Fundamentals of Thermal Resistance Measurement

Dr. John W. Sofia

1995

Analysis Tech (781)245-7825 FAX (781)246-4548 email: info@analysistech.com

PART 1: Technical Background

1.1 Introduction The Analysis Tech Thermal Analyzers are complete test systems for semiconductor component thermal characterization. These systems offer extensive selections of test capabilities accessed via user-friendly menus and forms. The range of application extends from laboratory research to production screening. Part 1 deals with the scientific background of experimental methods and analyses related to the thermal characterization of packaged semiconductor devices, commonly referred to as "components". Thermal characterization of a semiconductor device (component) is the determination of the temperature response of the semiconductor circuit junctions due to internal self-heating. This internal self-heating is a byproduct of electrical current flow in the electronic device during operation; the heat generated elevates the temperature in the semiconductor junctions. It conducts from the junction area through the die, through the package, and eventually into the local ambient. This flow of heat is governed by the laws of thermodynamics and the principles of heat transfer. Accordingly the temperature within the package is the highest in the heat generating junctions on the semiconductor die. It is this temperature elevation of the semiconductor junctions that drives the need for thermal characterization of packaged semiconductors since higher semiconductor junction temperatures are associated with reduced operating life. [Kraus, et. al., 1983] Device heat generation is concentrated in a small region in the semiconductor die from which it diffuses outward into the package where it becomes progressively less concentrated. Stated another way, the heat flux density is greatest in the heat generating region of the semiconductor. As the energy moves further and further from the semiconductor, heat flux densities are lower and the temperature elevations are smaller. This general pattern is a central theme in all component heat dissipation. From the perspective of the entire electronics cooling network, the component is the critical, initial link for all heat leaving the die. As such, the component exhibits heat flux densities that are many orders of magnitude higher than in any other area of the cooling network. At the component level, minute differences in package design, material selection, and quality of manufacture can have enormous impacts on junction operating temperatures and time-to-failure. The technological trend toward progressively increasing heat flux densities and the necessity to control junction temperatures creates the need for component characterization.
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The focal point of component thermal characterization is the control of junction temperatures. Since semiconductor reliability is adversely affected by higher junction operating temperatures, the determination of junction temperature is essential to developing electronic systems free from thermally induced failures.

1.2 Thermal Resistance The primary goal of thermal engineering in electronics-cooling is the reduction or control of operating junction temperatures. The measurement of component thermal resistance is a common approach to junction temperature determination given a set of environmental conditions and the component power dissipation. Thermal resistance provides a simple and convenient means for estimating junction temperatures. Thermal resistance is analogous to electrical resistance. Electrical resistance is computed as the difference in voltage between two points divided by the electrical current flowing between them. This analogy is based on the fundamental similarity between voltage and temperature, current conduction and heat conduction: Electrical conduction occurs in response to a voltage difference; heat conduction occurs in response to a temperature difference. This is a popular analogy due the general familiarity of electric conduction in wires. One shortcoming of the electrical analogy is that it suggests familiar networks such as one-dimensional current flow in wires between discrete components. The conduction of heat in electronic components is rarely so simple since it is significantly threedimensional with spatially distributed thermal resistances and heat capacitances. This difference tends to make the electrical analogy lead to a one-dimensional interpretation of an inherently three dimensional phenomena. The precise definition of thermal resistance is key to its correct measurement and application. Thermal Resistance is defined as the difference in temperature between two closed isothermal surfaces divided by the total heat flow between them. It further requires that all of the heat which flows through one surface also flows through the other and that no net thermal energy accumulation occurs in the volume between the surfaces. It should be noted that these "surfaces" are not physical, solid surfaces but rather imaginary surfaces of constant temperature. Defining Tj and Tx as the hot and cold isothermal surface temperatures, respectively, and the total heat flow rate between them as P, the thermal resistance between them is Tj Tx Rjx =

(Equ. 1)

