance. Similarly, metamorphic rocks may show schistosity and gneissose banding. In igneous rocks, planar structures, like flow struclures, are rarcly recorded. Sedimentary rocks show horizontal disposition in general. These, if subjected to a deviatoric stress, may become inclined or vertical. Attitude of these beds may be measured using Clinometer, Brunlon comp;lss, Prisrnalic Con~pass by considering Uleir strike 'and dip. a) Strike : The strike of a bed is its direction measured along a horizontal line on the bedding plane. Dip of a bed is zero degrees measured along strike direclion. b) Dip : The dip of a bed is the angle that Ule bed makes with the horizontal plane, measured in a verlical plane. The inclination is called lrue dip, if the line of section is normal to strike direction (i.c.,along dip direction). The apparent dip is the inclination measured in a vertical pl,ule that nlakes an angle to dip direction.
.. .
c)
Horizontal Beds
It can be seen from Figure 8.13 (a) that beds are inclined, i.e. 0 = 60' and dipping towards eas with strike oriented North - South(N-S). In Figure 8.13 (b), beds are vertical so that dip is 90. and strike is N-S. In Figure 8.13 (c), beds arc horizontal, i.e. dip is zero so strike measurements are not possible. Remember hat dip of a bed and slope of the ground are two different features. Slope of the ground is an expression of topographic surface, on the other hand dip is the inclination of a bed. Planar slructures like bedding, fault, joints, schistosily, fold axial plane, etc. are measured in the following manner. 1) Find out the strike line (i.e. the horizontal line on the planar surlace) by locating the direction of zero dip on the plane (Figure 8.14). Measure its dircctioilfrom North and note it in your field book, e.g. N 240'. 2) Find the direction of maximum dip on plane or simply place the edge of compass normal to the strike line (Figure 8.14). Mark this as tlie dip direction of the plane and measure the angle e.g. 60/1500 i.e. dip amount 60' and direction 150" from North, respectively. C) Clinometer Compass : The dial of thc compass has an outer arc in which geographic directions from 0 to 360 are marked out. There is a pendulum haqging
From the centre of the compass dial. The clinometer also has a straight edge normal to the plane of its dial. There is an inner arc in the dial showing 90' position on either side of the zero mark.The outer arc is used to find strike and dip direction of a bed; and the inner arc, with the help of pendulum, is used to find amount of dip.
b Measurement of direction (a
Some of the commonly used syrhbols to plot structural features on geological maps are shown in Figure,8.15.
Bedding
Fault
\
\.
\
\
Fault orientation Infer red f a u l t Fault showing dip Vertical f a u l t Fault with plunge of s t r a t i ons Horizontal f a u l t Fault showing r e l a t i ve move men t
S t r i k e and dip of Qverturrt~dbeds Foliation Strike and dip of foliation with plunge of lineation Vertical f o l i a t i o n Horizontal f o l i a t i o n
\t
Fractu res
V o r t i c a l tineati on
Hori z o n t a l l i n e a t i o n
v e r t i c a l joints H o r i z o n t a l joints
.\
Dome
Figure 815 : Some Common Symbols on Geologic Map
SAQ
$.
9)
Whi~t is ~
~~OPBPA ?&~~OB~
h)
c)
d)
Dislinlguish bctween i) brithlc and ductlBe cdcd-osl-srdion ii) pure slncx simple shc;nr iii) isouopic; arlti misotropic botiy List Ihnnd;aamlental sstructu~cs displ;iyedby toa:ks in flcld.
Wlial is
rnllcri~lt by
e)
8.4 FOLDS
Folds are r~ldulations produced in stratified rocks. In simple terms, a fold is a curvature in a geologic surface or in a set of stacked geological surfaces. Folding results when the original planar surface is curved due b forces acting parallel to the bedding plane. Fold is one of the most spectacular of the earth's structures. Size of a fold varies from a few centimetres to even a few tens of kilometres.
A fold axis is a slraighl line that generates the form of a fold (Figure 8.16 (c)). It may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. Plunge is an inclination of fold axis measured with respect to a reference horizontal plane (Figure 8.16 (d)).
Axial plane is an imaginary plane which divides the fold into two parts, symmetrical or
asymmetrical (Figure 8.16 (e)). Orientation of a fold surface is measured by measuring its axial plane. When a fold is made of several surfaces, it is possible to define a common surface by joining successive hinge lines (Figure 8.16 (f)), such a curviplanar surface is known as
axial surface.
Inter limb angle is the internal angle between the limbs of a folded surface (Figure 8.16 (g)). It is a measure of fold tightness. Fold size is described by its amplitude and wavelength, when the fold is seen in profile. Wavelength of a fold is the distance between the hinges on either side of the fold (Figure 8.17 (a)). In many cases, the entire fold is not seen in profile. In such cases, distance between two inflexion points is measured (Figure 8.17 (b)), known as half wavelength.
Hinge line
I
Hinqe zone
Fold axis
Axial plane
Axial
Amplitude or 'height' of a fold which is half the perpendicular distance from hinge to inflexion points (Figure 8.17 (a) and (b)).
Wavelength ( A )
I
(b) Wavelength (A)of a Vold
Figure 8.17
When the axial plane is inclined, Ule points of highest elevation and lowest elevalion in a fold may not coincide with the hinge points. The point of highest elevation is called as crest and the line joining the points of highest elevation is called a crestal line. Similarly, the lowest point in the folded surface is called a trough point and the line joining tbe points of lowest elevation is called a trough line (Figure 8.18).
