Berger GR 2006

General Relativity
Lecture Notes C348
c Mitchell A Berger Mathematics University College London 2006
Contents
1 Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients 1.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Product Manifolds . . . . . . . . 1.2 Co-ordinate Transformations . . . . . . 1.3 Things that Live on Manifolds . . . . . 1.3.1 Scalar elds . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Parametrized Surfaces . . . . . . 1.3.4 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.5 Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Transformation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Duality between Vectors and Gradients 1.5.1 The directional derivative . . . . 1.5.2 Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Geometric Interpretation . . . . 1 1 4 5 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 10 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 18 20 21 21 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29
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2 Tensors and Metrics 2.1 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Getting the transformation correct . . . . . . 2.3 Things to do with tensors . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The LeviCivita Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Odd / Even Permutations . . . . . . . 2.5 3-Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Euclidean Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.1 E 3 Euclidean 3-space . . . . . . . . . 2.7.2 E 3 : Cylindrical Co-ordinates . . . . . 2.8 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors . . 2.10 Raising and Lowering Operators . . . . . . . 2.11 Signature of the Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Riemannian and Pseudo-Riemannian metrics i
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2.13 Map Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.1 Cylindrical Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.2 Mercator Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Special Relativity 3.1 Minkowski Space-time . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity . . . 3.4 Space-Time Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 The Poincar e and Lorentz Groups . . . . . 3.5.1 Group Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Lorentz Boosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Deriving the transformation matrix . 3.7 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Relativistic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.1 The 4-momentum . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.2 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.3 Energy-Momentum Conservation . . 3.9.4 Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30 30 31 34 34 35 37 37 41 42 43 43 46 47 48 48 49 50 50 52 52 52 53 54 54 55 55 56 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 62 62 63 64 64 65 65
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4 Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form 4.1 Maxwells Equations Review . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Internal Structure Equations . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Source Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Faraday Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Internal Structure Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Source Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Potential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1 Advantage Internal Structure Equations 4.7.2 Advantage Source Equations . . . . . . 4.8 Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Lorentz Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Light Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Equivalence Principle 5.1 Inertial mass . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Free Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Locally Inertial Frames 5.3 Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 The Geodesic Equation
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5.3.3
Covariant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67 69 69 71 72 74 74 75 76 77 79 79 80 81 82 85 86 87 88 89 89 90 92
6 Covariant Derivatives 6.1 Non-Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Derivatives of Other Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 The gradient of the metric in General Relativity 6.4 Covariant Directional Derivatives and Acceleration . . . 6.5 Newtons Law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Twin Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 The rapidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Orbits 7.1 Noethers Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 The Schwarzschild Metric . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Symmetries and Conserved Quantities 7.2.2 Orbits in the Equatorial Plane . . . . 7.3 Precession of Mercurys Orbit . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Newtonian Solution . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Relativistic Correction . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Deection of Starlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Newtonian Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Relativistic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Energy Conservation on Geodesics . . . . . .
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iii
Chapter 1
Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

... You must follow me carefully. I shall have to controvert one or two ideas that are almost universally accepted. The geometry, for instance, they taught you at school is founded on a misconception. Is not that rather a large thing to expect us to begin upon? said Filby ....
The Time Machine, HG Wells 1895
1.1
Manifolds
Mathematics provides a common mathematical term for curved surfaces, curved spaces, and even curved space-times the manifold. In essence, a manifold is an N-Dimensional surface. This means that each point of the manifold can be located by specifying N numbers or coordinates. More formally, Denition 1.1 Manifold A manifold M is a set of points which can locally be mapped into RN for some N = 0, 1, 2, . . . . The number N will be called the dimension of the manifold. The mapping must be one-to-one. If two mappings overlap, one must be a dierentiable function of the other. Example 1.1 Let M be a two dimensional surface. Suppose we have a point P and we wish to say where this point is. We can do this by specifying two coordinates x and y for P . In gure 1.1 P is mapped to (x, y ) = (0.5, 1.5), i.e. P is given the co-ordinates (0.5, 1.5). Note that the lines of constant x never cross each other (similarly for the lines of constant y ) if they did, then the coordinates of the crossing point would not be unique. Example 1.2 Suppose we try to map the same surface M using polar coordinates r and . Here we run into diculties: The function is not single-valued (one-to-one) at r = 0. Any coordinate pair (r, ) = (0, ) refers to the origin. The mapping is not continuous for all values of as angles only have a range of 2 . we must cut the plane, say at the = or line. Then will not be continuous across this line. 1
Figure 1.1: The manifold in example 1.1.
Figure 1.2: The plane divided into two regions. Polar coordinates work in Region I, even if they do not work in all space.
1.1 Manifolds
Figure 1.3: Spherical coordinates.
Note that polars are still well-dened in regions which avoid the origin and the cut. In the gure, polar coordinates are single valued and continuous in region I, but not in the entire plane. We remedy the situation by using a dierent co-ordinate system in region II. (For example, we could employ Cartesian coordinates in region II.) Example 1.3 M = S 1 (circle). There is one coordinate which can be chosen to go from to . The point mapped to = also maps to = . Thus we will need at least two co-ordinate patches. To summarize: we cover a manifold M with co-ordinate patches. In each patch, the coordinates form a cross-hatch. The minimum number of patches needed depends on the topology of M . In the previous example, M = S 1 needs two patches. A manifold M = R2 consisting of the entire plane needs only one (using Cartesian coordinates rather than polars). Example 1.4 The 2-sphere M = S 2 . Spherical coordinates do not cover the entire sphere in a one-to-one continuous fashion; azimuthal angle is many-valued at the poles and is discontinuous at = . On a globe of the Earth, corresponds to longitude, which is discontinuous at the international date line drawn near (180o ).
Exercise 1.1 Cover the 2-sphere S 2 with just two coordinate patches.
Example 1.5 S n (n-sphere)
S n = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn+1 ) | (X1 )2 + (X2 )2 + + (Xn+1 )2 = 1
(1.1)
e.g.
S 2 = (x, y, z ) | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 S 1 = (x, y ) | x2 + y 2 = 1 S 0 = x | x2 = 1 = 1, 1 (1.2)
Example 1.6 B n (n-ball) B n = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) | (X1 )2 + (X2 )2 + + (Xn )2 < 1 i.e B n is the solid volume inside S n1 . (1.3)
1.1.1
Product Manifolds
Example 1.7 M = T 2 (2-Torus). The 2-torus can be represented as the surface of a doughnut. Let represent angle the short way around, and angle the long way around. Both these coordinates are discontinuous at .
M =T 2
We can also represent T 2 as a rectangular box (slit and open out a torus into a rectangular shape). The edges are co-existent ( = is equivalent to = , similarly for ).
Thus we can write T 2 as the set of points T n = (, ) | , . (1.4)
1.2 Co-ordinate Transformations
Note that in the denition of T 2 , the coordinates and are completely independent. By themselves, each gives a circle S 1 . We can express this independence with the notation T 2 = S 1 S 1 . We call T 2 a product manifold, as it can be generated by considering all combinations of (the rst S 1 ) and (the second S 1 ).
1.2
Co-ordinate Transformations
Suppose we know the coordinates of points in a manifold in one coordinate system. We may need to be able to nd the same points in other coordinate systems as well, for various reasons. Somebody we work with may use another system, so there will be a communication problem unless we can translate between systems. Or perhaps the equations we wish to solve are easier in a dierent system. Also, if we know general ways of going from one system to another, we can make sure that our solutions work independently of which particular coordinate system we use. We will only deal with coordinate systems which are dierentiable functions of each other. Suppose point P has co-ordinates X = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) in one co-ordinate system, and Y = (Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ) in another. Then the co-ordinates (Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ) must be smooth (differentiable) functions of (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ). For example, Y1 = Y1 (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ). Also, the co-ordinate (Jacobian) transformation matrix is Ya , Xb where a labels the row, and b labels the column in the matrix. (1.6) (1.5)
1.3
1.3.1
Things that Live on Manifolds

Scalar elds
Denition 1.2 Scalar Fields Scalar elds are functions which assign numbers to points on the manifold. More formally, a scalar eld is a function f which maps a manifold M to the set of real numbers: f : M R. Example 1.8 M = Surface of the Earth f (P ) = Temperature at point P ( weather map) N.B. We may wish to use complex functions : M C, for example to describe quantum wave-functions.
1.3.2
Curves
The scalar elds dened above map the manifold M to the Real line R. Suppose we now do the reverse. For each real number , we will obtain a point () on M . If we string these points together, we will get a curve on M .
Figure 1.4: A curve : R M Example 1.9 Suppose M = R3 , innite three-dimensional space. Let () = (7 cos 3, 7 sin 3, ). (1.7)
This curve has the shape of a helix. The helix winds around the z axis at a radius of 7, and makes a complete turn each time increases by 2/3. Denition 1.3 Curves A curve is a mapping of the real line (or part of the real line, or a circle) into the manifold M . Formally this is written : R M for the whole real line, or : [0, 1] M (unit interval), or : S 1 M (Circle).
1.3.3
Parametrized Surfaces
Most manifolds cannot be visualized, especially if their dimension is much greater than 3. Fortunately, one and two-dimensional manifolds provide many useful visual examples. We must rst be able to imbed, or place, the manifold in ordinary 3-space R3 . A one-dimensional manifold can be drawn using a curve with one parameter as in the previous section. For two-dimensional manifolds (surfaces) imbedded in 3-space, we can specify the surface by giving two parameters. Example 1.10 Drawing a sphere. We will use spherical polar coordinates and as parameters, accepting that there will be coordinate singularities at the poles (and a discontinuity at = ). The imbedding satises S :(, ) (x, y, z ) x = x(, ) = sin cos y = y (, ) = sin sin z = z (, ) = cos (1.8)
Exercise 1.2 Consider an ellipsoid E given by the equation

9x2 + 4y 2 + z 2 = 36. (1.9)
Find a parametrization E : (, ) (x, y, z ) which satises this equation. That is, nd the functions x(, ), y (, ), and z (, ).
1.3 Things that Live on Manifolds
Exercise 1.3 Here we nd a parametrization of the Northern half of a sphere which does
not use spherical coordinates: let the two parameters be t and u, where S :(t, u) (x, y, z ) x = x(t, u) = t y = y (t, u) = u z = z (t, u) = ? Find the function z (t, u). (1.10)
1.3.4
Vectors
A vector has: A Magnitude A Direction A Base Point N.B. Forget position vectors. Position is given by co-ordinates, not by vectors. In at Euclidean space, one can draw an arrow from the origin to any point, and in some elementary books this is called a vector. We will not do this, as we may wish to study highly warped manifolds where such arrows will also need to be warped (and hence their direction and magnitude will not be well dened). Vectors in dierential geometry always have a base point, and give a direction and magnitude proceeding from that point. Start with a curve : R M (or [0,1], or S 1 M ). The curve provides a set of n coordinate functions of , i.e. () = X1 (), . . . , Xn () . (1.11)
These n functions have derivatives which show how fast they increase with . Taken together, they show the direction the curve is travelling. Denition 1.4 Tangent Vectors The tangent vector to the curve is given by dX1 /d . . V() = . . n dX /d
(1.12)
Note that the set of coordinates of a point (e.g. (X1 , . . . , Xn )) is not a vector!
1.3.5
Gradients
Gradients are formed from scalar functions. Denition 1.5 Gradients Given a function f : M R, f = f f f , ,..., 1 2 X X Xn . (1.13)
This is dierent to a tangent vector. For one thing, it is determined everywhere on M , whereas a tangent vector is only dened on a single curve. Example 1.11 Consider an ordinance survey map, giving height h as a function of position on the Earths surface h : S 2 R. The contours are lines of constant h. But note that these are not parametrized curves! (We have not been given a way to choose = 0, 1, 2, . . . etc). Thus we have no way of dening tangent vectors to the contours (at least not until we introduce metrics, in 2.6).
Exercise 1.4 Consider a torus T2 with coordinates (X1 , X2 ) = (u, v ), where < u ,
< v . Suppose there is a curve : R T2 , where () = (2, 6) (i.e. u() = 2 and v () = 6)). Find the tangent vector d V() = . d Consider the function f (u, v ) = sin(v ). Find the gradient f and the directional derivative V f .
1.4 Transformation Laws
Figure 1.5: Curve on a torus.
1.4
1.4.1
Transformation Laws
Vectors
dX1 /d . . VX = . . n dX /d
In co-ordinates X = (X1 , . . . , Xn ) (1.14)
In another co-ordinate system Y = (Y1 , . . . , Yn ) dY1 /d . . VY = . . n dY /d How do we relate VX and VY ? By the chain rule dY1 = d VY =
N a=1
(1.15)
Y1 dXa Xa d .
(1.16)
N Y 1 dXa a=1 Xa d
. . .
(1.17)
N Y N dX a a=1 Xa d
10 1.4.2 Gradients
Chain rule again. This time, we let c be the dummy index which is summed from c = 1 to c = N (we can use any letter, of course). f = Y1 and so, the transformation is
N N c=1
f Xc Xc Y1
(1.18)
Y f =
c=1
f Xc ,..., Xc Y1
N c=1
f Xc Xc YN
(1.19)
1.4.3
Notation
A) Einsteins Summation Convention The placement of indices is important in geometry and relativity. The vectors we have looked at (like V 1 ) have been given indices on top, i.e. superscripts. Meanwhile, the gradients (like 1 f ) have indices lower down, i.e. subscripts. This makes it easier to distinguish between them. It also allows us to dene consistent rules for calculating inner products. But rst we will simplify the notation. In numerous expressions in geometry and relativity (and particle theory as well) there are places where the index a is repeated twice and summed over. If we do not bother to write down the summation sign, then the expressions will be less cluttered. Denition 1.6 Einstein Summation Given two objects, one indexed with superscripts A = (A1 , . . . , AN ), and one with subscripts B = (B1 , . . . , BN ), we dene
N
Bc Ac
c=1
Bc Ac
(1.20)
In a derivative like
f Xc
the index c will be considered a subscript.
Example 1.12 In the previous section, equation (1.19) becomes Y f = f Xc f Xc , . . . , Xc Y1 Xc YN . (1.21)
B) Co-ordinate system labels We will label Co-ordinate systems by either primed symbols (X ) and unprimed symbols (X), or by capital letters; for example Earth F rame Spaceship F rame Lab F rame C) Dierentials f = a f Xa , f a = a f X , f = E a f. Ea (1.23) E = S = L = E1 , . . . , EN S1 , . . . , SN L1 , . . . , LN
(1.22)
11
D) Vector Components In, for example, the lab frame L the tangent vector to the curve () = (L1 (), . . . , LN ()) is dL1 /d d . . = V= . d N dL /d
a VL =
(1.24)
(1.25)
with components
dLa . (1.26) d We sometimes refer to the whole of the vector V by referring to a typical component V a . Similarly, we may refer to f as a f . E) Transforms Vectors: For transformations between the X frame and the Y frame, equation (1.16) becomes dY1 Y1 dXa Y1 a = = V . d Xa d Xa X The formula for an arbitrary component of V is
1 = VY b = VY
(1.27)
Yb a V . Xa X
(1.28)
Gradients: an arbitrary component of f in equation (1.19) can now be expressed as Y b f = Xc X c f Yb (1.29)
For transformations between primed and unprimed co-ordinates, these expressions become
b
X V a. Xa Xc X
b
(1.30)
b f =
c f
(1.31)
Note that the transformation matrices in equations (1.28) and (1.29), i.e. Eb / Sa and Sc / Eb , are inverses. Proof: The (a, c) component of the product matrix is
N b=1
Eb Sc Sa Eb
= =
b=1 Sc
Sc Eb Eb Sa
(1.32) (1.33)
Sa
12
by the chain rule. But Sc = Sa i.e. 1 0 c=a c=a (1.34)
where ca
Sc Eb = ca Eb Sa 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 0 1 . . . . . .
(1.35)
(1.36)
is the identity matrix. QED This result is very important. Gradients and vectors have dierent (in fact, inverse) transformation laws. Thus a gradient is not a vector!
Exercise 1.5 Show that for any vector W with components W a ,

caW a = W c. (1.37)
How do two successive transformations work? Suppose we transform from co-ordinates X Y Z:

a = VZ b = VY a = VZ
Za b where V , Yb Y Yb c V , Xc X Za Y b c V . Yb Xc X
(1.38) (1.39) (1.40)
But by the chain rule Za Y b Za = Xc Yb Xc so, (as we should expect)

a VZ =
(1.41)
Za c V . Xc X
(1.42)
Now try X Y X :
a VX =
Xa Yb c V Yb Xc X c = a c VX =
a VX
(1.43) (1.44) (1.45)
good!
Example 1.13 Polar Co-ordinates. C = (C1 , C2 ) = (x, y ) P = (P , P ) = (r, )