The units of thermal resistance in electronic applications are C / Watt. If mass flow occurs across these isothermal surfaces, there must be no net mass accumulation within the volume enclosed between the two surfaces since that would comprise an accumulation of thermal energy in the form of mass heat capacity. Likewise, there can also be no net thermal accumulation due to latent heat that may result from phase change effects. In addition to being surfaces of constant temperature, isothermal surfaces experience heat flow in a perpendicular direction. Lines drawn parallel to the heat flow are called "heat-flux-lines". Each line is a heat flow (flux) path, each leading from the component junction to the environment. Taken together, these lines form a map-like network of paths for heat flowing from the component. The heat flux network provides a means for illustrating and visualizing heat flow. Isothermal surfaces do not intersect but rather form "nests" of concentric, closed volumes around a heat source. Isotherm nests and heat-flux-networks are directly related: a complete description of either one contains all the information necessary to construct the other since heat conducts perpendicular to isotherms and parallel to heat-flux-lines. A complete heat flux network describes in detail the three dimensional conduction of heat from a component's hot core to its peripheral surfaces. Isothermal surfaces are uniquely defined by size and shape. Thermal resistance is isotherm specific: changing the size or shape of the isothermal surfaces used in Equation (1) will change the computed thermal resistance. Alternatively, thermal resistance is specific to the heat flux network; any alteration will change the thermal resistance. To avoid confusion, it is important to distinguish the difference between thermal resistance and thermal resistivity. Thermal Resistivity is defined as the ratio of thermal gradient to the heat flux density for a one-dimensional heat conduction. Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity and is a material property indicating the resistance of the material to thermal conduction. Alternatively, resistivity is an indication of thermal insulative quality. To understand resistivity and its measurement, envision two parallel isothermal surfaces, T1 and T2 separated by a uniform layer of material of thickness with thickness x. If the heat flux per unit area is defined as q, the resistivity of the material separating the isothermal surfaces is

T T x r= q

(Equ. 2)

For electronic cooling applications thermal resistivity is expressed in units of C meter / Watt. The reciprocal of resistivity, conductivity, is more commonly used and indicated by the symbol "k". Thermal resistivity is a material property and is not affected by the geometry of the thermal flux network in which the material is used. By contrast, thermal resistance is a function of material resistivities and geometry. Thermal resistivity is used for evaluating the thermal quality of a materials for use in component packaging applications. Thermal resistance is a figure of merit for evaluation of the thermal transport capability of component packaging.

1.3 Electrical Junction Temperature Measurement The measurement of junction temperatures is essential for evaluating thermal performance for design, application and manufacture of semiconductor components. The electrical method for junction temperature measurement is a widely used method today. It is a direct, non-contact technique since it utilizes the junction itself as the temperature sensor. Although methods such as infrared and liquid crystal sensing [Azar, 1991] can be used to measure junction temperatures, their application is limited to junctions that are directly visible. In contrast, the electrical method is a direct technique that can be performed at-a-distance without an introduced sensor using only the electrical-temperature properties of semiconductor junctions. It is used extensively for direct component characterization measurements. The electrical method is a popular technique for measuring junction temperatures in electronic components spanning the entire power and function spectrum of the electronics industry. The most common implementation of the method uses the forward voltage drop of a junction as the temperature sensitive parameter and is variously known as the "diode-forward-drop" method or the "Vbe" technique from original applications with power diodes and bipolar power transistors. The method was implemented soon after the invention of semiconductor electronics and continues to be used extensively used throughout the industry. In the integrated circuit industry, it is used to thermally characterize functional components as well as "dummy" thermal test components made by substituting standard thermal test dice for functional dice. Although the diode forward voltage is the most commonly used temperature sensitive parameter (TSP), other parameters can also be used depending on the specific device under test. An excellent reference on the electrical method is contained in reference [Oettinger, F.F., Blackburn, D.L., 1990]. The electrical method of junction temperature measurement is based on a temperature and voltage dependency exhibited by all semiconductor diode junctions. This relationship can be measured and used to compute the semiconductor junction temperatures in response to power dissipation in the junction region.
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Voltage-temperature relationships are an intrinsic electro-thermal property of semiconductor junctions. These relationships are characterized by a nearly linear relationship between forward-biased voltage drop and junction temperature when a constant forward-biased current is applied. This constant current is called the "sense current" (also "measurement current"). Figure 1 illustrates the concept of measuring this voltage versus junction temperature relationship in for a diode junction; Figure 2 shows a graph of the resulting data. The relationship can be expressed mathematically as in the calibrating relationship,

Tj = m Vf + T
(Equ. 3) The slope, "m" (deg C/volt) and the temperature ordinate-intercept, "T0" are used to quantify this straight line relationship. The reciprocal of the slope is often referred as the "K factor" expressed in units of mV/C. In this case, Vf is the "temperature sensitive parameter" (TSP). The slope and intercept are device specific and are collectively referred to as the "calibration parameters".