Crest
ALL
hinge
Trough
Figure 8.18 : Crest and T r o u g h Points ofan Indmed Fold
An 'anticline' is a fold in which limbs are opposite inclined and are convex in the direction of the youngest bed (Figure 8.19 (a)). Limbs dip away from each other. A 'syncline' is a fold in which limbs are together inclined and are convex in the direction of the oldest bed (Figure 8.19 (b)). Limbs dip towards each other.
Structural Geology
Oldest beds
( a Anticline
Figure 8 . 1 9
( b 1 Syncline
b)
, ,'
c)
The inter limb angle is measured by drawing tangents to the fold curves at the inflexion point. Five types are recognised (Figure 8.20 (b)). 1) Gentle fold : Inter limb angle, > 120' , 2) Open fold : Inter limb angle, 70' - 120' 3) Closed fold : Inter limb angle, 30' - 70' 4) Tight fold : Inter limb angle, 10' - 30' 5 ) Isoclinal fold :Inter limb angle, < 10' Classification Based on Folds Seen in Profile 'Profile' is the shape of a fold seen in a plane, perpendicular to fold axis. Two major types are recognised (Figure 8.20 (c)).
;
1)
Parallel folds : Form of a parallel fold, when seen in profile, is circular or elliptical and thiclcriess of the layer measured perpendicular to fold tangents
2)
remain constant. The fold is also called as concentric fold. Strictly speaking, concentric folds are those where adjacent fold surfaces are arcs of a circle with a common centre. Similar folds: In this type, thickness of a fold, remains uniform when measured parallel to axial plane. In other words, in similar folds, hinge zone is thickened and limbs are thinned.
/
1 ~ymmet ri c a l
2 . Asymmetrical
3. Overturned
4 . Recumbent
( a I Attitude of a x i a l plane
, axial trace
Parallel
Similar profile
Genetic Classification Two major types are recognised depending upon the manner in which folding takes place. 1) Flexure Folds The process of development of a flexure fold is similar to bending a sheet due to compressive forces acting parallel to the layers. Thus, convex side is subjected to tension, whereas the concave side is subjected to compression (Figure 8.21). In bemeen, there is a surface of no strain (neutral surface). Here, most important process is sliding of beds past one another (Figure 8.21).
~eu ra tI surface
(a) Outer Surface is Subjectedb Tension (b) outer Sutface is Thinned and Inner Surface is n i c k e d While Inner Surface is Subjectedb Cornprrssloa Separated by a Surface of DO Strnlo Figure U21: Mwhpnism dFloxllre Folding
2)
Shear-slip folds
Structural Geology
The folds result from minute displacement along closely spaced fractures, i.e., each fractures is a tiny fault (Figure 8.22 (a)). Movement along these fractures gives rise to a shear-slip fold (Figure 8.22 (b), (c) & (d)).
Close spaced fracture
beds
[ a l
(. b
(c)
Id)
Figure 8.23 :Schematic Section of an Erosional Valley Along Antlclinnl Fold Axis
Synclines are most important in engineering slruclures because of their capacity to convey and accumulate fluids. If such a sile is selected for tunnel, then it will be water bearing (Figure 8.24).
syncl ine
[c)
(a)
Materials&the
~ar&
Furthermore, fracturing is very severe at the hinge zone. In case of an anticlinal fold, fractures will converge inside the tunnel and wedge shape blocks will be developed in the tunnel: while in case of a syncline, fracture will diverge inside the tunnel and thus, problems llke roof
Figure 8.15: Schematic Diagram Showing Fnvournblc Anticlinal Site for Accumulation of Natural 8 4 and Ges
Anticlinal structures are considered as most favourable from the point of view of accumulation of oil and gas (Figure 8.25). Oil and gas from source rocks migrate and accumulate in such anticlinal traps.
How will you tlislira~?uisla an ;mticliax 1 P . n n ma sylic.linc ' !
a)
8.5
FAULTS
A fault Is a rupture or fracture whose two surfaces are displaced against each other along a direction parallel to the plane of the fault. Normally, faults are characteristic of upper structural level and may develop on a scale that varies from a few centimeters L o thousands of kilometers. San Andreas fault system is a good example. Fault Zone and Shear Zone A fault zone is a tabular zone of uncertain width that contains many parallel or complexly intersecting faults (Figure 8.26 (b)). A shear zone is a general term for a relatively narrow zone of large Shear strain bounded on both sides by relatively undeformed rocks (Figure 8.26 (c)). Description of a fault zone or a shear zone should include following information.
a) b)
C)
The attitude (sLrike and dip) of beds. Width of the zone. Whether deformation structures are brittle or ductile within the zone. Nature of change from underformed to deformed rock and relative movement across the zone.
d)
[a
1 Fault plane
( b l Fault zone
( c l Shear zone
Figure 8.26 : Conceptual Diagram Showing Presence of a a) Fault plan< b) Fault Z w e , and c) Shear Zone
and vertical plane that strikes parallel to Ule fault plane. In case of non-vertical faults, the block or wall below the fault is known as footwall and the block or wall above the fault is the hanging wall. The term slip is used to indicate relative movement. Displacement parallel or along the strike of the fault is called 'strike slip'. In this, dip slip component is zero. When the displacement is along dip direction of the fault, it is called 'dip slip' and here strike slip component is zero. If movement is oblique, Ulen the fault possesss both strike and dip slip components (Figure 8.27 (b)) and net slip, i.e, actual displacement is mentioned,
Down thrown sido
(a)
Figure 8.27 : Nomcndnture of n Fault
In case of inclined faults, the dip slip nlovement may further be resolved into a hoi-izontal component and a vertical component called as Heave and Throw respectively (Figure 8.28 a).