1 2
Cartesian Polar
(1.46) (1.47)
13
where C1 = x = r cos = P1 cos P2 C = y = r sin = P sin P or, going the other way, P1 = r = P2 x2 + y 2 = (C1 )2 + (C2 )2 y C2 = = arctan = arctan 1 x C (1.50) (1.51)
2 1 2
(1.48) (1.49)
The transformation matrix (Jacobian) is: Ca Ca = = Pb Pb = = and the other way Pb = Cd = = r/x r/y /x /y x/r y/r y/r2 x/r2 cos
sin r
C1 / P1 C1 / P2 C2 / P1 C2 / P2
(1.52) (1.53) (1.54)
x/r x/ y/r y/ cos r sin sin r cos
(1.55) (1.56) . (1.57)
sin
cos r
And the two matrices are inverses. Next: Check the transformation law for tangent vectors in polar co-ordinates. Let be a circle of radius R, parametrized by = /(2 ). Cartesian coordinates () = C1 , C2 = (x(), y ()) = (R cos 2, R sin 2) (1.58) (1.59) (1.60)
14
Polar Coordinates () = P1 , P2 (1.61) (1.62) (1.63)
= (r(), ()) = (R, 2) The tangent vector can be computed separately for each coordinate system: Cartesian coordinates
a VC () =
= = Polar coordinates
dCa d dx/d dy/d 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .
(1.64) (1.65) (1.66)
a () = VP
= =
dPa d dr/d d/d 0 2 .
(1.67) (1.68) (1.69)
Lets check the transformation law, using equation (1.54):

a VC () =
Ca b (at r = R, = 2) V Pb P 0 cos 2 r sin 2 = 2 sin 2 r cos 2 = 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .
(1.70) (1.71) (1.72)
IT WORKS!
1.5
1.5.1
Duality between Vectors and Gradients

The directional derivative
Two objects in maths are called dual if they combine to give a single number (in R or C ). In elementary matrix algebra, row vectors and column vectors multiply to give a number. In quantum theory, a bra vector | and a ket vector | combine to give the complex number | .
1.5 Duality between Vectors and Gradients
15
On a manifold, we can combine a vector, V, and a gradient, f , naturally by using Einstein summation: V f = V a a f
N
=
a=1
V a a f.
(1.73)
This sum gives a number called the directional derivative. Why is this natural ?
1.5.2
Invariance
Exercise 1.6 Prove from the transformation laws that the directional derivative is the same
in all co-ordinate systems. Solution For the transformation from X X , V b b X c X f a f = Xa c c Xa X V f = V a a f = a b X X Va = = ( c b ) V b c f = V c c f Thus V f = V a a f = V c c f. (1.75) Xa
V b c f
(1.74)
The directional derivative has the same form in any two co-ordinate systems, and gives the same number.
1.5.3
Geometric Interpretation
Suppose f is the temperature as a function of position. We can measure f () as we travel along (). We can nd df /d by the chain rule: df = d
N a=1
f dXa Xa d (1.76)
= a f V a = V f.
In words, if the curve () has tangent vector V, then the directional derivative V f gives the rate of change of f along the curve, df /d.
Chapter 2
Tensors and Metrics

You know of course that a mathematical line, a line of thickness nil, has no real existence. They taught you that? Neither has a mathematical plane. These things are mere abstractions. That is all right, said the Psychologist. Nor, having only length, breadth, and thickness, can a cube have a real existence. There I object, said Filby. Of course a solid body may exist. All real things So most people think. But wait a moment. Can an instantaneous cube exist? Dont follow you, said Filby. Can a cube that does not last for any time at all, have a real existence? Filby became pensive. The Time Machine, HG Wells 1895
2.1
Tensors
Rank 0 1 2 3 . . .
Tensors are classied by their rank: Scalars (functions) Vectors and forms (inc gradients) Two indices - appear like matrices Three indices - appear like a stack of matrices . . .
000000 111111 000000 111111 111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111
000000 111111 000000 111111 111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111
00000 11111 00000 11111 11111 00000 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111
. . .
0th Rank Denition 2.1 Scalars A tensors with no subscripts or superscripts. They are functions of position on the manifold, and are completely independent of coordinates. 1st Rank Denition 2.2 Vectors Any tensor with one superscript which transforms like a tangent vector. In many books these are called contravariant vectors. We give the symbol for a vector V an overline; V has components V a . Denition 2.3 One-forms Any tensor with one subscript which transforms like a gradient. We will usually refer to one-forms simply as forms.We give forms an underline; the form W has components Wa indexed by a subscript. Two-forms will be introduced in section 4.2 (they not only have two subscripts but also must be antisymmetric). Many books refer to forms as covariant vectors or co-vectors.
16
2.2 Getting the transformation correct
17
Example 2.1 Suppose W = f g , where f, g are functions. Then, going from X X we have f f =f (2.1)
gg =g (2.2) a X b b = a (2.3) X b a X Wb Wb = Wa (2.4) X b NOTE: W has been constructed from a scalar function f and the gradient of another scalar g . However, it may not itself be a gradient i.e there may not exist a third function h such that W = h. Higher Rank Tensors There are 2 equivalent denitions of 2nd order (and higher) tensors. 1) A tensor with (for example) one superscript and subscript transforms as a vector on the superscript and as a form on the subscript. Example 2.2 Let M be a mixed tensor with components M a b . Then M
a b
X a Xd c M d Xc X b
(2.5)
2) A tensor with 1 superscript and 1 subscript is dual to the product of one vector and one form. Thus given V and W, the components M a b of M must have the following property: the quantity = M a b V b Wa (2.6)
is scalar, i.e. the same in all reference frames. In general, a tensor with p upper indices and q lower indices will eat p forms and q vectors, and return a scalar. p p tensors A type q tensor has p upper indices and q lower indices. Denition 2.4 Type q The product with q vectors and p forms (summing over all indices) returns a scalar. For example, if T ab c d ef g is a type 4 3 tensor (7th rank) then = T ab c d ef g Aa Bb C c Dd E e F f Gg is a scalar where A, B, D, G are forms, and C, E, F are vectors. (2.7)
2.2
Getting the transformation correct
Example 2.3 R a b c =?Rd e f Step 1 write three sets of

X X
(2.8)
on right: R abc = X X X d f R e X X X (2.9)
Step 2 Pair up indices ad be cf (2.10) (2.11) (2.12)
18
Tensors and Metrics
Step 3 The a, b, and c indices correspond to primed coordinates. Fill in the a, b, and c indices, together with primes, in the same positions as appear in R a b c : R abc = X a X X c d f R e . X X b X (2.13)
Step 4 Fill in the remaining indices by the pairings from (2): R abc = X a Xe X c d f R e . Xd X b Xf (2.14)
Note that the d, e, and f indices appear once on top and once on bottom, so they are summed over.
Exercise 2.1 How does the tensor

Rab cd transform under a coordinate transformation? (2.15)
Exercise 2.2 Suppose that in some coordinate system the tensor a b has the form
a b = 0 1 if if a=b a = b. (2.16)
Show that it also has this form in any other coordinate system.
2.3
Things to do with tensors
Each of these results in a new tensor: a. Addition Ra b c + S a b c = T a b c b. Composition M a b = V a Wb Example 2.4 V 1 = 1, V 2 = 2, W1 = 20, W2 = 30 gives M ab = 20 40 30 60 (2.19) (2.18) All terms have the same indices! (2.17)
c. Contraction between Tensors (Einstein summation) = V a Wa d. Contraction within a Tensor P ab bc = Qa c M a a = 80 = in the above example For 2nd rank mixed tensors, M a a = T r(M), the trace of M. (2.21) (2.22) (= 80 in the above example) (2.20)
2.3 Things to do with tensors
19
e. Symmetrizing and anti-Symmetrizing (for 2nd rank tensors) Given a tensor with components T ab , let S ab = 1 ab T + T ba 2 1 ab = T T ba 2 (2.23) (2.24)
and Aab Then
(1) S ab + Aab = T ab (2) S

ab
(2.25) (Symmetric) (Antisymmetric) (2.26) (2.27)
=S
ba
(3) Aab = Aba Example 2.5 T ab = S ab = 0 2 0

3 2
1 3
3 2
T ba = Aab =
0 1 0
1 2
2 3
1 2 0
= (T T )ab
(2.28) (2.29)
Tip: Watch out for bad tensor expressions: W b = Ga a V a b . This equation does not make sense because there are three as thus we do not know which two to sum over. = U aa . 2 as on top summing would not give a scalar. V c = X a Wa T ca Aa Bad now there are four as. Perhaps this really means V c = X a Wa T cb Ab , but it could also mean V c = X a Wb T cb Aa .
Exercise 2.3 Determine which tensor equations are valid, and describe the errors in the other
equations. a. Dab = Ta W a b b. Eab = F c ba Cc + Ld Sdba c. Zmn = Y a m a n d. Pc = J a a K a a Rc e. Aab = Bba + gab Dc Dc f. F c b = Gca Hda g. f = Ja Ka La M a + N b b
20
Tensors and Metrics
Exercise 2.4 Let space be two dimensional, with coordinates (X1 , X2 ). Suppose tensors with components V a , Wa , P ab , Qab , and M a b are measured to have the values
V1 W1 P ab = 2, V 2 = 3; = 4, W2 = 5; 2 1 = ; Qab = 3 6 (2.30) (2.31) 0 4 2 ; 7 M ab = 4 2 3 . 1 (2.32)
Calculate the following tensors: Tb F ac Gab = = = = V a Wa ; P ab Wa ; P ab Qbc ; M c b Qca . (2.33) (2.34) (2.35) (2.36)
Theorem. Let S ab be a symmetric tensor, and Aab an anti-symmetric tensor. Then their double contraction vanishes: Aab S ab = 0. (2.37) Proof. To evaluate the double contraction of Aab and S ab , note that we can exchange the dummy labels a and b. Thus Aab S ab = Aba S ba . (2.38) Now use the symmetry and anti-symmetry of S ab and Aab : = Aba S ba = (Aab )(+S ab ) = . This can only be true if the double contraction Aab S ab is zero. (2.39)
2.4
The LeviCivita Tensor
The LeviCivita tensor is completely antisymmetric. It is actually a tensor density (see section ??). In 2-dimensions: 0 1 ab = 1 0 In 3-dimensions:
ab1
ab2
ab3
0 0 0 = 0 0 1, 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 0 0 0 , 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 1 0 0. 0 0 0
(2.40)
(2.41)
(2.42)
Note that all these matrices are anti-symmetric. In general, in N -dimensions: if any 2 of a, b, c, . . . , N are equal 0 ab...N = 1 if (a, b, c, . . . , N ) is an even permutation 1 if (a, b, c, . . . , N ) is an odd permutation
2.5 3-Vector Identities 2.4.1 Odd / Even Permutations
21
A permutation is an re-ordering. e.g. (4, 2, 1, 3) is a permutation of (1, 2, 3, 4). For N = 3, there are 6 permutations: (1, 2, 3) (1, 3, 2) (2, 3, 1) (2, 1, 3) (3, 1, 2) (3, 2, 1) We can get from the start (1, 2, 3) to any other permutation by swapping pairs of numbers. Thus swapping 1,2 sends (1,2,3) (2,1,3), swapping 1,3 sends (2,1,3) (2,3,1), etc. Similarly, all permutations on N objects can be reached from the identity (1, 2, . . . , N ) by a sequence of swaps. Sometimes two dierent sequences of swaps will result in the same permutation. But when this happens both sequences will consist of an even number of swaps, or an odd number of swaps. Denition 2.5 Even and Odd Permutations Starting from (1, 2, . . . , N ), an even number of swaps results in an even permutation; an odd number of swaps results in an odd permutation. Example 2.6 N = 4:
1234 1243
=1 = 1 2143 =1
(2.43)
2.5
a.
3-Vector Identities
A B = Ai Bi . (2.44)
b. f = i f . c. A
i
(2.45)
ijk
j Ak
(2.46)
Example 2.7 Verify equation (2.46) for the y -component of the curl. Solution The y -component of A is A
y
= =
2jk 231
j Ak
(2nd component = y-component)
3 A1 + 213 1 A3 = (1) Ax + (1) Az z x Ax Az = . z x Example 2.8 Show that
A B = B A. AB
i
(2.47)
Solution Translate to
ijk
Aj Bk .
22
ijk but = i AB = ikj ikj ikj
Tensors and Metrics
Aj Bk Bk Aj
(Aj and Bk are just numbers, so we can reverse their order in a multiplication without aecting the result). Now we replace the dummy indices j k and k j . They are being summed over, so it does not matter which one is called which: AB
i
ijk
Bj Ak
i
= BA
A B = B A .
Example 2.9 Show that f = 0. (2.48)
Solution Translate to
( f ) = =
i ijk ijk
j k f k j f k j f (partial derivatives commute)
= relabel j k
ikj
( f ) =
i i
ijk
j k f
i
( f ) = ( f ) ( f ) = 0
f = 0
Exercise 2.5 Translate the following 3-vector identities into index notation, and prove them:
A (B C) = B (C A) = C (A B); (f A) = A f + f A; (A B) = B A A B. (2.49) (2.50) (2.51)
2.6 Metrics
23
2.6
Metrics
Denition 2.6 Metric Given two nearby points, X1 , . . . , XN and X 1 + dX1 , . . . , X N + dXN , a distance ds can be dened by introducing a new object, the metric tensor gab . The distance satises ds2 = g11 dX1 dX1 + g12 dX1 dX2 + . . . + gN N dXN dXN or ds2 = gab dXa dXb . (2.53) (2.52)
N.B. Throughout these notes, ds2 means (ds)2 , not d(s2 ). Example 2.10 In Euclidean geometry with N = 3 ds2 = dX1 or with
2
+ dX2
+ dX3
ds2 = gij dXi dXj gij = ij (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
(2.54)
Lets decompose gab into symmetric and anti-symmetric parts: gab ds2 = Sab + Aab = (Sab + Aab ) dXa dXb (2.55) (2.56)
where Sab = Sba and Aab = Aba . Consider the anti-symmetric contributions to ds2 , Aab dXa dXb . This is the double contraction of an anti-symmetric tensor Aab with a symmetric tensor dXa dXb , so by equation (2.37) Aab dXa dXb = 0. (2.57)
We have just shown that Aab is useless, and so we get rid of it. Thus we dene gab to be symmetric gab = gba . (2.58)
24
Tensors and Metrics
How many components does gab have? If the manifold is N dimensional, then an arbitrary tensor of rank r has N r components. But since the metric is symmetric, not all these components will be independent. g11 g12 . . . g1N g21 g22 . . . g2N gab = . (2.59) . . . . . . gN 1 gN 2
N2
...
gN N
components
By symmetry (gab = gba ), g11 g12 = g13 . . . g1N so there are