Figure 1: Illustration of bath method for measurement of temperature sensitive parameter

Figure 2: Illustration of temperature sensitive parameter plot

Two other concepts that are central to the electrical are defined below. Sense Junction is the junction through which the sense current passes. The temperature sensitive parameter (TSP) and calibrating parameters are specific to the sense current and sense junction. Device calibration is the procedure for determining the calibration parameters of slope and temperature intercept. This voltage/temperature relationship must be individually measured for each distinct die and sense junction to be tested. For semiconductor junctions, the temperature/voltage slope of the calibrating straight line is always negative, i.e., the forward conduction voltage decreases with increasing junction temperature. The temperature intercept is always positive and is theoretically the temperature at which the semiconductor junction forward-voltage becomes zero. Once the slope and intercept have been determined, the junction is calibrated for use as a temperature sensor. The voltage generated in response to the applied sense current can then be used to compute the junction temperature using the calibrating relationship (Equ. 3).

If a collection of identical parts were calibrated, and the calibration parameters were compared, the temperature/voltage slopes would be quite consistent although the intercepts would generally exhibit a range of variation typical of the specific part examined. When plotted as in Figure 3, the calibration lines would be parallel but with different intercepts. This leads to a generally accepted and useful rule when using the diode voltage TSP: device calibration must be performed for each new die type tested to establish the temperature/voltage slope. The temperature intercept can be computed for identical parts which were not calibrated by using one measured voltagetemperature data point. This situation dramatically reduces the number of components that must be calibrated.

Figure 3: Illustration of device calibrations from a group of "identical parts"

Some specific points should be mentioned in regard to the electrical method for junction temperature measurement when utilizing the diode voltage TSP: a) True junction diodes are sufficiently linear to use the above first order, straight line equation for calibration (Equ. 3). b) Shotkey diodes (which are really "half-diodes", see glossary) may require an interpolation between sufficiently closely spaced points for a similar level of accuracy (see item "d" below).
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c) Device calibration is current-specific; specific calibration parameters cannot be used for other sense current values. d) Device calibration data can be used in tabular form with linear interpolation applied rather tan converted to calibration equations such as Equ. 3 and Equ. 4. The "transistor saturation voltage" is another temperature sensitive parameter (TSP) that can be used for electrical junction temperature sensing. Its characteristics are similar to the diode forward voltage. For testing certain types of devices, the diode voltage TSP cannot be used due to the absence of an electrically accessible diode. Such parts include IGBTs and some darlington transistors. The transistor saturation voltage is defined as the voltage across the main current terminals of a 3-terminal device in response to a fixed, small sense current while the control terminal is held fully "on". The voltage versus temperature data fits the linear equation format (Equ. 3) used for the diode-junction temperature sensing. The gate-turn-on voltage [Oettinger, F.F., Blackburn, D.L., 1990] is another possible TSP for testing of IGBTs and MOSFETs. Unlike other TSPs, this TSP requires junction calibration of each and every device to be tested.

1.4 Device Calibration Technique 1.4.1 Performing Device Calibrations Device calibration is the procedure of measuring data pairs of junction temperature versus junction voltage due to the imposed sense current. These measurements are performed under unpowered, thermal equilibrium conditions so that the junction and case temperature are nearly equal. Once the electrical connections for the selected temperature sensitive junction have been completed, device calibration entails: a) selection of the sense current level b) establishment of thermal equilibrium between the component and a stabletemperature environment c) measurement of the component case (junction) temperature and temperature sensitive voltage d) alteration of the environment temperature and repeating steps b through d During calibration, the device is unheated except for the heat generated by the sense current which is generally insignificantly small. When the component is immersed in the constant temperature environment, any point on the component case will eventually reach the same temperature as the component junction. Under these conditions, the component is said to be in thermal equilibrium with its surrounding environment.
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Measurement of the forward voltage and the associated case temperature comprises one data point for construction of the calibration relationship. This procedure must be performed for at least two sufficiently spaced temperatures since at least two points are required for a straight line calibrating relationship (Equ. 3). Although two points are the minimum required, a far superior technique is performed using 5-20 data pairs spaced in equal temperature increments. The calibration parameters are then determined by a best-fit straight line using least-squares linear regression. Often, the only indication that a particular sense junction on an active die is unsuitable for junction temperature sensing lies in the non-linearity of the calibration. Since any two points define a straight line, such non-linearity is totally masked when using the two-point calibration. The use of multiple temperature points for calibration also provides a dramatic increase in the accuracy of the calibration in the same manner that sample averaging decreases the level of random error associated with a single sample.