Figurc 8.28 : Throw (T) and IIenve (H) of an Indiucd Fault: ds : Dip Slip
( a ) Before faulting
( b ) A f t e r faulting
M o v a c n i dong Fault
Materials o~ t h e Earih
b)
Rotational : In case of rotational movements, the straight Iines on the opposite walls of the fault do not remain parallel to each other after displacement (Figure 8.30).
Fault plane Rotation
l a ) Before faulting
Ib 1 After f a u l t i n g
Fault movements are difficult to recognise in field a~ it is seldom possible to match exact points on both sides of the fault.
8.5.3 Classification of Faults Similar to folds, faults can also be classified both geonlelrically, i.e., by describing fault wit11 the help of certain geometric paranleters and genetically, i.e.: by considering the orientation of
stresses that caused faulting. a) Geometrical Classification
In this classification, tlle attitude of the fault is conipared with the attitude ofthe beds. Three major types are recognised.
1)
Strike fault : 1 1 1this type. strike of the fault is parallel to the strike of the beds. The dip of tl~e fault n~ny vary from the clip of the beds (Figure 8.31 (a)). A bedding fault is a kind of strike fault. where tlle fault is essentially parallel to tile attitude of beds (Figure 8.31 (h)). F a u l t plane Fault lane
2)
Dip fault : The strike of the fault is oriented nnrn~al to tlle strike of the beds uid lies parallel to dip direc~ion of beds (Figure 8.32 (a) (b)).
Fault plane
Fault plane
-
3)
Oblique fault : ,h case of an oblique fault. orientation of the fault plane is oblique to the attitude of beds (Figure 8.33).
struct~ral Geology
Fault plane
b)
Genetic Classification
In this classification, the sense of relative displacement along fault and orientation of the fault with respect to the principal stress axes and axes of juxtaposed beds across h e fault, are important factors. Three major lypes are recognised.
1)
Normal or Gravity Fault : A Nomul fault is one. where hanging wall moves down in relation of foot wall (Figure 8.34 (a)). Herr 0,. the nmin~um principal stress axis, is vertical and relates lo gravitational load. Thus, the fault is also called gravity fault (Figure 8.34 (b)).The conjugate system of normal faults intersects parallel to 0 2 and normally, dips more than 45"(Figwe 8.34 (c)).
Figure 8 . 3 4 : N o m d or G m v i t ~ Fault
2)
Thrust or Reverse Fault : In case of reverse fault hanging wall moves up against footwall (Figure 8.35). Here ol is horizontal and 03 is vertical (Figure 8.35 (b)). As the least stress is vertical, thrusts normally form at upper structural level where
the lithostatic pressure is less. Thrust faults are usually low angle and extends several tens of kilonleters at times.
(a)
Figure &.G : Thmsl or Reverne Faun
Plan view
3)
Strike Slip Fault : Displacement is seen along the strike of the fault (Figure 8.36 (a)). It may be dextral or sinistral. A strike fault has a sinistral movement only if the opposite block moves to the left (i.e., left-lateral) (Figure 8.36 (d)). The movement is dextral if the opposite block moves to the right (i.e. tight- lateral) as observed by the viewer standing on one side of the fault (Figure 8.36 (e)). Here, both aland a s are horizontal and a2,i.e., intermediate stcess is vertical or near vertical (Figure 8.36 (b) and (c)).
( a I Horst
b)
(b
Figure 8.37 : Howt m d Grnbcn
1 Graben
Step Fault : When the area is affected by a series of normal faults so that the slip is always seen on one direction, lhe resultant structure creates a typical step-like appearance. Such faults are called step faults (Figure 8.38).
Faults may easily be recognised in stratified, i.e. layered rocks, by actual slip or displacement of beds. However, in most cases presence of a fault is interpreted on the basis of certain field evidences.
Struclud Geology
Profile
fault fault f
01 0
.c ul
CT
L o w e r structura level ( L S L )
Mgun, 8.39 :Conceptunl Diagram Sl~owillg Bel~mviour of Rocks in n Iihult Zone nt Sorfnce tu~d Bclow Surfnce nt Difl'cre~~l Struchual Levels
Some of the features in rocks b a t help in recognition of faults and shew zones are given below : Fault scarp : Presencc oT a long slraighl edge topographic scarp in an olhenvise 1) uniform terrain would indicate presence of a fault. Slickensides : These are striated polishcd surfaces wih fine grooves caused by 2) polishing aclion or due lo the friction along thc opposite walls of a hult during aclual displacement. Gouge and fault breccia : Many faults are recognised by the presence of pulverised 3) rock similar to clay. This zone is softer Ulan adjacent rocks and produces elongated lopographic depressions. Fault breccia is a non cohesive fragmented rock of varying size characterislic of surface or shallow depth (Figure 8.39). Cataclasites : Cataclasites arc cohesive fraginented rocks, wherc fine grained matrix 4) predominates over visible fragments. These arc lypical of upper structural level 'uld tbus show effects of briltlc deformation (Figure 8.39). Mineralisation : The irregular spaces left between Ule crushed and fragmented rocb in 5) a faull zone are often filled with secoi~dary silica or calcite. Occasionally, economically import,mt mincrals and ores are found in such fault zones, Mylonites : At great depth or lower structural level, rocks undergo ductile deformation, 6) forming mylonites. Thcse are fine grained recrystallized rocks with a distinct change in fabric compared to adjacent rocks. Often, due to partial melting, a glassy rock (pseudotachylile) is formcd (Figure 8.39). Depending upon the type o T raulting and lhe nalure of rock beds, that are affecled, 7) repetition or omission of be& on the dowiithrown side.