N (N +1) 2
gab
g12 g22 g23 g2N
g13 g23 g33 g3N
... ... ... ...
g 1N g 2N g 3N = gba . . . gN N
(2.60)
independent components.
2.7
Euclidean Metrics
E 2 Euclidean Plane Cartesian: By the Pythagorean theorem, ds2 = dC1

2
+ dC2
2
= dx2 + dy 2
2
(2.61) (2.62)
= gC 11 dx + gC 12 dxdy + gC 21 dy dx + gC 22 dy . So gC 11 = gC 22 = 1 while gC 12 = gC 21 = 0, or gC ab = 1 0 0 . 1
Polars: Two methods to nd the metric:
2.7 Euclidean Metrics
25
Method 1: Draw pictures: a = 2(r + dr) sin = 2(r + dr) = rd Thus ds2 = dr2 + r2 d2 or, in terms of the metric tensor ds2 = gab dPa dPb , gP ab = Method 2: We know that gC ab = gP ab = 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 .
cd
d 2 (+O( d)3 ) (+O( dr d)).
(2.63) (2.64) (2.65)
d 2
(2.66)
1 0 0 r2
(2.67)
Cc Cd Pa Pb
(Cartesians on top (c,d), polars on bottom (a,b)).
2.7.1
E 3 Euclidean 3-space
1 = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 1
Cartesian: gC ab Spherical: If we just move in r:

2 ds2 r = dr
(2.68)
(2.69)
If we just move in , we move on a radius r: 2 2 ds2 (2.70) = r d If we just move in , we move on a constant radius r sin :
2 2 ds2 = r sin d
(2.71)
26
Tensors and Metrics
Thus ds2 gP ab dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2 1 0 0 0 . = 0 r2 2 0 0 r sin2 = (2.72) (2.73)
2.7.2
E 3 : Cylindrical Co-ordinates
X1 , X2 , X3 = (, , z ) ds2 = d2 + 2 d2 + dz 2 1 0 = 0 2 0 0 0 0 1
(2.74) (2.75)
gCyl
ab
(2.76)
2.8
Arc Length
What is the arc length P Q? We dene
Q
L=
P
ds()
(2.77)
Thus
Q
L=
P Q
ds2 (2.78) gab dXa dXb
=
P
2.9 Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors

Example 2.11 E 2 with Cartesian coordinates. Here
Q
27
L=
P
dx2 + dy 2 .
(2.79)
We can divide by
d2 and multiply by d to make

Q
L=
P
dx d
dy d
d.
(2.80)
If we are able to choose = x as our parameter, so that y = y (x) (i.e. y is a well behaved function of x. See diagram),
111111111111111 000000000000000 x
111111111111111 000000000000000 x
Bad
Good
then
Q
L=
P
dy dx
+ 1 dx
e.g. y = sin x
Q
L=
P
1 + cos2 (x) dx
y 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 11111111111111 00000000000000 0 1 x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 -1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
V a V a is not invariant under co-ordinate transfor-
2.9
Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors

a
Given a vector, V, with components V a the sum mations, and so it is meaningless!
28
Tensors and Metrics
But, if we have a metric, we can dene V V = gab V a V b The magnitude of V is V = Similarly, with two vectors V, W V W = gab V a W b For two forms A, B A B = g ab Aa Bb where g ab is the inverse of the metric tensor, in the sense that g ab gbc = a c . Also A = A A. (2.86) (2.85) (2.84) (2.83) VV (2.82) This is invariant! (2.81)
2.10
Raising and Lowering Operators

V W = (gab V a ) W b (2.87)
Note that V W = gab V a W b is a scalar. We can write this as
Then gab V a is dual to the set of vectors It takes a vector, W, and returns a scalar number. Therefore, given a vector V, we can dene a form V where Vb = gab V a . Similarly V W = V a gab W b Wa = gab W
a b
(2.88)
(2.89) (2.90) (2.91) (2.92)
V W = V Wa = Vb W
b
By contraction with the metric, we can raise or lower the index. Exercise 2.6 Suppose that Aab is anti-symmetric. Let Aab = gac gbd Acd where gac is the (symmetric) metric tensor. Show that Aab is antisymmetric as well.
Exercise 2.7 Let

T ab = 2 5 3 . 7 (2.93)
Find its symmetric and antisymmetric parts Aab and S ab . Next, let the metric be gab = Find Aab . Show explicitly that Aab S ab = 0. (2.95) 1 2 2 . 1 (2.94)
2.11 Signature of the Metric
29
2.11
Signature of the Metric
One can show, using linear algebra, that any metric, gab , can be diagonalized by transforming to a suitable co-ordinate system. e.g. If in coordinates X, the metric is gab = Then there exists coordinates X where gab = 1 0 0 1 3 5 5 62
In general, we can make the values on the diagonal 1 or -1 by transforming to suitable co-ordinates Find eigenvectors and eigenvalues of gab Transform to co-ordinates along the eigenvectors (diagonalize metric) divide each eigenvector by its eigenvalue (all go to 1,-1) There may be a few ways of doing this. However, it can be shown that the sum of the diagonal elements will always be the same. This is called the signature of the metric. Example: E 3 with Cartesian coordinates 1 = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
gab
(2.96)
Signature = 3. Example: Minkowski Metric 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
gab = ab
(2.97)
Signature = -2.
2.12
Riemannian and Pseudo-Riemannian metrics
Is the magnitude of a vector always positive? Denition 2.7 Riemannian metric For a Riemannian metric, any vector V = 0 satises |V|2 = V V > 0. A metric which is not Riemannian is called Pseudo-Riemannian. Signature = N metrics are Riemannian. To see this note that we can calculate V V (at some point P ) in any coordinate system, including the system with only 1 diagonal elements for the metric. Then V V = gab V a V b = (V 1 )2 (V 2 )2 ... (V N )2 . If signature = N then there will be only pluses, and the sum will be positive. (2.99) (2.98)
30
Tensors and Metrics
Signature < N metrics are pseudo-Riemannian. On the other hand, if the signature is less than N , then there will be some minuses in the sum. Say for example that V V = (V 1 )2 + (V 2 )2 + + (V n1 )2 (V N )2 . Then we could choose a vector V whose only non-zero element is V N . This would make V V < 0. Euclidean metrics are Riemannian, while the Minkowski metric is pseudo-Riemannian.
2.13
Map Projections
ds2 = R2 d2 + sin2 d2 , (2.100)
The Earth, radius r = R = constant, has the metric line element (in spherical coordinates S = (, ))
with 0 , . gS ab = R2 1 0 0 sin2 (2.101)
2.13.1
Cylindrical Map
Project out onto paper Paper Globe
y
y
0 x
We wish to project the Earth onto a piece of paper of width w and height h. The co-ordinates on the map will be M = (x, y ) with
x = y =
w 2 h cos 2
(2.102) (2.103)
Rcos
Let us call the metric for the map projection gM ab . Using this metric we can calculate the arclength of any path drawn on the map (from Buenos Aires to Glasgow for example). The calculation will give the distance along the corresponding path on the Earths surface.
2.13 Map Projections
31
Problem: nd the metric gM ab . Method 1: Use the transformation law for tensors: Ma Mb g cd . Sc Sd S Method 2: Directly transform the metric line element: rst, gM ab = = R2 d2 + sin2 d2 2 d = dx w 4 2 ds2 = R2 d2 + 2 sin2 dx2 . w ds2 Next, from the formula for y , dy d2 Also, sin2 d2 = Thus 4dy 2 . 4y 2 = 1 2y h
2
(2.104)
(2.105) (2.106) (2.107)
h = sin d 2 4 dy 2 = . h2 sin2
(2.108) (2.109)
(2.110) (2.111)
h2
4 2 h 2 4y 2 2 4 dx + 2 dy 2 . (2.112) w2 h2 h 4y 2 Changing the aspect ratio w/h will stretch or compress the map in the vertical direction. We should choose this ratio to give the least distortion. Note that at y = 0 (the equator) the y dependence disappears. The metric will be symmetric in x and y at the equator if w = h. In this case, the line element and metric are h2 4y 2 2 1 ds2 = 4R2 dx + 2 dy 2 . (2.113) 4 h h 4y 2 ds2 = R2 gab = 4R
2 h2 4y 2 h4
0
1 h2 4y 2
(2.114)
2.13.2
Mercator Projection
Idea: Align compass bearings to constant directions on the map.
32
ds2 = a2 + b2 a = R sin d b = Rd ds2 = R2 d2 + sin2 d2
w Again, let x = 2 . Choose y so that the slope of dy dx
Tensors and Metrics
(2.115) (2.116) (2.117) (2.118)
of a curve is a constant for constant : cot = Rd 1 d = . R sin d sin d (2.119)
On the map, however, cot = dy dx (2.120) (2.121) (2.122)
= After integration,
y
dy d
w 1 d 1 d = sin d 2 sin dx w 1 = 2 sin w 2

0
y=
0
dy =
d sin
(2.123)
y=
w log cot 2 2
(2.124)
We can now nd gM ab . First, we derive a simple identity: let y Then sin = Proof: sech y 2 ey + ey 2 = cot /2 + tan /2 2 = cot /2 1 + tan2 /2 2 = cot /2 (sec2 /2) = 2 cos /2 sin /2. = 2 y = log cot . w 2 1 = sech y. cosh y
Now ds2 = R2 d2 + sin2 d2 = 2 w