1.4.2 Sense Current Level Selection The selection of the sense current is the first step for device calibration. The selection of this current is limited by a number of factors although within a fairly wide range, the precise selection is not critical. Generally, the best sense current is the smallest one which does not encroach on any of the limiting factors discussed below. Once the sense current has been chosen and the device calibration performed, the calibration parameters are specific to the junction and the sense current level. Sense current selections typically range from 0.1 to 50 milliamps. Lower limit - conduction: The sense current must be sufficiently large to establish conduction in the body of the junction rather than just superficial surface leakage conduction. Generally, 0.1 milliamp is the lower limit of the selection range for the smallest junctions tested. Typically, the larger the junction, the higher this lower limit becomes. Upper limit - thermal: Ideally, a sense current generates no internal heating in the diode junction. In reality, diode current flows of any magnitude generate some heating; therefore the ideal sense current is the one that generates the smallest amount of self-heating. For example, if the sense current is 10 milliamps and the forward voltage is 0.6 volts, the power dissipation is 0.006 Watts or 6 milliwatts. This apparently insignificantly small amount of heating is focused exclusively on the sensed junction and causes some temperature rise. Ultimately this heating contributes to an error in the final computation of junction temperature. Based on this, two conclusions can be drawn:

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a) Given a particular junction, smaller sense currents generate less selfheating error. b) Given a particular sense current, larger sense junctions experience smaller the temperatures rises and thus less self-heating error. Although self-heating errors are generally quite small, properly conducted test procedures can further reduce this potential problem. (See "recalibration" in the following section "Calibration Environments") Lower Limit - electrical: All semiconductor junctions have parasitic electrical capacitances in parallel connection with them. These capacitances cause the diode voltage readings to "lag" the temperature readings whenever voltage or temperature changes occur during thermal testing. Although such changes are quite slow during calibration, during thermal testing, the sense current must charge or discharge these capacitances as the junction temperature/voltage changes. This charging/discharging utilizing a fixed current requires time in proportion to the size of the parasitic capacitance. Larger sense currents require less time since they offer faster charge/discharge rates. Generally, larger, more capacitive junctions will test better with larger sense currents. (See Active Dice under Device Types and Test Methods) The most commonly used sense current throughout the industry is 1 milliamp. Most testing on integrated circuits, functional and thermal dice, is performed with a 1 milliamp sense current. Other common selections are 10 and 20 milliamps for larger power devices.

1.4.3 Thermal Equilibrium in Calibration As stated previously, unpowered, steady-state, thermal equilibrium of the component in the calibration environment is required for convergence of the junction and case temperatures. This necessitates a waiting period, the duration of which depends on: a) the heat capacity of the component b) the thermal resistance between the component junction and the environment medium The product of a resistance and a capacitance yields a time parameter, i.e., the "RC" time constant of the pair. The linear combination of a resistance "R" and a capacitance "C" will reach 99.3% of final equilibrium in a duration equal to 5 times the "RC" time constant. In practice, the heat capacity and thermal resistance are never known prior to calibration. Therefore other less precise methods are used to estimate the onset of
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thermal equilibrium. Although the rate of change in the case temperature can be used to estimate equilibrium, the waiting interval is usually extended to the point where there is no doubt that equilibrium has been reached. Clearly, there is a significant benefit in choosing a medium that offers a small thermal resistance to the component-undercalibration to minimize the waiting interval.