/ T I
fault
( b ) Active f a u l t represented
( a ) Inactive f a u l t
2)
Recent deposits, unconsolidated alluvium, soil, etc., are useful in recognition of recent crustal movements because of their young age and widespread occurrence. If a fault has displaced these recent deposits, it clearly indicates that the shift is younger than the host material. Passive fault, on the other hand, may be covered by the younger undisturbed deposits. Thus, uninterrupted alluvium beds may be considered as free from recent crustal fault movenlents. Often physiographiccriteria may be used to ascertain whether a fault is active or inactive, such as
a)
b)
escarpments in alluvium or recent sediments. These are not to be confused with the fault scarps which may be a direct evidence of active faults (Figure 8.40), and straight stream channels or stream offsets. It may be remembered that such evidences are indirect have to be necessarily supported by unambiguous evidences
It is often observed that a particular prominent fracture or rupture zone in different stratigraphic horizons, may be represented by a fault, silica veins, a fracture zone, cataclasites, mylonites etc. at different levels. Some splays of brittle fracture or a fracture zone may be reactivated due to recurrence along older fault zonelplane, which may be explained by considering Figure 8.41.
The idealised stress-displacementrelationships for initial brittle failure followed by subsequent shear sliding on a faultfiacture plane is shown in Figure 8.41 (b). Initial failure occurs at the critical or peak stress (3,) that the rock can sustain. This is followed by a sharp decrease in the ability of the rock to sustain the differential stress. However, if a confining pressure exists such that here is a positive stress acting normal to the fracture plane, the rock mass is capable of sustaining the differential stress, the magnitude of which is decided by the frictional resistance to sliding pn the fault/fracture plane. mils differentialstress (SJ, is called as residual stress.
70
With an increase in differential stress lo a level SF; (Figure 8.41 (b)), subsequent displacement takes place in a successic~n of jerks (1,2,3, elc. Figure 8.41 (b)) at whlch an increment of slip takes placc and the diflerential stress again falls to S i . In natural condition increments of fault movement may be separated by Lens, hl~ndred or thousands of years. In the passive periods (i.e. between 1 and 2, Figure 8.41 (b)), the faultlfracture plane may develop a smdl dcgree of o percolating iluids. This change in slrcss from S, to S i brought out by cohesion duc L re-shear (recurrence or reactivation) causillg seismic activity. Magnitudes and periodicity of subsequent earthquakes arc however, unpredictable. ~tmust be reincnlbered Ulat faults are initiated only once and may reactivate many times at different stratigraphic levels.
Structural Gcology
Surface ~ x p r ~ s s i o n
P--i
Fracture zone
I zone
Shear
(LSLI
( a ) Recurrence of a faulting
Displacement ( d I
( b I Earthquake recurrence
Figure 8.41 : Rcshenr; n) Concoptunl Block D i n g m Showing Rcslrenr nt Different Structural and Stmtigmphic Lcvds in the Fonn of n Shear Zonc (LSL) Fault Znoe (USL) and n Fracture ZOIIC (Sudncc), b) Sttws-strnin Diagram for. Reshear, S,, : Criticnl or Pcnk Stress, Sr : Residual Strcss, SR' :Stress Rcquircd for Rcshenr. It ia Lcss UlmSII
Footwal l
Figure 8.42 : Effects of n Strike Fault on inclined Beds. Note that Downtlimwn Direction i s Opposite to Dip Direction of Beds. Beds are Repented, a) Before Erosion, b) After Erosion
Hanging wall
Figure 8.43: Effects of astrike Fault on Lnelioed Beds. Downthrown Direction m d Dip Direction of Beds is Same. Beds are Onlittcd due to Removal of Uppcr Portion of Hanging Wall; a) Before Erosion, b) Alter Erosiol~
Figures 8.44 and 8.45 illustrate the presence of dip faults. In Fiy r e 8.44 (a), the net slip is equal to dip slip. Figure 8.44 (b) shows a relation after the left hand block has been eroded upto the level of right hand block. Here, apparent moverhent is indicative of displacement parallel to the strike of the fault.
Hanging wall
Rgure 8.44 : Effects of aDip Wuli on Inclined Beds. Note that Apparenl Movement is Along the Strike of Ulc Fault due to Removal oEUppcr Portion of Footwall a) Before Erosion, b) After Erosion
In Figure 8.45 (a), the net slip is equal to strike slip; and the relative movement is indicative of displacement along the strike of the fault. Figure 8.45 (b) displays a relation after erosion. Here, the apparent movement on the front view of the block gives false idea of reverse faulting.
Stn~etud Geology
Figure 8.45 : Effects of n Dip Wult on Inclined Bcds. Displacement is I'romincntly Along the Strike Direction of a Fault. Note lltnt Apparent Movenlent Indicates Preseuce of n Revcrsc Bnult n) Before Erosion, b) After Erosion
saQ3
;I)
h)
;)
d)
c)
Dci'ine strike and dip faults. What is nlloant by nomul and rcvcrse fault ? Draw a diagam showing horst and graben.