2
R2 ( sin dy )2 + sin2 dx2
2.13 Map Projections
33
Thus we have found the Mercator line element: ds2 = and the Mercator metric: gM ab = 2R w
2
2R w
sech 2 y dx2 + dy 2 ,
(2.125)
sech 2 y
1 0
0 1
(2.126)
Exercise 2.8 London has latitude 51 and longitude 0 . Suppose you travel on the surface of the
earth, following a geodesic (great circle) which leaves London in the direction due East. Where will you rst hit the equator? (This problem can be done without any equations!)
Chapter 3
Special Relativity
Really this is what is meant by the Fourth Dimension, though some people who talk about the Fourth Dimension do not know they mean it. It is only another way of looking at Time. There is no dierence between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it. But some foolish people have got hold of the wrong side of that idea. You have all heard what they have to say about this Fourth Dimension?
3.1
Minkowski Space-time
In modern terms, special relativity is the study of physics in a universe governed by the Minkowski metric, equation (2.97). The Minkowski metric has coordinates (X0 , X1 , X2 , X3 ) = (ct, x, y, z ) (3.1)
where t is time and c is the speed of light. Note that the time component, by convention, is distinguished by being given the index 0. Also, the metric is diagonal, ab = Diagonal(1, 1, 1, 1), (3.2)
with the time component of opposite sign to the spatial components. We will examine the geometry of the Minkowski metric in detail. First recall that the spatial part of ab is Cartesian, apart from an overall minus sign. We could, of course, transform to another coordinate system such as spherical polars. However, this would introduce an apparent dependence of the metric elements on position, which would obscure the simplicity and symmetry of the metric. Thus for this chapter we will exclusively use Cartesian spatial coordinates. We rst note that the Minkowski metric is independent of position and time. This fact gives it the property of Denition 3.1 Homogeneity An object or physical law is homogeneous if it has the same form at all places, i.e. (its form is invariant to translations ). A rotation of the spatial (x, y , z ) axes leaves the Minkowski metric unchanged.
Exercise 3.1
(3.3) (3.4) (3.5) (3.6)
Show that the Minkowski metric is unchanged by a rotation by an angle about the z axis, where t x y z t; x cos y sin ; y cos + x sin ; z.
34
3.2 Units
35
Thus it has the property of isotropy. Denition 3.2 Isotropy An object or physical law is isotropic if it has the same in all directions, i.e. its from is invariant to rotations, about any central point and axis . Objects can be homogeneous but not isotropic. Examples: A uniform magnetic eld. The eld looks the same at all points in space, but points in a particular direction. A regular crystal. The crystal structure may appear the same at dierent places, but the molecular bonds are oriented in particular directions Most fabrics are woven with a warp and a weft, with the result that their ability to stretch depends on direction.
It is not possible to be isotropic but nonhomogeneous. For example, consider a distribution of stars. If the distribution is nonisotropic, more stars are seen in some directions than others. But then regions seen in dierent directions (A and B) must be dierent and therefore non-homogeneous. Isotropic Homogeneous . (3.7)
Also note that spherical symmetry about some central point does not imply isotropy about all points.
3.2
Units
The zeroth coordinate in Minkowski space-time is X0 = ct. The presence of the factor of c makes many of the equations more complicated. But we need this factor because traditional units for time and space are dierent. In order to understand space and time in a unied way, we need to employ a system of units which treats space and time more equally.
Exercise 3.2 Suppose there were a move to convert the measure of distance on British roads to kilometers. However, this move was ercely resisted by half of the population. In a political compromise, it was decided to measure East-West distances with kilometers, and North-South distance with miles. Imagine coping with this mixed system. What would be the distance from London to Manchester? What would speedometers and odometers look like?
Relativistic Units In conventional units the speed of light in a vacuum is c = 2.997 . . . 108 m s1 . In a relativistic system of units c = 1. There are two ways of constructing such systems. a. Use a basic unit of time; the length unit will be the distance travelled by light in that time. A) choose the time unit to be the second (s), and dene the unit of length to be the lightsecond ( s) 1 s = 3 108 m. (3.8) In these units, c = 1 s/ s. Usually, we do not bother writing the s/ s, and so c = 1.
36
Special Relativity
B) Time unit: year (y); length unit: light-year ( y). 1 y 3 108 1016 m and c = 1 y/ y. Again we will ignore the y/ y and just say c = 1. m 3.4 107 s s (3.9) (3.10)
b. Use a basic unit of length; the time unit will be the interval of time needed for light to travel that distance. Choose the length unit to be the metre ( m), and the time unit to be the light-metre ( m) 1 m 3 109 s and c = 1 m/ m = 1. Example 3.1 Express Watts in relativistic units with basic units second, kilogram. (3.11)
Solution
1W = = = 1 kg m2 s3 1 kg s1 m s2
2
(3.12) ls 3 108 m ls s
2 2
(3.13) (3.14) (3.15)
1 kg s1 9 1016
1.1 1017 kg s1
N.B. We could have reached this by multiplying by c or c1 until only the units kg and s were left (cancel out as many factors of c as necessary to get the units right). In reverse: what is 1kg s1 in Watts? Solution Multiply by c2 to obtain the right units 1 kg s1 = 9 1016 kg m2 s3 = 9 1016 W. (3.16) (3.17)
Exercise 3.3 The gravitational constant is G = 6.67 108 cm3 g1 s2 . Express G in relativistic units, with the basic units being grams and centimetres (time measured in light-cms). Next in relativistic units calculate the escape velocity V from the surface of the earth. Also calculate 1. (Recall that the gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at the surface of the Earth is GM m/R , where M is the mass of the Earth and R is its radius.) Earth mass: M = 6 1027 g. Earth radius: R = 6.4 103 km.
m Exercise 3.4 The acceleration due to gravity at the Earths surface is 1g = 9.8 s 2 . Express this
in relativistic units with basic unit being the year (i.e. lengths are measured in light years). (1 year 3.2 107 s.)
3.3 Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity
37
3.3
Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity
The Minkowski metric, as we have seen, is invariant to translations and spatial rotations. However, in a four dimensional space-time manifold, we can also consider rotations involving both space and time coordinates. Such mixing of space and time coordinates may seem mysterious, but actually the eect is simple: the spatial origin x = y = z = 0 in the rotated system moves at a constant velocity with respect to the original system. This is called boost. Denition 3.3 Boost A boost is a transformation to a coordinate system moving at a constant relative velocity with respect to the original system. Einsteins famous 1905 paper demonstrated that we needed a new conception of space-time if we were to have a theory of electromagnetism which looked the same in all coordinate systems, especially ones reached via a boost transformation. He started out with the idea of a coordinate system, or reference frame in which there are no inertial forces such as centrifugal or Coriolis forces. Denition 3.4 Inertial Reference Frame An inertial reference frame (IRF) is a co-ordinate system for space-time with Cartesian spatial co-ordinates, and where there exist no inertial (ctitious) forces. The invariance of Maxwells equations led Einstein to believe that the speed of light does not change when boosting to a moving reference frame. He wrote down two axioms for physics in general, and electromagnetic radiation in particular:
a. The laws of physics are invariant to translations, rotations and boosts.
b. The speed of light is the same in all IRFs.
3.4
Space-Time Diagrams
Space-time diagrams place time on the vertical axis, with one space dimension on the horizontal axis (or two in a horizontal plane). Denition 3.5 Worldline The worldline of an object is the path it traces in space-time. If we just look at one space dimension (x), the velocity of the object is dx/dt. Since the vertical axis is time, however, the slope of the world line is dt/dx. For photons c = dx/dt = 1. In special relativity light moves at an angle of arctan(1) = /4 on a space-time diagram. Choose a point on an objects world-line, P , to be = 0. Then let be the arclength away from P ,
Q
=
P
gab dXa dXb .
(3.18)
Denition 3.6 Proper Time The arclength along a worldline is called the proper time.
38
Special Relativity
t
y
Figure 3.1: The object with the worldline to the left is at rest. The object to the right is moving in a circular orbit.
t
Q 00 11 00 (Q) 11
0 P1 0 1 0 (P) 1
Denition 3.7 Event A space-time event P is a point in space-time. Suppose at event P a camera ash goes o, sending an expanding sphere of light into space (and time). We can most easily picture this expanding sphere by suppressing one dimension. For example, suppose the z co-ordinate of P is 0. We can then consider how the light travels in the z = 0 plane. The expanding sphere of light intersects this plane as an expanding circle. In a space-time diagram showing the x, y , and t directions, the expanding circle traces out a cone. The future light cone at an event P shows how a pulse of light emitted at P travels through space-
3.4 Space-Time Diagrams
39
time. A light-cone splits space-time into space-like and time-like parts. Objects moving slower than light (i.e. all massive objects!) can only reach the time-like parts. One would need to move faster than light to reach the space-like parts.
Figure 3.2: The interval PQ is light-like ( = 0), as Q is on P s past light cone. The interval PR is space-like ( 2 < 0), while PS is time-like ( 2 > 0).
A particle with 3-velocity V = (dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt) satises (3.19) 2 For a photon, V = c = 1, and so dt2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 between any two events along a photons world-line. By Einsteins second axiom, this is true for a photon as seen in any IRF. Suppose we dene a small interval between two points d by d 2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 . Then d 2 = 0 along a photon path in all IRFs. Also, d is precisely the line element d 2 = gab dX a dX b resulting from the Minkowski metric 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 0 0 1 0 . 0 0 0 1 (3.22)
2
2 2 V dt = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .
(3.20)
(3.21)
gab = ab
(3.23)
Space-time equipped with ab is called Minkowski space or M 4 . A world-line is a curve in M 4 .
Theorem
40 Proper time equals clock time in the rest frame of the object. Proof: In the rest frame R, dR1 = dR2 = dR3 = 0,
2
Special Relativity
(3.24)
so d 2 = dR0 = dt2 . We generally chose to have coordinate time increase in the same R direction as proper time, so we can take the positive square root: d = dtR . The tangent vector to the world line is the 4-vector dt/d dXa dx/d Ua = = dy/d d dz/d What is the corresponding form Ua ? Ua = ab U b dt/d 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 dx/d = 0 0 1 0 dy/d dz/d 0 0 0 1 = dt dx dy dz , , , d d d d . (3.27) (3.28) (3.25)
(3.26)
(3.29)
|U |2 = Ua U a dx dy dt d d d dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 = d 2 2 ds2 d = 2 = =1 d d Ua U a = 1 in all reference frames =

2 2 2
(3.30) dz d
2
(3.31) (3.32) (3.33) (3.34)
This is easiest to see in the rest frame, where Ua = (1, 0, 0, 0). Exercise 3.5 Suppose a spaceship moves at speed V in the Earth frame. What is dtE /d where tE is the Earth time and is proper time inside the spaceship? Next suppose the spaceship is investigating some scalar function of position f (tE , xE , yE , zE ) (e.g. temperature of the interplanetary medium). The ship measures and records f ( ) as it f f travels through space. Find df /d in terms of t and the spatial gradient ( x , f , f ). E E yE zE Can you express your result in 4-vector notation?
3.5 The Poincar e and Lorentz Groups
41
3.5
The Poincar e and Lorentz Groups
These are the sets of transforms from one IRF to another i.e. that preserve gab = ab . Thus going from coordinates XA to XB with transform LAB gives 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 ; gA ab = g = (3.35) ab B 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Example 3.2 Rotation about Axes.
0 1 0 1 0 y 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 yB 0 1 A 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 xB 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 111111111111111111111111111111111111 000000000000000000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 xA 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000 11111111111111111111111111111111111 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 11111111111111111111111 00000000000000000000000 0 1 0 1 0 1
LAB has the rule tB = tA xB = cos xA + sin yA yB = sin xA + cos yA zB = zA (3.36) (3.37) (3.38) (3.39)
LAB
1 0 0 0 Ba 0 cos sin 0 = = Ab 0 sin cos 0 0 0 0 1
(3.40)
Example 3.3 Translations. Consider the transformation PAB tB = tA + 3 yB = yA 5 xB = xA 2 zB = zA 4 The orientation of the axes does not change: origin of the B system is at (ta , xa ) = (5, 4).
B A
(3.41)
= I 4 . However, the origin moves the
The set of all ab preserving transformations is called the Poincar e group, while those which leave the origin xed (no translation, just rotation) are the Lorentz group. The Lorentz group is a subgroup of the Poincar e group.
42 3.5.1 Group Axioms
Special Relativity
a. Closure: XA =
PAB
XB XC .
PBC
XC
(3.42) (3.43)
PAC XA
Let PAB and PBC be any elements of the Poincar e group. Then: PAC = PBC PAB (composition of the two transformations) preserves ab if both PAB and PBC do. b. Identity: If XA = XB , then PAB
1 0 = 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 . 0 1
(3.44)
c. Inverse:
1 PA B = PBA
(3.45)
d. Associative: (PCD PBC ) PAB = PCD (PBC PAB ) Theorem: For any Lorentz transform LAB |det(LAB )| = 1 Proof: Both A and B are inertial frames, so gA cd = cd and gB ab = ab . Thus ab = Ac Ad cd Ba Bb = Lc a Ld b cd . (3.48) (3.49) (3.47) (3.46)
where L = LAB . Now, the determinant of the product of two matrices is the product of the determinants, so det( ) = det(L)2 det( ) = det(L)2 = 1. |det(LAB )| = 1 . Denition 3.8 Proper and Improper Transforms (3.50) (3.51) (3.52)
3.6 Lorentz Boosts Proper Lorentz transforms have det(L) = 1 Improper Lorentz transforms have det(L) = 1 Example 3.4 Mirror Transform 1 0 t 0 1 x = 0 0 y 0 0 z B
43
0 0 1 0
t 0 x 0 . 0 y z A 1
(3.53)
This improper transform reects objects in the x direction.
3.6
3.6.1
Lorentz Boosts
Deriving the transformation matrix
Suppose a spaceship moves, velocity v i w.r.t. Earth: Ships rest frame: S Earths rest frame: E (3.54) (3.55)
Assume the origins coincide Sa = 0 is the same event as Ea = 0. There will be many Lorentz transformations which go from the Earth frame to the Ships frame; these will dier by rotations in space. We can guess, however, that there will be a simple one where the y and z coordinates do not change: yS = yE and zS = zE . Thus we will try transforms of the form: t ? ? 0 0 t ? ? 0 0 x x = (3.56) y 0 0 1 0 y z E 0 0 0 1 z S = 1) c = 1 in both frames
t
(t,-t)
1 0 0 1 11 00 00 11 00 (t,t) 11
t x
=
S
t x
(3.57)
E
In all frames, a photon moving to the right passes through events with t x = t . t (3.58)
Ph
ot on
Ph o ot n
A photon moving to the left, on the other hand, passes through

x
t x
t . t
(3.59)
44 Suppose in the Earth frame a photon passes through the event t x In ships co-ordinates, t x Thus tS = + = + + = + . A photon could also pass through t x t x =
S
Special Relativity
=
E
1 1
.
E
=
S
t t
=
S
1 1
(3.60)
E
(3.61) (3.62) (3.63) , which has ships co-ordinates
=
E
1 1
t t
1 1
(3.64)
E
(3.65)
S
tS = tS = = Combining these two results gives
(3.66) (3.67) (3.68)
+ =+ = 2 = 2
(3.69) (3.70) (3.71)
= , We now have t x =
S
(3.72)
t x
.
E
(3.73)
2) Follow spatial origin in ships co-ordinates
3.6 Lorentz Boosts t x t 0
45
On the ship,
=
S
. But, Earthlings see this move at speed V

S
t x t x
=
E
t Vt t 0
(3.74) (3.75)
S
=
S
= And so,
t Vt
(3.76)
E
tS = tE + V tE = ( + V ) tE xS = tE + V tE = ( + V ) tE =0 + V = 0 = V Thus, we have t x 3) Apply det(L) = 1 V V =

S
(3.77) (3.78) (3.79) (3.80) (3.81) (3.82) (3.83)
1 V
V 1
t x
.
E
(3.84)
det
=1 = 2 2V 2
(3.85) (3.86) (3.87) (3.88)
1V 1 2 = 1V2 = = 1 . 1V2
(3.89)
4) Inverse Transformation From the ships frame to the Earths frame t x =

E
t x
(3.90)
S
This is the inverse transform to the one from Earth to ship, as V V .
46
Special Relativity
3.7
Simultaneity
A surface of simultaneity is a set of points where t =constant in some reference frame. Lets look at the Ships surface of simultaneity in the Earths co-ordinate frame. The line tS = 0 contains events occurring simultaneously in the ships frame.
tE
R tS = 0 xE P Q tE = 0
From the inverse transformation, tE = V xS xE = xS tE = V xE . (3.91) (3.92) (3.93)
This is the line in the Earths frame of reference corresponding to tS = 0. Events P, Q are simultaneous in the Earths frame, but not in the Ships. Events P, R are simultaneous in the Ships frame, but not in the Earths. Exercise 3.6 Suppose a spaceship moves at speed V x with respect to the Earth, where V = 1/2. Let the coordinates in the rest frame of the ship be Sa = (S0 , S1 ) = (tS , xS ), (3.94)
(ignoring the y and z components). Similarly, let Ea = (E0 , E1 ) = (tE , xE ) be coordinates in the rest frame of the Earth. Also let (0, 0)S = (0, 0)E . Draw a space-time diagram where the horizontal axis gives xE and the vertical axis gives tE . On this diagram draw the line xS = 0 (the time axis in the ship rest frame) and the line tS = 0 (the space axis in the ship rest frame). What is the angle between these lines?
3.8 Length Contraction
47
3.8
Length Contraction
Denition Length: The length of an object is the spatial distance between the ends, measured simultaneously in some reference frame. Consider a metre stick at rest on the spaceship; The space travellers measure the position of the ends of the stick simultaneously at P, R. Earthlings see P, Q as simultaneous events corresponding to the ends of the stick at tE = 0.
R LS
P LE
V t RE
Thus, tE P 0 Q 0 R ? xE 0 LE ? tS 0 ? 0 xS 0 ? LS
Apply the Lorentz transform to nd the ?s. Q: R: tQ xQ tR xR = = V V V V 0 LS 0 LE = = V LE LE (3.95) (3.96)
V LS LS
The right end of the stick moves from Q R with speed V w.r.t. Earth xRE = xQE + V (tRE tQE ) = xQE + V tRE If we combine this with the Lorentz transform, we get LS = LE + V (V LS ) = LE = LS ( V 2 ) = LS (1 V ) = LS 2 = LS
1 2
(3.97) (3.98) (3.99) (3.100) (3.101) (3.102) (3.103)
48
Special Relativity
LE = LS 1 and since > 1, LE < L S .
(3.104)
(3.105)
3.9
3.9.1
Relativistic Dynamics
The 4-momentum
The three-momentum of an object is dened as p = m V . In space-time, we use U instead of V . For an object travelling at speed V , a Lorentz transformation from the rest frame of the object gives . Ua = (3.106) V We can check that |U|2 = 1: Ua U a = (, V ) V = 2 (1 V 2 ) = 1. (3.107)
Next, we extend momentum from the three dimensional p to a four-dimensional object. We do this by including the energy E . This makes intuitive sense: classical mechanics conserves E as well as the three components of momentum. Another rational for combining energy and momentum follows from the symmetries of space-time. Noethers theorem (see chapter 7) shows that momentum conservation is a direct consequence of the homogeneity of space (i.e. invariance to spatial translations). But Noether also showed that energy conservation follows in the same way from the homogeneity of time (invariance to time translations). Thus combining space and time into space-time corresponds to combining energy and momentum into one object as well. As we will see later, when analyzing orbits, the 4-momentum works most naturally as a form rather than a vector. In other areas of physics momentum also appears as dual or conjugate to vectors, in particular the position vector. Recall, for example, that in quantum theory momentum appears paired with the position vector x , e.g. in the Fourier transform term exp(i p x / ). In these cases p combines with x to form a scalar, just as a form combines with a vector to form a scalar. This is why we will begin with its denition as a form. We are free to give names to the components of p. In fact, we will give the symbols E to p0 and p to the other components. Afterwards, we justify these names, showing that E acts like energy and p acts like the non-relativistic momentum. Denition 4-momentum The 4-momentum is a form p dened by pa mgab U b = mUa . The components of the 4-momentum will be given names: p (E, p ).
a
(3.108)
(3.109)
3.9 Relativistic Dynamics The raised form of the 4-momentum pa g ab pb is simply pa = mU a . In Special Relativity where gab = ab the raised form of the 4-momentum is pa = ab pb = This implies pa = so that m m V E . p
49
(3.110)
(3.111)
(3.112)
p = m V .
(3.113)
The right hand side gives the non-relativistic 3-momentum, apart from the factor of (which is very nearly 1 in non-relativistic situations). Thus we are justied in our choice of the symbol p for the spatial components of the 4-momentum. The 0th component of p resembles the non-relativistic energy, plus just a bit extra: E = p0 = m =m 1V2 1 = m 1 + V 2 + O(V 4 ) 2 1 m + mV 2 + O(V 4 ). 2
1/2
(3.114) (3.115) (3.116) (3.117)
We interpret this as the rest mass (m) + kinetic energy (mV 2 /2) + relativistic correction (O(V 4 )). In the rest frame = 1 and we have Einsteins famous equation E=m . (or in non-relativistic units E = mc2 ). Exercise 3.7 a. Show that if the particle has three-velocity V , p = E V. b. Show that E 2 = | p |2 + m2 . 3.9.2 Forces (3.118)
Newton: Classically: F = ma In Special Relativity, this becomes fa = ma a (3.119)
50 where
Special Relativity
aa
Theorem:
dU a d2 X a = . d d 2
(3.120) (3.121)
a aU a = 0
i.e. the 4-acceleration is perpendicular to the 4-velocity. Proof:
a U =
dU U d 1d UU = 2 d 1d = (1) 2 d = 0.
(3.122) (3.123) (3.124) (3.125)
Corollary Since the force f = ma , with m scalar, we also have f U=0 . 3.9.3 Energy-Momentum Conservation (3.126)
Consider 2 particles colliding: Total 4-momentum