1.4.4 Calibration Environments Two types of stable temperature environments are commonly used for device calibration: liquid baths and ovens. The function of the device calibration environment is to provide stable temperature surroundings which will quickly reach equilibrium with the component, and to provide a convenient means of controlling that stable temperature. The bath liquid must be a dielectric (electrical insulator) and capable of withstanding temperatures up to about 150 C without boiling. Flouro-chloro carbon liquids and common mineral oil are typical choices. The liquid must be circulated or stirred to enhance temperature uniformity and increase the liquid-to-component heat transfer coefficient. This allows the device to reach equilibrium with the liquid quickly. The bath must have some means of temperature control and regulation. This control should be linear and free from cyclic variations. The component should be suspended in the bath and should not contact the bath walls or the liquid surface. The thermocouple used for sensing the case temperature should be soldered to the component leads. This will ensure maximum mechanical stability and accurate sensing of the junction temperature. The oven technique may require the use of a significant heat sink to stabilize the rapid fluctuations of air in the oven as the heating elements cycle on and off. Forced convection should be utilized on the heat sink and the component must be attached to the heat sink with an excellent thermal bond. Again, the thermocouple used for sensing the case temperature should be soldered to the component leads or otherwise well grounded to the internal bulk temperature of the component. Some ovens offer more optimal controllers utilizing short-duration time-proportioning algorithms to minimize the cyclic variations inherent in the common banded-hysteresis "bang-bang" controller. These oven controllers offer significantly better conditions for calibration, so a smaller device heat sink may be used. The bath technique offers some advantages based on the following considerations. Since the chosen sense current will not cause significant self-heating, the ambient and junction temperatures will become nearly equal after a sufficiently long thermal "soaking" interval in the constant temperature environment. The length of this interval is determined by the heat capacity of the component and the thermal resistance between the component and the environment, liquid or air. Since a circulated liquid has an order of magnitude lower fluid-to-solid thermal resistance than oven-circulated
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air, the time required for the thermal "soaking-equilibrium" in the bath is less than onetenth that of an oven for equivalent accuracy. The use of a heat sink in the oven can somewhat reduce this difference. Alternatively, the bath method is somewhat more messy and generally less suitable for non-hermetic packages. In summary, both methods will ultimately produce the same results if each offers a suitably constant environment temperature and sufficient soaking time is allowed. Once a device has been calibrated using the diode voltage TSP, calibration parameters for identical parts are adjusted for part-to-part variations by using a single temperaturevoltage data point. This procedure is often referred as "recalibration". It makes use of the fact that identical parts calibrate with a uniform slope and only vary in the temperature intercept (Equ. 3). Referring to Figure 4, the intercept can be computed by simply allowing the component to reach unpowered steady state equilibrium at room temperature and then measuring the sense voltage and case temperature. This one data point combined with the calibrated slope for an identical component permits the corrected computation of the temperature intercept. Once a part has been calibrated, recalibration on identical parts is usually a sufficient substitute for a full device calibration on every identical part tested. One point recalibration is effective for the diode voltage TSP and transistor saturation voltage but not for the gate-turn-on TSP.

Figure 4: Illustration of one-point recalibration method

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When a device calibration is performed using the diode voltage TSP, the calibrating parameters apply to a specific junction on a specific die. The slope applies to all identical junctions of the type calibrated; the temperature intercept only applies to the actual die calibrated but can be established with a one-point recalibration procedure. When a previously calibrated die is mounted in different packages, the calibration need not be repeated. Care should be taken to ensure that the correct electrical connections are bonded out for the chosen sense parameter each time the die is used in a different package. If device calibrations are correctly performed, it does not matter in what package a calibrated die is mounted; a given diode on a given die will have the same calibration regardless of the package.

1.5 Application of Thermal Resistance Concepts According to the definition, Equ. 2, thermal resistance is specific to the chosen isothermal surfaces, specified by size and shape. Practically, it would be quite difficult to specify an isothermal surface that does not correspond to a physical surface by describing its particular size and shape. Even if such a description could be provided, it would be nearly impossible to utilize such information in a real-world test situation. The application of thermal resistance measurement to electronic component applications requires a practical perspective in addition to an understanding of the basic definition. Thermal resistance is generally based on junction temperature (hotter isotherm), with a variety of different forms spawned from the selection of the reference temperature (colder isotherm). Thermal resistances are frequently cited as thermal resistance, junction-to-<reference x>,Rjx, or jx, where <reference x> would be substituted with such typical temperature sites as: a) b) c) d) local ambient air temperature specific site on the component case specific site on a component lead other well defined reference site