8.6 JOINTS
Joints are discontinuities or ruplures along which a negligible or no visible movement is observed. n e s e may be formed due to normal or shear stresses acling on a rockmass, The cause of the stress may be in the form of contraction during cooling of rocks, compression, unusual uplift, subsidence, earth tremors, etc. Joint occurs at the outcrop scale in all rocks and thus, constitutes the most abundant structure in the earth's crust.
Materials of Ule E
A joint set is a group of uniformly oriented joints of common origin. Joint sets inlersecl lo form a joint system. Normally, the geometry of a joint system, i.e, the size, spacing and orientation of joints, vary across contacts between rocks of different lithology. Attitude of joints is measured by their strike and dip. The strike is the direction of horizontal line on the surface of the joints and dip is the inclination of the joint plane. Joints may be classified geometrically or genetically.
a)
b)
C)
Strike joints are those tllat strike parallel to the bedding plane. Inclinatioll of the strike joints may differ from the dip of the bedding plane. Bedding joints, in Ule true sense, are parallel to bedding plane. Dip joints arc those that strike normal to the strike of the bedding plane. In other words, dip joints are oriented in the dip direction of the bedding plane.
Ngum 8.46 : Geometrical ClassificationolJoints.SJ :Strike Joint, BJ : Bedding Joiut, DL : Dip Joint, OJ : Oblique or Dingonal Joint, B : Bed
b)
Plan v i e w
, ,
Shrinkage direction
Structural Geology
FTgure 8.47 : Wonnation of Cooling Joints, Polygonal i n Shnpei n n Cwliog lgncous Rock
c)
When igneous dykes are intruded in the rocks, both the walls of the dyke remain relatively cooler compared to internal hot zone of the dyke mass. Coolil~g joints thus initiate normal to these walls, forming a set of horizontal joints in addition to the normal vertical sets of joints. As a result brick like blocks, that can be easily excavated, develop in a dyke. Such dyke material is used as road metal in many places. Tectonic Joints : Tectonic joints are those fraclures which owe their origin L o some kind of tectonic activity taking place in the eruth's crust.
Flexure Folds are sften accompanied by fractures. An analysis of the pattern of these fractures, i.e. their orientation, frequency, spacing etc., may give some clue to the forces that gave rise to folding.
Extension Joints normally develop in the direction of maximum compressional slress and are seen perpendicular to the fold axes (Figure 8.48).
Joints that form parallel to the axial plane of the folds are known as longitudinal joints (Figure 8.48). These are tension fractures or release joints similar to those formed in the direction of maximum strain. Cross joints or oblique joints are those that develop oblique to fold axis. These normally form conjugate arrays and thus, called shear joints (Figure 8.48).
RJ
EJ : Extewioo Joints, RJ : Releme Joints, SJ : Shear JointsRgurc! 8.48 : Tectonic Joints(called FrPdures)Associated with edding
d)
e)
Superfacial Movements : In many cases, joints are created due lo superfacial movements, e.g., glacier crevasses in thick soil/weatl~ered rocks. Distinction between Fractures and Joints : A fracture is defined as a discontinuity of tectonic origin with in the upper and middle structural level (refer section 8.2.6), while a joint is adiscontinuity of mechanical origin (includes Section 8.2.6 a, b and d) typical
of surface or upper structural level. In Figure 8.49, A, B, C, D, E, Fare a sequence of beds lava flows. All beds are affected by fracturing and the fracture is traceable for an elevation of 400 m. On the other hand, bed A shows presence of vertical contraction joints, while beds B and D exhibit sheet joints. In other words, nature of jointing may vary from bed to bed.
Fracture J
Distinction between fractures and joints can be made in horizontal undisturbed beds and lava flows, when these are seen invertical sections. However, such distinction is very difficult in disrupted or folded beds. It is seen from Figure 8.49 that if more than one bedllava flow is affected by similar kind of brittle deformation then the failure is called as a fracture. Jointing, on the other hand, is restricted to a particular bedflava flow, e.g. in Figure 8.49, the lowermost bedllava flow shows development of columnar joints (untraction joints) while sheet jointing is typical of upper bed/flow. In other words, the lower bedAava flow is indicative of presence of cooli~lg joints and the upper bedAava flow shows presence of erosional unloading joints.
"
Joint orientation and dip are, often, quite variable. It is seen that major or master joints extend over considerable distance. This weakplane causes rapid erosion. Landforms, those develop along them, normally show negative relief.