p
1
before after
a pa 1 + p2 a pa 3 + p4
(3.127) (3.128)
Conservation of Energy and Momentum:

p
2
a a a = pa 1 + p2 = p3 + p4
(3.129)
3.9.4
Photons
The four-velocity becomes ill-dened when V 1: Ua = V . V (3.130)
3.9 Relativistic Dynamics
51
Fortunately, the 4-momentum still makes sense. Let m 0 while V 1, keeping E = m constant: pa = (m, m V ) = (E, E V ). (3.131)
Note that |p|2 = m2 . = limV 1 The 3-vector V becomes a unit vector as its modulus V 1. Let k V. Then pa = (E, E k ). Here k tells us the direction of travel of the photon. In quantum theory, E = for a photon, where is the angular frequency of the light. This implies pa = (, k ) (3.132) . We will write ka = (, where k = k k ) for the wave-number = p = k . (3.133)
N.B. The world-line of a photon cannot be parameterized by (proper time), since proper time does not exist for a photon (d = 0 along the path of a photon). We can still use other parameters, for example the coordinate time t in some reference frame.
Chapter 4
Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

Well, I do not mind telling you I have been at work upon this geometry of Four Dimensions for some time. Some of my results are curious. For instance, here is a portrait of a man at eight years old, another at fteen, another at seventeen, another at twenty-three, and so on. All these are evidently sections, as it were, Three-Dimensional representations of his Four-Dimensioned being, which is a xed and unalterable thing.
4.1
Maxwells Equations Review

0
We will use units where
= 0 = c = 1 (Vacuum Equations)
4.1.1
Internal Structure Equations
The internal structure equations involve the elds only; matter terms involving charges and currents do not appear. B = 0, E + t B = 0.
(4.1) (4.2)
Equation (4.1) implies there are no magnetic monopoles - lines of magnetic ux have no endpoints. The meaning of Equation (4.2) can be seen by integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C :
52
4.1 Maxwells Equations Review
53
^ n
E n d2 x =
S S
t B n d2 x
(4.3) (4.4) (4.5)
d B n d2 x dt S d = [magnetic ux through S ] dt E dl
C
but, by Stokes theorem E n d2 x =

S
(4.6) (4.7)
= [electric power round C ] Thus, changes in the magnetic ux produce electric power (and vice-versa). 4.1.2 Source Equations E = c , B t E = J . Equation (4.8) implies that electric eld lines start and stop at electric charges. For non-relativistic applications, t E is small, and equation (4.9) gives B J (4.10)
B J
(4.8) (4.9)
i.e. Magnetic eld lines circle currents Maxwells equations give us 4 vector equations, but 8 component equations.
54 4.1.3 Lorentz Force
The source equations tell us how matter generates elds. We need a supplemental equation to see how elds aect matter - the Lorentz Force equation. For a particle of charge q F =q E+VB . (4.11)
4.1.4
Charge Conservation
Charge conservation is expressed by the equation t c + J = 0. (4.12)
If we integrate this over a volume V , bounded by the surface S , containing charge Q; J d3 x

V
t c d3 x =
V
(4.13) (By the Divergence Theorem) (4.14) (4.15)
d dt
c d3 x =
V S
J n d2 x
d (Q) = [ow of charge out of V ] dt
V Q
A physical system of elds and matter can be represented as follows:
4.2 The Faraday Tensor
55
4.2
The Faraday Tensor
We dene the Faraday Tensor as the antisymmetric tensor

b
0 Ex Ey Ez Ex 0 Bz By a. Fab = Ey Bz 0 Bx Ez By Bx 0
(4.16)
Denition 4.1 two-forms A two-form is an antisymmetric second rank tensor with two lower indices. Thus the Faraday tensor is a two-form. In general, we will dene elds as forms (like gradients), and particles (i.e. 4-velocities, currents) as vectors. However, at times we can raise or lower using the metric. e.g. Ua = gab U b . Exercise 4.1 a. Find the raised version of Fab , i.e. nd F cd = ce df Fef . Be careful if you use matrix multiplication!! b. Next nd the dual Faraday tensor F ab 1/2 Answer: F ab
abcd
Fcd .
(4.17)
0 +Bx +By +Bz Bx 0 Ez Ey = By Ez 0 Ex Bz Ey Ex 0
(4.18)
4.3
Internal Structure Equations

a Fbc + b Fca + c Fab = 0 (4.19)
True for any a, b, c = 0, 1, 2, 3. Example 4.1 a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 1 F23 + 2 F31 + 3 F12 = 0 = Bx + By + Bz = 0 x y z B =0 which is the rst Maxwell equation. Note: There are 64 combinations of a, b, c, but most are useless!
56 Example 4.2 a = 1, b = 2, c = 2
1 F22 + 2 F21 + 2 F12 = 0 (0) + (Bz ) + (Bz ) = 0 = x y y = 0 = 0 Which is true automatically, and tells us nothing. Only 4 choices of a, b, c are useful those where all three are dierent. Exercise 4.2 Consider the equation b F
ab
= 0.
(4.20)
Find the four equations for E and B generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3. Show that these are just the Internal Maxwell equations B = 0, E+ B = 0. t (4.21)
4.4
Source Equations
b F ab = j a . (4.22)
where: j 0 = c , (j 1 , j 2 , j 3 ) = J , and F ab = ac bd Fcd , F ab = g ac g bd Fcd , Special Relativity: 0 Ex Ey Ez Ex 0 Bz By . = Ey Bz 0 Bx Ez By Bx 0 (Special Relativity); (General Relativity). (4.23) (4.24)
F ab
(4.25)
There are 4 equations, for a = 0, 1, 2, 3 E.g. a = 0: b F 0b = j 0 0 F 00 + 1 F 01 + 2 F 02 + 3 F 03 = j 0 t (0) + x Ex + y Ey + z Ez = c E = c
4.5 Charge Conservation
57
4.5
Charge Conservation
c + J = 0 t 0 1 0 j + 1 j + 2 j 2 + 3 j 3 = 0 (4.26) (4.27) (4.28)
or a j a = 0 . This equation follows immediately from the Source equation: a j a = a b F ab = 0 (4.29)
as a b is symmetric while F ab is antisymmetric. The 4-divergence In general, when the 4-divergence, a V a , of a vector eld vanishes, we say that V a is conserved. c . The time component j 0 = c gives the amount of charge The 4-current is j a = J moving in the time direction per unit (space) volume. The components of J give the amount of charge moving in each space direction per unit time. Exercise 4.3 Let inertial frame B move at speed V x with respect to inertial frame A. Suppose in frame A the magnetic eld components vanish. Using the Faraday Tensor, nd the magnetic eld components and electric eld components in frame B .
4.6
Lorentz Force
f a = qUb F ba . (4.30)
Example 4.3 What is the a = 1 component of the force? Solution f 1 = qUb F b1 = f 1 = q F 01 Vx F 11 Vy F 21 Vz F 31 = q (Ex Vx (0) Vy (Bz ) Vz By ) = q (Ex + (Vy Bz Vz By )) = q Ex + ( V B )x and so f 1 , f 2 , f 3 = q E + V B Checking that f U = 0 f U = qU F U = qF U U (Ua = (, V ))
58
but F is anti-symmetric, while U U is symmetric; the double contraction therefore gives 0. Exercise 4.4 Express the Lorentz scalars F ab Fab , F ab F ab (4.31)
in terms of E and B. Suppose that E vanishes in some inertial frame. Show that E must be perpendicular to B in all frames. Is it possible for B = 0, E = 0 in one frame and E = 0, B = 0 in another?
4.7
Potential Form
Denition 4.2 Electromagnetic potential The electromagnetic potential is given by the form = (e , A ) (4.32) where e is the static electric potential and A is the magnetic vector potential. The Faraday tensor involves antisymmetric derivatives of : Fab = b a a b . This denition is consistent with the assignments E = e t A , B = A. 4.7.1 Advantage Internal Structure Equations (4.33)
(4.34) (4.35)
These are automatically satised: a Fbc + b Fca + c Fab = ? Using the electromagnetic potential, = a (c b b c ) + b (a c c a ) + c (b a a b ) = 0 just by cancellations. 4.7.2 Advantage Source Equations b F ab = j a becomes b b a a b = j a where a = g ab b . (4.37) (4.36)
The equation
4.8 Gauge Transformations We can write this as

2 a
59
a b b = j a
where:
2
dAlembertian
= b b 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 2 2 t x y z 2 = 2 2 t Thus, Maxwells equations reduce to a single source equation, with the internal equations being automatic and no longer needed.
4.8
Gauge Transformations
Recall that B = A . Suppose we apply the gauge transformation A = A + for some function . Then B = A (4.38) = A + (4.39) = A +0 (4.40) = B. (4.41) Similarly, if = + , then Fab = b (a + a ) a (b + b ) = b a a b + (b a a b ) = Fab . The potentials are therefore not unique, and we are free to choose the most convenient potential, a , to solve the problem
4.9
Lorentz Gauge
a a = h
Suppose we try a potential, , where
for some function h. Then we may apply the gauge transformation = + where satises a a = h.
60
This equation can be shown to always have a solution, and so we are left with a new potential which satises a a = 0 . Lorentz Gauge (4.42)
In Lorentz gauge, the source equation becomes

2 a
= ja .
(4.43)
4.10
Light Waves
=
2
In the vacuum, j a = 0 = b = 0 2 a 2 a 2 a 2 a = =0 t2 x2 y 2 z 2 which is the wave equation, with solution of the form a = C a eikb x =C e
b
a b a
=0
(4.44) (4.45) (4.46)
(4.47) . (4.48)
a i(t k x)
Here k = (, k ) is the wave vector, and C a is the amplitude. Check: 2 a = 2 a 2 t 2 a 2 a = kx x2 etc . . . Substituting these into the wave equation gives 2 + k 2 = 0 or = k . (4.49) (4.50) (4.51) (4.52)
(4.53) (4.54)
Exercise 4.5 Suppose that magnetic monopoles exist in nature. Then, in addition to the electric charge-current 4-vector je , there is a magnetic charge-current 4-vector jm = (m , jm x , jm y , jm z ) where m is the magnetic charge density and jm x is the current of magnetic charge in the x direction. The Maxwell equations become
a b F ab = je ab a b F = jm .
4.10 Light Waves
61
ab a a. Consider the second equation b F = jm . Find the four equations for E and B generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3. b. Show that magnetic charge is conserved; i.e. show that
a a jm = 0.
c. The Lorentz force on a magnetic monopole of charge qm and 4-velocity U a is fa = dpa ab = qm Ub F . d
Find the four equations generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3. Express these in terms of the three-velocity V = d x /dt and = (1 V 2 )1/2 . d. Show that the Lorentz force in the previous item is perpendicular to U in the sense that f U = 0. e. Suppose that the Faraday tensor Fab can be written in the form Fab = a b b a for some four-potential . Show that the magnetic current 4-vector must vanish, i.e. jm = 0.
Chapter 5
The Equivalence Principle

There was a minutes pause perhaps. The Psychologist seemed about to speak to me, but changed his mind. Then the Time Traveller put forth his nger towards the lever. No, he said suddenly. Lend me your hand. And turning to the Psychologist, he took that individuals hand in his own and told him to put out his forenger. So that it was the Psychologist himself who sent forth the model Time Machine on its interminable voyage. We all saw the lever turn. I am absolutely certain there was no trickery. There was a breath of wind, and the lamp ame jumped.
5.1
Inertial mass
Gravitational mass is equivalent to inertial mass.
Newtons second law states that the force on an object is proportional to mass times acceleration. In this section, we will call the mass which appears in this law the inertial mass: F = mI a. (5.1) for example, consider the electro-static interaction between two particles with masses m1 , m2 , and charges q1 , q2 . Particle 2 feels a force q 1 q2 F2 = 2 r 12 . r12 (5.2)
The acceleration felt by particle 2 can then be found by combining these two equations: a2 = q2 m2 I q1 r . 2 12 r12 (5.3)
Thus, a 2 depends on the ratio of charge to inertial mass, q2 /m2 I . Next, consider a particle falling to the ground. The Newtonian gravitational force resembles the electrostatic force (both are inverse square laws), with masses replacing electrical charges. We will simply call the gravitational charge m. Let M be the mass of the Earth, r the distance to the centre of the Earth, and r the upwards unit vector.
62
5.2 Free Fall Then the force on an apple falling to the ground can be written CM m F = r , r2 where C is a constant. Now, by Newtons 2nd law F = mI a m = a = mI
63
(5.4)
(5.5) C M r2 r . (5.6)
Thus, a depends on the ratio of gravitational mass to inertial mass, m/mI . Galileos experiments a should be the same for all materials, once air resistance is neglected. This implies that m/mI is the same constant for all matter. Thus, we can combine the two constants C and m/mI into a single constant m mI GM . = a = 2 r r G = C (5.7) (5.8)
We now see a fundamental dierence between the electrical force and the gravitational force: the former depends on a charge-to-inertial-mass ratio, but the latter does not. The inertial forces (also known as ctitious forces) are similar to gravity in this respect the acceleration has no dependence on mass.
5.2
Free Fall
Einstein had diculty incorporating both gravity and inertial forces into special relativity. His great insight was to treat them together, using the principle of equivalence to eliminate the dependence on mass. Now, inertial forces can be eliminated by transferring to a nonaccelerating frame. Einstein reasoned that gravitational forces can be removed in a similar way by transferring to a free-fall frame. Example: Consider an object in the Earths gravitational eld near r = R . Let z be the vertical direction. d2 z = g dt2 GM g= R 10ms1
64 initial conditions: z0 = z (t = 0) = h z0 = V0 = z (t) = gt + V0 1 z (t) = h gt2 + V0 t 2 Lets transform to new co-ordinates: 1 (z, t) = z + gt2 2 Then: = h + V0 t = V0 = constant = 0
Since the acceleration is zero, there is no gravitational force. 5.2.1 Locally Inertial Frames
Denition Locally Inertial Frame (LIF) An LIF is a reference frame with origin at spacetime event P . An object at P is in free-fall (if there are no external forces). Near P , there are no gravitational forces, and special relativity holds. In an LIF a. gab b. c gab = 0.
P P
= ab ,
(5.9)
(5.10)
for all a, b, c. The second condition follows from the isotropy of space-time.
5.3
Geodesics
Denition Geodesic a. A geodesic is a path on a manifold M which is an extremum of length (i.e. max or min distance between two points). b. A geodesic is a path which has zero covariant acceleration (to be dened later).
5.3 Geodesics 5.3.1 Examples
65
a. R2 . Geodesics are straight lines. b. S 2 . Geodesics are the great circles, for example the equator. c. Minkowski Space M 4 . In special relativity, distance becomes proper time, d 2 = ds2 = dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2
t
000 111 Q 111 000 000 111
Path 1 Path 2
11 00 00 11 00 11 00 11 P
Path 1: 1 = Path 2: 2 = < dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 dt2 = t. (5.12) (5.13) d = dt = t. (5.11)
Thus, 1 > 2 . An object at rest has maximum proper time (and follows a geodesic in space-time). 5.3.2 The Geodesic Equation
In general relativity, the orbit of a satellite is a geodesic in a space-time distorted by the mass of the Earth. How can we nd the orbit? We seek an expression for the acceleration of the satellite in ordinary coordinates xed to the Earth. In the locally inertial (free-fall) frame, of course, the acceleration is easy: it is zero! Let ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) be coordinates in the satellites LIF, while X are coordinates xed to the Earth. In other words, near the spacetime event ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) = (0, 0, 0, 0), the satellite is at rest in the LIF coordinates, and experiences no forces and no acceleration:
66
a ULIF
1 d a 0 = = 0 ; d 0 = d2 a = 0. d 2
(5.14)
a dULIF d
(5.15)
Let U be the 4-velocity in Earth coordinates X. We now transform ULIF to U: 0= d d d ULIF = d d = d b U Xb d d d d b b U + U d Xb Xb d (5.16) (5.17)
by the product rule. To understand the rst term, we use the fact that d d dt dx + + ... d t d x = U 0 0 + U 1 1 + . . . = U c c = (5.18) (5.19) (5.20)
to obtain 0 = U b U c c d d b d U + Xb Xb d d d b 2d U . = U bU c b c + X X Xb d (5.21) (5.22)
The last term contains what we are searching for: the acceleration in the Earth frame dU b /d . However, we need to free this expression from the transformation matrix d / Xb . To rid ourselves of this unwanted matrix, we multiply by its inverse Xa / d : Xa d = ab. d Xb This gives 0 =
2 d d d b Xa b c U U + U d Xb Xc Xb d Xa 2 d b c a d = U U + U b. b d Xb Xc d
(5.23)
(5.24) (5.25)
Now, a b dU b /d = dU a /d . Rearranging terms, we nally obtain dU a Xa 2 d + d U bU c = 0 . b c d X X (5.26)
5.3 Geodesics Equation (5.26) can be written in the form dU a + a bc U b U c = 0, d where the Christoel symbols a bc are given by a bc = Xa 2 d . d Xb Xc
67
(5.27)
(5.28)
Equation (5.26) is called the geodesic equation, and governs the motion of matter in the absence of forces. A more useful formula for the Christoel symbols will be derived in the exercise below, and (in a dierent way) in the next chapter. Equation (5.26) has been introduced here because of its physical meaning. It computes the apparent acceleration dU a /d of an object in one frame (X) in terms of transformations from the LIF. We experience gravitational forces only because we insist on viewing things from a non-inertial frame! Like any other ctitious or inertial force, gravitation arises from the acceleration of one frame of reference with respect to the inertial frames. We do feel the eects of weight, particularly after a long hike uphill, but we can now view this as the eect of forces coming from the ground under our feet, accelerating us away from our natural state free-fall. Exercise 5.1 Here we derive an expression for the Christoel symbols in terms of the metric. To simplify the notation, gab will denote the metric in the non-inertial frame, gLab the metric in the LIF, and a / Xa (i.e. the shorthand for partial derivatives applies only to the noninertial X frame). a. Show that c gab = (c a f )(b g ) + (a f )(c b g ) gLf g . b. Show that abc = gae e bc = (a f )(b c g )gLf g . c. Show that abc + bca = c gab . d. Hence show that 1 a bc = g ad (b gcd + c gdb d gbc ) . 2 (5.31) (5.32) (5.30) (5.29)
5.3.3
Covariant Acceleration
Theorem. If the components of a tensor vanish in one co-ordinate system, then they vanish in all frames. Proof. This follows directly from the transformation laws for a tensor. For example, ab if in frame A we have MA = 0 for all a, b, then in frame B
cd MB =
Bc Bd ab (0) = 0. Aa Ab
(5.33)
68
Note that the acceleration term dU a /d is zero in the LIF, but non-zero in the Earth frame. Thus it is not a tensor! To understand the motion of objects in general relativity further, we must learn how to dierentiate vectors in a covariant way (i.e. so that the result is a tensor). A vector U involves not only its components U a , but also the basis vectors of the coordinate system. If space-time is warped, or even if we are simply using non-Cartesian coordinates, these basis vectors will point in dierent directions at dierent points. In the next chapter, we will show how to dierentiate vectors by including both components and basis vectors.
Chapter 6
Covariant Derivatives
One of the candles on the mantel was blown out, and the little machine suddenly swung round, became indistinct, was seen as a ghost for a second perhaps, as an eddy of faintly glittering brass and ivory; and it was gonevanished! Save for the lamp the table was bare.
How do we dierentiate vectors (& tensors)? There are many examples in physics where derivatives need to be extended. For example, in uid mechanics the Navier-Stokes force equation reads DV = p + 2 V (6.1) Dt where D/Dt is the total Lagrangian derivative D/Dt = /t + V . In Quantum mechanics, Schr odingers equation has the form 1 2m
2
(6.2)
+V
= E.
(6.3)
With an applied magnetic eld the gradient is replaced by the gauge covariant deriva ie tive m A , where A = B . In this context the vector potential A is sometimes called the electromagnetic connection.
6.1
Non-Euclidean Geometry
A Co-ordinate Line is a line parameterized by one of the co-ordinates. A basis vector is a tangent vector to a co-ordinate line. Let eO a be the basis vector tangent to the co-ordinate line following xa . Note A circled subscript appears because the subscript chooses between the vectors in a set e.g. the set {eO 0 , eO 1 , eO 2 , eO 3 } ordinary subscripts choose the component of a single vector.
Basis Vectors 69
70
Thus, in component form (for co-ordinates X) 0 1 0 dX /X dX1 /X1 1 eO = 1 dX2 /X1 = 0 0 dX3 /X1
0 1 = eO = 0, eO 1 1 = 1, . . . a a or eO = 1 1
(6.4) (6.5) (6.6) (6.7)
In general,
a a eO c = c .
Note that the basis vectors need not be orthogonal or of unit size:
a d eO = gad eO b eO c b eO c
(6.8) (6.9) (6.10)
= = gbc
a d gad b c
i.e. the scalar product of basis vectors eO b and eO c is equal to element gbc of the metric. All vectors can be written as sums of basis vectors: V0 V1 c V= (6.11) c. V2 = V eO V3
6.2 The Covariant Derivative
71
6.2
The Covariant Derivative

c c b V = b V c eO c = ( b V ) e O c + V (b eO c ).
Derivatives must satisfy the product rule. Thus for the derivative in the Xb direction (6.12) V c is a number at each point (i.e. a function of position), so we can write V c (b V c ) = b V c = Xb c = b V = (b V c ) eO b eO c +V c .
(6.13) (6.14)
We need to dene the last term in brackets. The object b eO c is itself a vector. We will name its components with the capital Greek letter : 0 bc 1 bc b eO (6.15) c = 2 . bc 3 bc In terms of the basis vectors,
0 1 2 3 b eO c = bc eO 0 + bc eO 1 + bc eO 2 + bc eO 3,
(6.16)
or
a b eO c = bc eO a .
(6.17)
The object a bc is called a metric connection, or alternatively a Christoel symbol. Let us go back to calculating the gradient of a vector:
c b V = (b V c ) eO b eO c +V c c c a = (b V ) eO bc eO c +V a .
(6.18) (6.19) (6.20) (6.21)
Exchange a c in the 1st term on the RHS:

c a = b V = (b V a ) eO a + V bc eO a a c a = (b V + V bc ) eO a.
This is a vector, with components b V a. Produces tensors. b. Obeys the product rule. c. For a scalar function f , b f = b f = d. There exists a set of numbers a bc , where b V
a a
= (b V a + a bc V c )
To recap: The covariant derivative, b (derivatives in Xb direction)
f . Xb
(6.22)
= b V a + a bc V c .
72
6.3
Derivatives of Other Tensors
Use the properties listed above. Example: Given a 2nd rank tensor, Mcd , nd (b M )cd . To do this, let V c , W d be arbitrary vectors. Let f = Mcd V c W d be a scalar function. By the product rule for b , b f = (b Mcd ) V c W d + Mcd (b V c ) W d + Mcd V c b W d . Also by the product rule for b , b f = (b M )cd V c W d + Mcd b V W d + Mcd V c b W Meanwhile,b f = b f , so (b M )cd V c W d = (b Mcd ) V c W d + Mcd b V c b V +Mcd V c b W d b W Now apply rule(4): (b M )cd V c W d = (b Mcd ) V c W d + Mcd (c ba V a ) W d + V c d ba W a . (6.25)
d c c d
(6.23)
(6.24)
Wd
Next we factor out V and W . To do this, we swap a c in the second to last term, and a d in the last term: (b M )cd V c W d = (b Mcd ) V c W d (a bc Mad + a bd Mca ) V c W d . (6.26) As the above is true for any values of V c and W d we can cancel V c W d from both sides, with the nal result (b M )cd = b Mcd a bc Mad a bd Mca . (6.27)
In general, we will obtain one for each index of a tensor, with a minus sign for each subscript (form) index and a plus sign for each superscript (vector) index. Exercise 6.1 The covariant derivative b of a vector eld X a is
c b X a = b X a + a bc X .
(6.28)
Also, the covariant derivative of a scalar is the same as the partial derivative: a f = a f. (6.29)
Use these equations to nd an expression for the covariant derivative b of a form Wc , i.e. nd b Wc . Exercise 6.2 In general Relativity, the relation between the Faraday tensor and the vector potential a is dened by Fab = (b )a (a )b . (6.30) Write out the right hand side in terms of Christoel symbols. Show that the Christoel terms cancel, leaving Fab = (b )a (a )b . (6.31)
6.3 Derivatives of Other Tensors Suppose the operator (covariant derivative) satises g = 0 b. a bc = a cb (zero torsion) (g = metric)
73
Theorem:
a. (6.32) (6.33)
then the Christoel symbols are determined by 1 a bc = g ad (b gcd + c gdb d gbc ) . 2

Proof:
(6.34)
gcd is a 2nd order tensor with two lower indices, so (b g )cd = b gcd a bc gad a bd gca . (6.35) (6.36)
Dene dbc gad a bc . Then (b g )cd = b gcd dbc cbd = 0 = b gcd = dbc + cbd . Next apply assumption 2: cdb = cbd , so b gcd = dbc + cdb . Obtain two more equations by cycling b c, c d, and d b: = c gdb = bcd + dbc d gbc = cdb + bcd . Take the sum (equation (6.40) + equation (6.41) - equation (6.42)): b gcd + c gdb d gbc = 2dbc + 0 + 0 1 = dbc = (b gcd + c gdb d gbc ) . 2 Finally, use gdb = gbd in the second to last term and let a bc = g ad dbc (6.45) (6.43) (6.44) (6.41) (6.42) (6.40) (6.37) (6.38) (6.39)
to prove the theorem. Exercise 6.3 Consider a sphere of radius 1 as a 2-dimensional manifold with coordinates X1 = (colatitude) and X2 = (longitude). What is the metric gab and its inverse
74
g bc ? Find the Christoel symbols a bc (there are 8 of these for a 2-dimensional manifold). Suppose a geodesic on the sphere is parameterized by . Use the geodesic equation
c b d2 Xa a dX dX =0 + bc d2 d d
(6.46)
to nd 6.3.1
d2 d2
and
d2 . d2
The gradient of the metric in General Relativity
For an object in free-fall (no external forces) the geodesic equation gives dU a + a bc U b U c = 0 . d (6.47)
This is true in all coordinate frames. But in the LIF the object will appear to be at rest (or in uniform motion). Thus the components of U in the LIF remain constant, i.e. dU a /d = 0. This implies that a bc U b U c = 0 in LIF. (6.48)
Since this holds for arbitrary 4-velocities U, we must have the Christoel symbols vanishing, a bc = 0 in LIF. (6.49) (Strictly speaking, only the part of a bc symmetric in the lower indices b and c need vanish. Einsteins theory employs the simplest assumption, that the antisymmetric part of a bc called the torsion is always zero. Some modied theories of gravity include a non-zero torsion.) Now, (c g )ab = c gab d ca gdb d cb gad . (6.50) In the LIF, however, d ca = d cb = 0. Also, by the denition of locally inertial frames, c gab = 0. Thus g = 0. (6.51) And, since g is a tensor, it must vanish in all frames. Thus in General Relativity equation (6.34) can be used to calculate the Christoel symbols.
6.4
Covariant Directional Derivatives and Acceleration
Consider a curve parameterized by whose tangent vector is V (see section 1.5.1). For a function f , the derivative in the direction along the curve is (Recall equation (1.76)): df = V f d = V b b f. (6.52) (6.53)
6.5 Newtons Law of motion
75
For the directional derivative of a vector along the curve, the covariant gradient now includes Christoel symbols. Thus for a vector W, DW = V W , D or, expressed in components, DW D
a
(6.54)
V W
a a
(6.55) (6.56) (6.57) (6.58)
= V b b W
= V b (b W a + a bc W c ) dW a + a bc V b W c . = d
We can apply this to nd the acceleration 4-vector. Let the world-line of an object be parameterized by its proper time , with tangent vector the 4-velocity U. Then the 4-acceleration is
a = aa
DU = U U; D a = U b b U = U b (b U a + a bc U c ) dU a = + a bc U b U c . d
(6.59) (6.60) (6.61)
Note the similarity with the geodesic equation, equation (6.47): The geodesic equation can now be written in a very simple form:
a =0 . 6.5 Newtons Law of motion
(6.62)
Newtons 2nd law becomes, for an external force f a f = ma = m

a a
DU D
(6.63)
If f a = 0, an object follows a geodesic. We can now describe the apparent acceleration of component a of the 4-velocity, U a : dU a 1 a = f a bc U b U c . d m (6.64)
The rst term on the RHS arises from external forces, while the second term arises from ctitious inertial forces, including gravity.
76
6.6
Twin Paradox
In the year 2000, one twin sets o for a distant planet, while the other twin stays home. Flight Plan (in ship time = proper time): a. 5 year acceleration 1g 10 ms2 , the surface acceleration of the Earth. b. 5 year deceleration 1g . c. 1 year on planet. d. 5 year acceleration 1g . e. 5 year deceleration 1g . In relativistic units g 1.03yr1 . When does the twin arrive back on Earth? We need to compare Earth time tE with the proper time . Conveniently, as measured 0 in the Earth frame the zeroth component of the 4-velocity UE is
0 UE =
dtE = . d
(6.65)
So (setting tE = = 0 at the start of the journey) tE ( ) =