Table 8.1: Classification for Joint Orientation (after, Selby, 1980)
I
Structural Geology
Nature of Joints
Tensile (Waviness) Shear (Smooth)
Very favourable
Joints dip > 30" into the slope Joints dip from horizontal to 30" into the slope Horizontal to 10' di , Nearly vertical (80-800) in hard rocks Joints dip out of surface, master joints 10-30, Random joints 10-70' Joints dip out of surface Master joints 30-80' Random ioints > 70"'
Joints are weakly developed Joints are not interlocked Horizontal to 10" out of slope Joints dip out of surface. Master joints 10-20' Random joints 10-30" Joints dip out of surface. Master joints 20, Random iou~ts > 30'
%?vowable
Joint spacing : Joint spacing is the perpendicular distance between two adjacent joints (Figure8.50) and can be measured directly with the help of a tape (Table 8.2)
Table 8.2 : Suggested Classification for Joint Spacing (after, USAG, 1977)
I Extremely Wide
1 very narrow
1 Description
I Spacing
1>2m
I
I I I
1 20 cm to 60 cm
16cmto20cm
( 6mm to6cm
)<6mm
It is seen that when joint spacing is narrow, the rock is broken into small pieces. Joint spacing may also be expressed in terms of area intensity index in which the area of joint surface per unit volume of rock and the average size of the unbroken block are
'Plumose structure
,
Trace of main
joint face
(b) Schematic Diagnm Showing Ideal Structures Along a Joint Face Figure 8.50
Joint surface morphology : Qualitatively joint surfaces may be designated as smooth, rough or wave. Rough and wavy surfaces provide greater strength to the rock. This is thus, an indication of resistance offered by the rock during applied load. Some joint faces are characterised by plumose markings (Figure 8.50 (b)), a structure distinguished by featherlike surface patterns. They are commonly seen on joint surfaces of hard rocks. Plumose markings are physically composed of a series of tiny ridges and troughs, a microtopographic relief on the main joint face. The presence of plumose markings indicates a brittle deformation achieved by a rapid, near instantaneous, snapping apart of the rock in an explosive way. Thus, this feature, if encountered, should he given due importance in rock mass characterisation. Joint aperture and infill material : Aperture is the perpendicular distance between both walls of a joint (Figure 8.50 (a)). It is an important parameter that decides the movement of water inside thefrockand thus, governs secondary permeability values. Aperture is described by terms given in Table 8.3. Table 8.3 : Description of Aperture Aperture >lm 1 -1Ocm > 1 cm
C
d)
Description
1 10-100 cm
2.5 mm - 1 0 rnm :,i0.5mm-2.5mm 0.25 rnm - 0.5 mm
; ,
1 Extremely wide
Very wide Wide Moderately wide 'Open Partially open Tight Very Tight
Cavernous
1 Open ~oints 1
Gapped Joints Closed Joints
d*
.- -
Often, fractures may be filled by calcite, silica, fault gouge, silt, etc. that may enhance . ' impermeable nature of rock and may also increase strength, i.e., presence of clay can decrease joint stiffness and also shear strength. When filled fractures are encountered following points are noted down. 1) 2) Mineralogy of filled material Particle size.
3) 4) 5) 6)
e)
Joint persistence : Persistellce is the lrace length of a fracture observed in an exposure or aerial photograph (Figure 8.50 (a)). In this, it is necessary to trace the kind of termination of the fracture which may be beyond the exposure (x), with is an exposure (r), or against other discontinuity (d ). This helps in differentiating the master (systematic)and minor (non-systematic) fractures.
where T, = Termination Index, N = Number of fractures Cr = Fractures ending in rockmass compared to total number of fractures (x
f)
+ r + d)
Weathering Index : Rocks are frequently weathered and altered by hydroll~ermal processes. However, the degree of weathering is not uniform in the exposures. Thus, fist describe the illtensity of weathering of the rockmass as a whole (that is, intensely wealhered, moderately weathered, fresh surface, etc.), followed by the description of the rock blocks consisting of walls of individual fractures. Surface roughness: 'Roughness' of rracture walls can be explained by 'waviness' and
g)
'unevenness'. Wavincss is influencia1 in deciding the initial direction of shear displacement relative to the mean fracture plane while unevclmess changes the shear strength. Waviness can also be explained by wavele~lgth and amplitude. The surface roughness of fracture walls is described by terms like polished, slickensided, smoolh, rough, defined ridges, small steps and rough face. geo~nelric parameters may be measured accurately in Ule field The abovemei~tioned and be recorded carefully in the fracture survey data sheet (Table 8.4). 'Ihe collected material and also facts are very important in predicting bebaviour of the foundation ' crucial in deciding stability of man made structures.
Table 8.4 :Fracture Survey Data Sheet Location : Day/Date/Time: Sheet No.
Size of an outcrop :
No. Strike Direction
Roughness
Penne- Remarks ability (Weathering index, block size, number of joint sets, etc.)
W = Wavelength
A = AmpliNde
1)
2)
3)
4)
High fracture density creates more surface area for weathering that reduces mechanical strength of rocks. Rocks often show variable weathering index even in an area of a few square meters. In such cases, it is necessary to measure attitude and persistence of indigidualfracturesand assess qualitatively-weathering index of rocks along with other parameters. Presence of high intersecting index of fractures may increase permeability that could alter mechanical and hydrogeological properties of rocks. In this condition, it is necessary to find hydrogeological properties of rocks and role played by intersecting fractures in modifying these properties should be established. Presence of substantial amount of water in fractures may reduce the normal stress and could alter ,therate of erosion. It is seen that rock mass is capable to sustain the differential stress, called as residual Figure 8.41 (b)). However, high stresses could altei'the rock structure stress (SR, (section 8.5.8). Therefore, it is always desirable to find out seismic history of the area of investigation.
Table 8.5 : The Effect of Fractures in Tunneling
Drive along dip Gentle dip 20"- 45O Favourable Steep dip
45" 90"
Gentle dip
20 - 45"
Steep Dip
45" - 90'
Gentle dip
20" - 45O
Steep dip
45"- 4 5 O
0" - 20"
I
Very favourable
Unfavourble
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Very unfavourable
Unfavourable
80 .
Often, stability of slopes depends on the ratio of excavation dimensions and joint spacing. Commonly, fractures dipping into the slope initiate movement of water and thus, promote increase in porewater pressure in the potential slip zone. -
SAQ 4
a)
Structulal Geology
b) c.) d)
e)
P!is&J:ngois&n between R joint ulrl a fxackure. Gi~:e classifir;;etion o f 'tectonlis joirats. Craw rsna alraotcd c3iagr.m sPlowing different pxirsaneters of joi~mts/frackuresthat arc sneasuacd ip field. Wklat is joht aperture ? WlmQ is surface roughness ? .