0
( )d .
(6.66)
Strategy: Compare U a and a a in both the Earth and the spaceship frame. We will ignore the y and z components, considering only the t and x components. Ship: in the spaceship rest frame,
a US ( ) =
1 . 0
(6.67)
The astronauts feel a force of one Earth gravity, which allows them to walk around the spaceship rather than oat about. This force is the normal force from the oor acting on the feet of the astronauts. For an astronaut of mass m, Newtons second law states that the normal force (in the forward S1 = x direction) is F = mg. Let us write this in covariant form: the covariant Newtons 2nd law reads
a FS
(6.68)
=m
DUS D
= mg.
(6.69)
Expanding the covariant derivative in terms of ordinary derivatives and Christoel symbols,
a =m FS a dUS b c + a S bc US US . d
(6.70)
6.6 Twin Paradox But in the ships rest frame

a US =
77
1 0
constant,
(6.71) (6.72)
a dUS = 0. d
Thus
a FS = ma S 00 .
(6.73) (6.74)
In particular, 1 S 00 = g ( 1.03 year1 ).

a Thus 1 S 00 gives the ctional (inertial) force felt by the astronauts. Also, as FS USa = 0, 0 = 0 and 0 we must have FS S 00 = 0. Earth: Assume the Earth frame is an inertial frame, a E bc = 0, i.e. ignore the Earths own gravity. Then a a DUE dUE + 0. (6.75) = D d
Now, Ea b U ( ). (6.76) Sb S The co-ordinate transformation between the Earth frame and the spaceship frame depends on the speed and hence the position of the ship. The position of the ship is parameterized by the proper time . For a ship travelling at speed V ( ) the Lorentz boost formula gives
a UE ( ) =
Ea = Sb 6.6.1 The rapidity
( ) V ( ) . V ( ) ( )
(6.77)
Let the rapidity be dened by = tanh1 V . Thus the quantities V , = (1 V 2 ) and V are given by simple hyperbolic functions: V = tanh , = cosh , V = sinh . In terms of the rapidity, the transformation matrix has the simple form Ea = Sb cosh ( ) sinh ( ) . sinh ( ) cosh ( )
1/2
(6.78) (6.79) (6.80)
(6.81)
78
Because both the velocity 4-vector and the covariant acceleration are tensors, they can be readily transformed to Earth coordinates from the spaceship frame as in equation (6.76): UE ( ) = = DUE = D = = g cosh sinh sinh cosh cosh ( ) ; sinh ( ) cosh sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh sinh cosh sinh ( ) . cosh ( ) DUS D 0 g 1 0 (6.82) (6.83) (6.84) (6.85) (6.86)
a Meanwhile, the ordinary derivative of UE is a dUE d = d d
cosh ( ) sinh ( )
(6.87) (6.88)
sinh ( ) , = cosh ( ) = d/d . Thus from equation (6.75), we nd = g , which integrates to where ( ) = g.
0 = = cosh(g ), we have We can now go back to equation (6.66). As UE
(6.89)
tE ( ) =
0
cosh(g )d 1 sinh(g ). g
(6.90) (6.91)
tE ( ) =
Now g = 1.03yr1 , and so at = 5 years, tE = sinh(5.15)/1.03 = 86.6yr. At this point, Earth time is 2086, Ship time is 2005. Similarly, the 5 year deceleration takes 86.6 years on Earth; 1 year on alien planet takes 1 year on Earth; the return journey takes 2 86.6 years on Earth. So the twin returns to Earth 21 years older, in the year 2347. Note the asymmetry between the stay-at-home twin and the space-faring twin. Earth people see the spaceship moving away and returning. But people on the spaceship also see the Earth moving away and returning! However, there is no true symmetry here: only the spaceship resides in a non-inertial rest frame. This results in a true dierence between the ow of time on the spaceship and on the Earth. (6.92)
Chapter 7
Orbits
Everyone was silent for a minute. Then Filby said he was damned.
7.1
Noethers Theorem
For any continuous symmetry of a physical system, there is a conserved quantity. This theorem is most often expressed in the context of Hamiltonian or Lagrangian mechanics, either quantum or classical. For example, if H is the Hamiltonian for a physical system, then: a. If dH/dt = 0 (H symmetric to time translation), energy is conserved. b. If H/x = 0 (H symmetric to translation in the x direction) then the x component of linear momentum is conserved. c. If H/ = 0 (H symmetric to rotation), then angular momentum is conserved d. In electromagnetism, if H is independent of gauge, then charge is conserved. e. In particle theory, gauge symmetry can imply conservation of other kinds of charge. For example SU(3) symmetry implies conservation of colour (strong force) charge. To employ symmetry arguments in the analysis of orbits, we rst prove a variant of Noethers theorem applicable to geodesics.
Theorem:
dpa m = (a gbc ) U b U c . d 2
(7.1)
Thus, for example, if 0 gbc = 0, then dp0 /d = 0. In this case the energy E = p0 will be conserved. Proof 7.1 We derive the corresponding equation for the lowered form of the 4-velocity U. Here U = p/m can be interpreted as energy-momentum per unit mass.
79
80 First, we write Ua = gae U e and apply the product rule: dUa d = (gae U e ) d d dgae dU e = gae + Ue . d d
Orbits
(7.2) (7.3)
Apply the geodesic equation equation (6.47) to the rst term, and write d/d = U b b in the second term: dUa = gae e bc U b U c + U e U b b gae . (7.4) d Next, we can change the dummy variable e c in the last term, so that we can factor out U b U c : dUa = gae e bc U b U c + U c U b b gac (7.5) d = (b gac gae e bc ) U b U c . (7.6) Note that g ed is the inverse metric tensor, so by equation (6.34), abc gae e bc = 1 gae g ed (b gcd + c gdb d gbc ) 2 1 d a (b gcd + c gdb d gbc ) = 2 1 (b gca + c gab a gbc ) . = 2 1 (b gca + c gab a gbc ) U b U c 2 (7.7) (7.8) (7.9)
Thus dUa = d = b gac (7.10)
1 (a gbc + b gac c gab ) U b U c , (7.11) 2 using gca = gac to combine the rst two terms in equation (7.10). Finally, the last two terms in equation (7.11) involve the factor (b gac c gab ), which is anti-symmetric in b and c. But this factor double-contracts with U b U c , which is symmetric in b and c. Contraction of symmetric and anti-symmetric tensors gives 0, i.e. b gac c gab U b U c = 0 so we are left with QED dUa 1 = (a gbc ) U b U c . d 2 (7.12) (7.13)
7.2
The Schwarzschild Metric
Consider the space surrounding a planet or star or black hole of total mass M . We will assume that the central object is spherically symmetric (so we ignore rotation) and time
7.2 The Schwarzschild Metric
81
independent (so we ignore time evolution). One can show from the Einstein eld equations that the metric line element is d 2 = 1 rs rs dt2 1 r r
1
dr2 r2 d2 r2 sin2 d2 .
(7.14)
where rs 2GM is called the Schwarzschild Radius. Equivalently the metric tensor is 1 rrs 0 gab = 0 0 0 1 rrs 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 2 r 0 2 2 0 r sin
(7.15)
The Schwarzschild radius is quite small: for the Sun, M = M , rs = 3km. The radius of the sun, however, is R = 7 105 km rs . Thus for anything orbiting the sun, even in a very low orbit, r > R so the ratio rs /r 1. For the Earth, M = M , rs = 0.886cm. Again, for anything orbiting the Earth, rs /r 1. Also note that if we neglect the rs /r terms in the metric we get back to the Minkowski metric. 7.2.1 Symmetries and Conserved Quantities
To nd a planetary orbit, we solve the geodesic equation for objects moving in the curved space described by the Schwarzschild metric. This is dicult to do directly. However we can take advantage of two symmetries in the problem. The two symmetries are time invariance and rotational invariance: 0 gbc = t gbc = 0 for all b, c = 0, 1, 2, 3 3 gbc = gbc = 0 for all b, c = 0, 1, 2, 3. The corresponding conserved quantities are energy E and angular momentum L: dp 0 dE = = 0; d d dp 3 dL = = 0. d d (7.18) (7.19) (7.16) (7.17)
For massive particles we can dene the energy per unit mass k = E/m and the angular momentum per unit mass h = L/m. For constant rest mass h and k will also be constant along a geodesic. We rst consider k : k = U0 = g0b U b = rs 1 U 0. r (7.20) (7.21)
82 As U 0 = dt/d , we have rs dt =k 1 d r
1
Orbits
(7.22)
Thus the Noether symmetry arguments lead to an expression for how co-ordinate time t varies with proper time . Next consider the angular momentum per unit mass h: h = U3 = g3b U b = r2 sin2 U 3 . Now U 3 = d/d , so h d = 2 2 . d r sin (7.25) (7.23) (7.24)
Note how the velocity expressed as a vector U with upper indices U a has a dierent physical meaning from the form U with lower indices Ua . The vector U shows us where the object is going (as it represents the tangent to the world line). The form U, on the other hand, tells us how much energy and momentum (per unit mass) the object carries. 7.2.2 Orbits in the Equatorial Plane
Consider geodesics in the equatorial plane = /2. For the solar system this plane is called the ecliptic. (The constellations seen on the ecliptic are known as the zodiac.) For motion on this plane d = 0 and sin = 1, so the Schwarzschild metric line element simplies to rs r s 1 2 d 2 = 1 dt2 1 dr r2 d2 . (7.26) r r Let us nd orbit equations in terms of h and k : a. Divide the metric line element by d 2 and use equations (7.22) and (7.25) (with sin = 1): 1 = k = dr = d
2
rs 1 r
rs 1 r 1
dr d
h2 r2
(7.27) (7.28)
k2 1 +
h2 r2
rs . r
This gives us a dierential equation for dr/d . Unfortunately, it is quite non-linear and dicult to solve in this form. Exercise 7.1 (a) Starting with equation (7.28), derive an expression for dr/d in the form 1 2 dr d
2
+ V (r) = C
7.2 The Schwarzschild Metric where C is a constant, and the eective potential is V (r) = 1 2 rs h2 rs h2 2 + 3 r r r .
83
What is the eective energy C ? (b) Find the radii r1 and r2 , r1 < r2 where the eective potential has an extremum (maximum or minimum). Show that if C = V (r1 ) or C = V (r2 ) then the 2 2 requirements for a circular orbit (dr/d = d r/d = 0) are satised. Show that h 3 rs for these orbits. Also show that r2 3rs . (c) Let h = 2rs . What are r1 and r2 ? Show that for the outer orbit at r2 , V (r2 ) > 0 and hence that this orbit is stable. Is the inner orbit at r1 stable? b. To simplify the equation, we change the independent variable from , and nd r(): dr = d = dr d
2
dr d
d d
dr d 1
h r2 rs . r
(7.29) (7.30)
h2 h2 2 = k 1 + r4 r2
c. Next we change the dependent variable r u = 1/r. We will denote dierentiation by with a prime, e.g. u = du/d. Thus r dr dr du = d du d 1 = 2u u = (7.31) (7.32) (7.33)
u 2 u
u4 h2 = k 2 1 + h2 u2 (1 rs u) = u 2 =
k 2 (1 + h2 u2 ) (1 rs u) (7.34) h2 h2 We now have an equation for u which at least has no terms in the denominator: u2 = k2 1 h2 + rs u u 2 + rs u3 . 2 h (Einstein) (7.35)
The corresponding Newtonian orbit equation leaves out the last term: u 2 = kN + rs u u2 , h2 V 2 GM V2 rs kN = = . 2 r 2 2r (Newton) (7.36)
where the Newtonian energy per unit mass is (7.37)
84 d. We can simplify further by dierentiating with respect to : rs u 2uu + 3rs u2 u 2 h rs 3rs 2 = u + u = u. + 2 2h 2 2u u = Thus General Relativity predicts that orbits satisfy u +u= rs 3rs 2 u . + 2h2 2 (Einstein)
Orbits
(7.38) (7.39)
(7.40)
In contrast, the Newtonian orbit equation is u +u= rs . 2h2 (Newton) (7.41)
Compare the relativistic correction term (the last term in the Einstein version) to the linear term u: 3rs u2 /2 3 rs GM = =3 . (7.42) u 2r r For planets orbiting the sun at a radius r > 100R , 3 GM 107 100R (7.43)
and so the relativistic correction term results in very small deviations from the Newtonian predictions. These deviations have, however, been observed! Exercise 7.2 a. Consider a sphere of radius 1 as a 2-dimensional manifold with coordinates x1 = , x2 = , and line-element ds2 = d2 + sin2 d2 . Show that geodesics have a conserved quantity (call it H ). b. Using the metric line element, or otherwise, derive an equation for d/ds in terms of H . c. Let X = cos . Show that X satises dX ds
2
= 1 X 2 H 2.
d. Obtain a second-order dierential equation for X (s) and write down its general solution. Suppose a geodesic starts at co-latitude 0 heading due East. Find X (s) and hence (s) explicitly in terms of 0 . Show that the total length of the geodesic (i.e. the length needed to go all the way around the sphere once) is independent of 0 .
7.3 Precession of Mercurys Orbit
85
Figure 7.1: A visualization of the Schwarzschild Metric. More precisely, a 2-manifold imbedded in three dimensional space which has the same spatial metric as a constant time equatorial (t = constant, = /2) slice of the Schwarzschild metric (equation (7.26)).
Exercise 7.3 a. Consider a surface embedded in 3 dimensional Euclidean space (e.g. the surface of a bowl). Using cylindrical coordinates (r, , z ), the surface is specied by the function z = Z (r). Let the two coordinates on the surface be x1 = r and x2 = . Show that the metric of the surface is given by 2 1 + Z 0 (7.44) gab = . 0 r2 b. Next consider geodesics on the surface. Since the surface is purely spatial, we replace by arclength s in the geodesic equations. Show that the metric has a symmetry, and hence there exists a conserved quantity (call it h) along each geodesic. In other words, nd a quantity h such that dh/ds = 0. c. Let u = 1/r and let u = du/d. Derive the equation u2 = 1 u2 2 h 1 . 1+Z 2
d. Now suppose Z (r) = 2 r 1. Show that this gives a surface whose metric is the same as the spatial part of the Schwarzschild metric, equation (7.26), (for = /2) in units where rs = 1 (see gure 7.1). What is the equation for u 2 ? How does this compare with the orbit equation derived from the full Schwarzschild metric?
7.3
Precession of Mercurys Orbit
Perihelion = Closest approach to the Sun.
86
Orbits
Observations show that the perihelion of Mercury precesses about 1000 arcsec / century. Inuences of the other planets account for all but 43 of this. Einstein found the 43 could be explained by the extra term in the orbit equation. A numerical approach might be to go back to the rst order equation, equation (7.35), and integrate directly: (7.45) = d. (k 2 1) /h2 + rs u/h2 u2 + rs u3 However, for planetary orbits we can exploit the fact that the relativistic correction to Newtonian theory is very small. This will enable us to nd a simple analytic solution (approximate, but then so are numerical solutions!). 7.3.1 Method du
The angle measures the net angle through which the planet has orbited the sun. During the rst orbit 0 2 . During the second orbit, 2 4 and so on. But each successive orbit does not exactly follow the previous orbit, so for example u(2 ) = u(0). Thus the function u() cannot only contain terms periodic in like sin . There may be a linear term as well. We will solve for the function u(), then invert to obtain (u). Now at perihelion r = rmin , so u = umax . We will compare successive values of (umax ). Because the orbits are not exactly alike, (umax ) (umax ) = 2 +
orbit 2 orbit 1
(7.46)
for some angle . We will call the precession. But rst we need to solve for u(). We will do this by writing this function as the sum of the Newtonian solution plus a small correction term (we derive the Newtonian solution below): u() = u0 (1 + sin ) + y () ;
Newtonian Orbit Correction
(7.47)
rs . u0 (7.48) 2h2 We plug this into the orbit equation to obtain a new dierential equation for y (). As y () is small, we drop the non-linear terms (those in y 2 etc) to obtain a linear equation in y , which can then be readily solved.
7.3 Precession of Mercurys Orbit 7.3.2 Newtonian Solution
87
First, look at the solution to the Newtonian equations 7.36 and 7.41. The second order equation has sines and cosines as complementary functions and a constant as a particular solution, so the general solution can be written u() = A cos + B sin + u0 . (7.49)
Comment: Here there are two unknown constants of integration, as expected for a second order dierential equation. These could be determined, for example, by setting initial conditions u(0 ) and u (0 ) at some angle 0 . However, we started with a rst order equation, equation (7.36), which should only have one constant of integration. What has changed? When we dierentiated to obtain the second order equation, we lost some information about the orbit. In particular, we lost the term (k 2 1)/h2 . This is the only term which tells us about the energy k . A solution of the rst order equation may be characterized by just one of the initial conditions as well as k and h. The second order equation loses the explicit k dependence. Of course, the energy will be derivable as a function of the second initial condition, and vice-versa. The perihelion occurs at minimum r, hence maximum u. Let us suppose this occurs at 0 = /2. Then one initial condition gives u ( ) = 0 A = 0. 2 (7.50)
Now plug into the rst order Newtonian equation (7.36) (without the relativistic correction term rs u3 ). The result gives 1/2 r2 B = kN + s4 . (7.51) 4h Finally, dene the eccentricity by = to yield u = u0 (1 + sin ) . (7.53) The eccentricity tells us the shape of the orbit. Thus = 0 gives a circle, 0 < < 1 gives an ellipse, = 1 gives a parabola, and > 1 gives a hyperbola (the latter two are open orbits where an object comes in from , is deected, and escapes to ). The eccentricity of Mercurys orbit is about = 0.21. Note that for a circular orbit rs ucirc = u0 = 2 (7.54) 2hcirc hcirc = Thus for planetary orbits hcirc rs . rcirc 2rs
1/2
B u0
(7.52)
rs .
(7.55)
88 7.3.3 Relativistic Correction
Orbits
We now substitute equation (7.47) into the full relativistic orbit equation (7.40). This yields the following dierential equation for y (): y +y = 3rs u0 ((1 + sin ) + y )2 2 3rs u0 = (1 + sin )2 + 2 (1 + sin ) y + y 2 . 2 (7.56) (7.57)
We can ignore the y 2 term, as y 1. Next, compare the terms linear in y . There are two terms: on the left hand side, with coecient 1, and on the right, with coecient 3rs u0 (1 + sin ). The latter term is of order rs /r 1. Neglecting this term gives y +y 3rs u0 1 + 2 sin + 2
2
sin2 .
(7.58)
The terms on the right act as forcing functions for the harmonic oscillator on the left. The most interesting forcing function is the 2 sin term, as this is in resonance with the oscillator (the complementary functions include sin ). This resonance drives the precession. For initial conditions y (/2) = 0, y (/2) = 0, the solution is
2 3rs u0 cos + (1 sin ) + 2 sin2 sin 2 2 3 3rs u0 = cos + periodic terms. 2 2
y () =
(7.59) (7.60)
Recall the discussion leading to equation (7.46). The rst orbit has perihelion at 1 = /2 , while the second orbit has perihelion at 2 = 5/2 + . Solving u (2 ) = 0 gives 3rs u0 .
1 6 The mean radius is r u 0 = 58 10 km. Thus
(7.61)
0.1 arcseconds/orbit.
(7.62)
The Mercury year is 88 earth days, making the precession 1 arcsecond every 880 days, or 43 arcseconds per century.
7.4 Deection of Starlight
89
7.4
Deection of Starlight
As light travels from a star, its path is distorted by the curvature of space-time. Thus photons passing near a massive object like the sun will curve around the object. When the light is viewed, it will appear in the wrong place on the sky. This eect has been seen not only for starlight in the suns gravitational eld, but also for light from distant galaxies or quasars passing by nearer galaxies on the way to Earth. The eect on starlight is best seen during a solar eclipse. During an eclipse we can see stars in the sky close to the sun without being swamped by daylight. Photons from these stars receive the maximum deection. Figure 7.4 shows the path of the starlight. The photon starts at the star, with u 0; =+ . 2 (7.63)
Because of the gravitational deection, we observe the photon coming in from the angle = /2. Thus the angle of deection is . First we look at the Newtonian prediction, then derive the relativistic deection. 7.4.1 Newtonian Theory
The Newtonian orbit for m = 0 is, from equation (7.47) u() = u0 (1 + sin ) ; The angular momentum per unit mass h is = rV . h = r2 (7.65) u0 = rs GM = . 2 2h h2 (7.64)
In gure 7.4, the photon travelling from the star to our telescope has its closest approach (perihelion) at = /2. At perihelion dr/dt = 0, so Vr = 0 and thus |V | = V . But for a
90 photon |V | = c = 1 in relativistic units. So h = rmin R
Orbits
(7.66)
if the starlight just grazes the surface of the sun on its way to our telescope. Thus u() = At the star, equation (7.63) gives 0 GM R2 GM R2 1 + sin + 1 2 , 2 (7.68) (7.69) GM (1 + sin ) . R2 (7.67)
as sin( + x) x for small x. Thus 2/. We now have u() GM R2 1+ 2 sin . (7.70)
Finally, at = /2 the starlight reaches r = R , so 1 R GM R2 GM R2 2GM R 1+ 2 2 , , (7.71) (7.72)
using 2/
1. Thus . (7.73)
7.4.2
Relativistic Theory
As photons are massless, we consider the orbit equations in the limit m 0. Photons do have energy and momentum (and angular momentum), so we hold energy E = mk and angular momentum L = mh constant. The rst order equation (equation (7.35)) becomes u2 = In the limit m 0, then, u2 = E2 u2 + rs u3 . 2 L (7.75) E2 m L2 rs um2 u2 + rs u3 . L2 (7.74)
Dierentiation gives the second order equation 3 u + u = rs u2 . 2 (7.76)
7.4 Deection of Starlight First, consider the rs = 0 case. Here M = 0 and space-time is at: u +u = 0 = u = A cos + B sin
91
(7.77) (7.78) (7.79)
Apply boundary conditions that the light reaches r = at = 0, and (again) that the perihelion of the light path occurs at (r, ) = (R , /2). As a result, A = 0 and B = R1 , i.e. 1 u= sin . (7.80) R
This is the equation of a straight horizontal line (y = R ) in polar coordinates. Light passing near a massive object, however, will be perturbed by the missing rs term. As in the analysis of the precession of Mercury we try a small non-linear correction to u: u() = 1 (sin + y ()) R (7.81)
where y () << 1. Then equation (7.76) gives 1 3rs 1 ( sin + y ) + (sin + y ) = (sin + y )2 2 R R 2R 3rs = y + y = (sin + y )2 . 2R Include only the terms of lowest order in y and rs (as y, rs are both small): y +y 3rs 3rs sin2 = (1 cos 2). 2R 4R (7.84) (7.82) (7.83)
Combining complementary functions and particular integrals gives y = A cos + B sin + C + D cos 2 + E sin 2. We can determine the constants as follows: a. Plugging equation (7.85) into equation (7.84) gives C = 3D, D = rs /4R and E = 0. b. At perihelion, y (/2) = 0, so B = 2D. c. Also, as seen in the gure, the photon path is symmetric about = /2. Hence, for example, y (0) = y ( ), which implies A = 0. (7.85)
92 We now have
Orbits
rs (3 2 sin + cos 2). (7.86) 4R Finally, we can apply the boundary conditions at the star, equation (7.4). These give y= 0 = R u ( + /2) rs = sin ( + /2) + (3 2 sin ( + /2) + cos (2 + )) 4R rs = sin(/2) + (3 + 2 sin(/2) + cos 2) 4R rs + (4 + Order()). 2 4R (7.87) (7.88) (7.89) (7.90)
We can ignore the terms of order (rs /R ), giving 2rs 4GM = R R 1.74 arcseconds. (7.91)
Thus relativity predicts a deection almost exactly double the Newtonian result.
7.5
Energy Conservation on Geodesics
According to Newtonian theory, an object moving in a central gravitational eld has energy 1 GM E = mV 2 + m(r); (r) = , (7.92) 2 r where (r) is the potential energy. We now show that for weak gravitational elds (r rs ) and small velocities (V 1), the relativistic energy is approximately the same as the Newtonian energy, apart from the contribution from rest mass. Recall the Schwarzschild metric line element in the equatorial plane, equation (7.26). In terms of , d 2 = (1 + 2) dt2 (1 + 2)1 dr2 r2 d2 . (7.93) Next, divide by dt2 , using equation (7.21) for d /dt: d dt
2
1 (1 + 2)2 2 k
1
(7.94) dr dt
2
= (1 + 2) (1 + 2)
d dt
(7.95) (7.96)
2 . = (1 + 2) (1 + 2)1 Vr2 V
Now V 2 :
1 and V 2
1 so we can expand the right hand side, ignoring terms like 2 or 1 2 (1 + 2)2 (1 + 2) (1 2) Vr2 V k2 2 (1 + 2) (Vr2 + V ) = 1 + 2 V
2
(7.97) (7.98) (7.99)
7.5 Energy Conservation on Geodesics Thus k