8.7.1 Cleavage
Cleavage is a common term used for tectonic foliation which develop in rocks during deformation. It refers to close spaced, aligned, planar to curviplruiar discontinuities lhal are normally associated with folds and oriented parallel to subparallel to the 'axial surraces of folds. Cleavage consists of two fundamental structures, namely, a) Cleavage bands,defined by preferred orientation of mica rich layers, and b) Microlithons,Intervening quartz feldspar rich thicker layers. Significance of Cleavage
a) Relative orientation of cleavage and bedding is often useful to predict the general locatioil and direction of the fold closures (Figure 8.52 (a)). ?he same relationship also depicts whether the bed is overtumed or nol. The thumb rule is-if bedding and folialion dip in opposite direction, the bedding must be upright and if they dip in same direction and also if bedding is sleeper than cleavage then bedding is overturned (Figure 8.52 @)) while bedding is upright if it dips shallower than cleavage. In Figure 8.52, (a) shows geometric relation between cleavage and folding, (b) shows recognition of upright and overturned beds, (c) shows recognition of shear zone, where S is a continuous coarse foliation charackrised by preferred orientation of micas and elongated quartz and C is a set of shear fractures that develop parallel or at an angle to the shear zone walls, and (d) and (e) shows relation between foliation and dam axis. In the most favourable condition dam axis is parallel to foliation as shown in (d) m d in (e) seepage of water from reservoir is most likely the cause.
a x ia 1 trace cleavages
1
foliation planes
(d
seepage
7 I
1 Favourablu condition
b) Cleavage is useful to recognise ductile shear zones (Figure 8.52 (c)). In this, two foliations are recognised, i.e. S-C fabric. The S - foliation is a continuous coarse foliation characterised by prefetred orientation of micas and elongated quartz. The C foliatiori is a set of shear bands that develop subparallel to the shear zone walls. Normally the S - foliations are oblique to C - foliation. c) Relation between foliation and dam : If foliation is parallel to the dam axis, the condition is acceptable. However, if it is across, there is a fear of seepage along foliation and such a dam alignment is regarded as unfavourable.
8.7.2 Lineation
Lineation is a set of penetrative linear structuresproduced in a rock as a result of deformation. Many types of lineations are icnown to occur, for example, intersection of colour banding on a cleavage surface produces a typical stripping lineation. Following are the major types of lineation a) crenulation Lineation, .* b) directional orientation of elongated mineral grains, c) intersection lineation,, d) mineral lineation produced due to platy, acciculat or fibrous minerals, and e) slickensides, striation;
82
Structural CeologY
( a ) Stripping lineation
Ib ), Crenulation
( c ) Intersection
lineation
IL
(e)
~lon~ated[strotchin~ lineation
( f ) Striation lineation
J
The study of lineations helps to explain the structural geometry of the area as they generally develop parallel to fold axes.
SAQ 5
a)
b)
What arc tPlc milji~a' typcs trf foliation ? Idow clt:;iv;lgc is useful in rrcognitio~1 of upright and overEurrbetl tiia~b of :I fold '?
What is lincalion ?
c)
1)
83
Following detailed information is required for site selection of dams and reservoirs : 1) Rock : Composition, thickness, texture, vertical and lateral variation, weathering index. 2) Structure : Folds, faults and joints. surface run-off, 3) Hydrogeology : Aquifer characteristics, porosity, pem~eability, elc. 4) Seismicity : Hjstory of earthquakes in the area for a couple of hundreds of years. Figure 8.54 shows the relation between foundation rock characteristics and dam. Analysis of above factors particularly fractures is important in deciding many design details.
b)
C)
d)
Three basic mechanisms for failurc are recognised, viz, slide, flow and fall. The potential for failure in these modes can be identified using the principles mentioned in this unit. Thus, the need and scope for further detailed quantitative analysis can then be assessed (Figures 8.23,8.50 and 8.51). Foundations Rocks are believed to be excellent foundation materials, but near surface, rocks, in general, are deformed as evident from presence of fractures, joints, faults and folds. It is always desirable to establish the relationship between strength of the rock and proposed load (Figures 8.23,8.39,8.40, 8.41 and 8.52). Regional Structures Regional structures or the macroscopic structures. extended over kilometres, are often influential in creating the expression of the earth's surface, e.g. presence of a linear valley, large streams, etc. It is seen #at drainage pattem of streams is oflen (Figure 8.55) controlled by fractures and folds. In places, where the rocks are cut by parallel zones of faulting or steeply inclined systems of joints, the streams normally follow the easily eroded fracture zones and the tributaries are controlled by minor fractures (Figure 8.55, (a) and (b)). The typical pattern developed here, is known as trellis type river system. Similarly, presence of a dome or basin may be interpreted from the presence of radial drainage pattern (Figure 8.55 (c)). Radial pattern may also be
e)
84
recorded around the plunging axes of anticlines ar~d synclines. Figure 8.55 (d) indicates a large anticline plunging to the left. Here, the lithology is in the'form of alternate hard and sofl rocks.
Structural Geology
( b ) Trellis
( c ) Radiating
( d l Annular
Strucluralgeology is the study of geometrical configuration of planes, lines in rocks and deformed surfaces. Three major structures are recognised, viz, fractures, folds and foliations. It is seen that these structcres normally develop at different structural levels under varied conditions like elevated temperature, pore-fluid pressure, confilling pressure, etc. During deformation, very onen the original characters of the rock ace obliterated. This is called metamorpl~ism. Based on relative movement of becls along planer surfaces, fractures are classified into faults and joints. Study of these weak surfaces is oflen decisive as these are manifestations of major subsurfacestructures and defor~ned terrains. These may be influencial in shaping tile surface of the earth. Occasionally they provide a clue to causative faults in seismically active regions. Folds are undulations produced in stralified rocks that are traceable for a distance of a few centimetres lo a few lens of kilometers. These are normally seen in incompetent beds and me typical of lowcr structural level. It is seen that mechanical and hydrogeological properties ace altered due to development of folds and associated syngenelic lectonic joints. As a result, the deformed rock mass gets divided into blocks of uneven shapes and sizes and thus, introduce the concept of a domain (an isotropic body o f smallest dimension),
. ..
Deformation
Dip
:
:
:
Anticline is a fold with a corc ~Ssualigraphically older rocks, a synclinc is a fold with a core of stratigraphically younger rocks. Deformation is the proccss that changes size or shape of a rockmass. The dip of a bed is the angle between the bedding and horizontal plane mcasurcd in a vertical plane.
An isotropic rock body of smidlesl dimension. A fractured surPacc or zone in rock along which appreciable displacement has taken place. Fold : A curvature in a geological surface. : Closely spaced penetrative plana anisolropy, both primary Foliation and secondxty, in rocks. : Fracture is a discontinuily/hrc& along which cohesion of Fracture the nlaterial is lost. Horst and Graben : Horst is a raised block bounded by two parallel faults, in which, length parallel to strike, is greater than the width. Graben is a zone of subsidence betwcen two parallel faults in which, the length parallel to strike, is Inore U'lan thc widlh. Lineation : Subparallel to parallel alignmcnl of elongate, linear elements in a rock body that arc penetrative at tlic outcrop scale and/or handspccimen scale of observation. Pure shear : Irrotational strain. Shear zone : A relatively narrow zone of large shear strain bounded 011 i both sides by relatively mldefor~ned rc~ck. Simple shear : Uniform volume rotational strain. : Nonrigid body movement involving dilation and/or Strain distortion. Strike : ' h e strike of a bed is the direction o l a line formed by the intersection of bedding and horiz,onlal plane. Wavelength and Amplitude : Wavelength of a fold is the distance between two succcssivehinges and amplitude is a distance bclween hinge and inflexion point when thc folded surface is seen in profile.
Domain Fault
:
8.11 FURTHER READINGS I ) Billing, M.P., 1994, Strucrural Geology, Prenticc-Hall, New Delhi, 4th edition, 2) Jaeger, J.C., and Cook, N.C., 1969, Alnflomentals of Rock Mechanics, London, Metheun.
c)
86
d)
Deformation is the process that changes size or shape of a rock mass. i) Refer sub-section 8.2.2. Pure shear is irrotational deformation and simple shear is a uniform volume ii) rotational homogeneous deformation (Figure 8.5). iii) An isotropic body has uniform mechanical properties in all directions. An anisotropic body has different mechanical properties in differenl directions. Refer sub-section 8.2.5. Attitude of &ds is described by their strike and dip.
,
el
True dip is the inclination of a bed that is measured nornu1 to strike direction or along tlie direction o S maxilnunl inclination. Apparent dip is the inclination measuretl ill a vertical plime that makes an ruigle to truc dip direclion.
Anlicline is a fold in which liribs diverge downwards and older rocks occupy core or the concave side of the fold. Syncline is a fold which is concave upwar-ds with younger rocks in the core. Ilel'er sub-section 8.4.1 and lygure 8.17.
SAQ 2
4
b)
of the fold 'axis rncasured with respect to a reference c) Plunge is an inclinalio~l horizo~ital plane (refer Figure 8.16 (d)).
SAQ 3
a)
b) c)
dl
e) SAQ 4
a) b) c) d)
.4 fault zone is a tabulu zone of uncertain width that contains many parallel or coinplcxly ultcrsecting nlinor faults. A shear zone is a narrow zone of large shear strain bounrled 011 both sides hy relalively undeformed rocks (refer Figure 8.26 (b) and (c) respcclivcly). Rcfer sub-seclir?n 8.5.1 iuid Figuru 8.27. Refer sub-section 8.5.3 and Figure 8.31 for strike fault, and sub-section 8.5.3 and Figure 8.32 for dip Tault. Refer suh-sectictn 8.5.3 r~ild Figure 8.34 for norinal fault, and sub-seclion 8.5.3 and F'igure 8.35 lor reversc hull. Refer Figurc b.37
e)
SAQ 5
Refer sub-section 8.6.2 anti F~gure 8.49. Refer sub-scclion 8.6.2 and Figure 8.48. Rcler Figure 8.50 (a). Aperture is Ule perpliclicular distance between both walls of a joint. Refer sub-scclion 8.6.3. Three types of fr~liatians art: recognisd, (a) cleavage, (h) schistosity, and (c) gnciss(')schilndillg. Refer sub-section 8.7.2 anti Figute 8.52 (b). Linealion is a set of penetrative liliciu structures produced in a rock as a result of deformalion. The study of lineations helps to explain the structural geometry of the area as these arc colnnlonly seen parallel to fold axes.
a)
b)
c)
d)