2
93
(1 + 2)2 1 + 2 V 2 (1 + 4)(1 2 + V 2 ) 1 + V 2 + 2.
(7.100) (7.101) (7.102)
Finally, we take the square root of this approximation, using (1 + x)1/2 1 + x/2. With E = mk the Newtonian correspondence becomes clear: 1 E m + mV 2 + m. 2 (7.103)

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General Relativity

Lecture Notes C348

c Mitchell A Berger Mathematics University College London 2006

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

The Time Machine, HG Wells 1895

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Figure 1.1: The manifold in example 1.1.

Figure 1.3: Spherical coordinates.

S n = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn+1 ) | (X1 )2 + (X2 )2 + + (Xn+1 )2 = 1

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

S 2 = (x, y, z ) | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 S 1 = (x, y ) | x2 + y 2 = 1 S 0 = x | x2 = 1 = 1, 1 (1.2)

Thus we can write T 2 as the set of points T n = (, ) | , . (1.4)

1.2 Co-ordinate Transformations

Things that Live on Manifolds

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Exercise 1.2 Consider an ellipsoid E given by the equation

1.3 Things that Live on Manifolds

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

1.4 Transformation Laws

Figure 1.5: Curve on a torus.

In co-ordinates X = (X1 , . . . , Xn ) (1.14)

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

the index c will be considered a subscript.

Example 1.12 In the previous section, equation (1.19) becomes Y f = f Xc f Xc , . . . , Xc Y1 Xc YN . (1.21)

1.4 Transformation Laws

Gradients: an arbitrary component of f in equation (1.19) can now be expressed as Y b f = Xc X c f Yb (1.29)

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

by the chain rule. But Sc = Sa i.e. 1 0 c=a c=a (1.34)

Exercise 1.5 Show that for any vector W with components W a ,

How do two successive transformations work? Suppose we transform from co-ordinates X Y Z:

(1.38) (1.39) (1.40)

But by the chain rule Za Y b Za = Xc Yb Xc so, (as we should expect)

(1.43) (1.44) (1.45)

Example 1.13 Polar Co-ordinates. C = (C1 , C2 ) = (x, y ) P = (P , P ) = (r, )

1.4 Transformation Laws

(1.52) (1.53) (1.54)

x/r x/ y/r y/ cos r sin sin r cos

(1.55) (1.56) . (1.57)

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Polar Coordinates () = P1 , P2 (1.61) (1.62) (1.63)

dCa d dx/d dy/d 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .

(1.64) (1.65) (1.66)

dPa d dr/d d/d 0 2 .

(1.67) (1.68) (1.69)

Lets check the transformation law, using equation (1.54):

Ca b (at r = R, = 2) V Pb P 0 cos 2 r sin 2 = 2 sin 2 r cos 2 = 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .

(1.70) (1.71) (1.72)

Duality between Vectors and Gradients

1.5 Duality between Vectors and Gradients

Tensors and Metrics

2.2 Getting the transformation correct

Getting the transformation correct

Example 2.3 R a b c =?Rd e f Step 1 write three sets of

on right: R abc = X X X d f R e X X X (2.9)

Step 2 Pair up indices ad be cf (2.10) (2.11) (2.12)

Tensors and Metrics

Exercise 2.1 How does the tensor

Things to do with tensors

2.3 Things to do with tensors

and Aab Then

(1) S ab + Aab = T ab (2) S

(2.25) (Symmetric) (Antisymmetric) (2.26) (2.27)

(3) Aab = Aba Example 2.5 T ab = S ab = 0 2 0

Tensors and Metrics