It is instructive to compare the theoretical definition with the practical application of thermal resistance. Each of the above varieties of thermal resistance implies a pair of isothermal surfaces. The "junction" is considered to be tightly enclosed by an infinitesimal, "hot", isothermal surface through which all of the internally generated heat is dissipated. Provided the same junction is used for all measurements of thermal resistance on a particular component, this "hot" isothermal surface is well defined and constant. The "cold" isothermal surface, the reference isothermal surface, is much more problematic. Each of the above reference temperature sites is a physically defined
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location without regard to the shape and size of the isothermal surfaces in the immediate vicinity. Under any precisely defined set of cooling conditions, each reference site corresponds to one point on a particular, vaguely specified, isothermal surface. Under different component cooling conditions, heat flows from the component in a different pattern of paths and forms different the isothermal surfaces. (Note: isothermal surfaces are defined by size and shape) Since no practical method exists for specifying the shape and size of these isothermal surface, the above thermal resistances, based on fixed reference sites, require complete specification of the component cooling conditions. Expressed simply, any thermal resistance based on physically fixed temperature sites is specific to the cooling conditions under which the measurements are taken. Thermal resistances measured under significantly different cooling conditions are simply different measured parameters. Junction-to-local-ambient thermal resistance typically exhibits appreciable variation with the velocity of the air flow on the component. Natural convection is influenced by the orientation of the component and its power dissipation; forced convection is affected by the local air pressure gradient. The isothermal surfaces in the vicinity of the component are specifically linked to the type of thermal resistance measured. For example, the isothermal surfaces in natural convection cooling are dramatically different than those in forced convection. Therefore, junction-to-ambient thermal resistance measurements must include specifications of the air flow conditions. Junction-to-case thermal resistances are likewise specific to the cooling conditions implemented during measurement. The case temperature is usually measured at a specific accessible site on the outside of the component case, most often, the hottest point on the case. The temperature difference between the junction and the case is dramatically affected by variations in heat flux network for the junction. Factors such as heat dissipation from adjacent components, nearby materials and thermal pathways, power level, air flow, and component mounting can radically affect the junction-to-case thermal resistance. Components with a wide variety of cooling-condition alternatives will likewise offer a wide variety of thermal resistances. Conversely, components designed for strictly defined cooling configurations with little variation in the overall heat flow patterns will have few meaningful thermal resistance varieties. Junction-to-case thermal resistances are often mistaken for fixed parameters that are independent of the specific heat flow configuration. This stems from the misconception that junction-to-case thermal resistance is solely a function of the component package and does not depend on the cooling environment imposed when the thermal resistance is measured. Despite plentiful evidence to the contrary, this erroneous attitude persists today. Integrated circuits are a good example of components which typically experience a wide variety of heat flow patterns. Some of the primary paths typically include:
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a) case directly into the board holding the component b) case directly into the air c) case-to-leads and into board holding the component Additional cooling parameters include adjacent component heating of the board and the local air flow. Each set of cooling conditions prescribes a different, defined thermal resistance. By contrast, some components with integral metal plates which are always cooled by attachment to a significant heat sink have few primary heat flow paths and few cooling variations. Component packages of the type TO220, TO202, and TO247 are good examples of this. These packages are specifically intended to be used with a significant heat sink. Nearly all of the heat that leaves the junction exits the component through the integral cooling plate regardless of the specific application. For this reason, there are very few varieties of thermal resistances for these components. In summary, thermal resistances must be reported with precise descriptions of the cooling conditions and the power dissipations that were used during the measurement. This description should ideally be as simple as possible yet sufficiently accurate to enable detailed reconstruction of the test configuration.

1.5.1 Thermocouple Measurements Thermocouples are generally used to measure thermal resistance reference temperatures. Ideally, the reference temperature measurement should be noninvasive, i.e., report the same site-temperature as that which existed prior to the installation of the thermocouple. This goal is never perfectly achieved since thermocouples inherently involve contact measurement. Some heat conduction invariably occurs in the thermocouple, thus wicking the heat away and cooling the reference site. This error elevates the temperature difference between the reference and the junction and yields a thermal resistance value which is chronically too high. This error is most acute when measuring case temperatures of components fabricated of low thermal conductivity (high resistivity) packaging materials compared to the conductivity of the thermocouple wire. For example, if high conductivity 30 gauge thermocouple wire (type T) is used to measure a typical plastic integrated circuit case temperature, the error can be as high as 40% of the difference between the ambient and the actual case temperature depending on the means of thermocouple attachment. Although precise error predictions are not practical, the following recommendations generally apply: a) Wire thermocouples should be no larger than 30 gauge, preferably, 36 gauge.
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b) Type K offers the lowest wire-conductivity and thus the lowest conduction error but requires additional adhesive attachment; type T offers solderableattachment although with a higher level of conduction error. c) The use of wire thermocouples should be limited to measurement of metal and highly conductive surfaces; use laminated thin-foil type thermocouples for surfaces of low conductivity materials. d) Larger thermocouples are desirable for measurement of bulk air temperatures where the averaging affect of the heat capacitance in the bead can stabilize unwanted fluctuations. e) Test systems utilizing temperature sensitive phosphor technology provide thermocouple-like measurement with very low conductivity contact-fibers. f) Infrared temperature sensors can be used effectively for the measurement of non-conductive surface temperatures. These devices avoid the errors associated with thermocouple heat wicking effects.

1.5.2 Specific Thermal Resistance Measurement Methods Standard environmental specifications for measurement of junction-to-case and junction-to-ambient thermal resistances are available as Military Standards, SEMI Packaging Standards and JEDEC Industrial Standards. Such standards offer a valuable means of technical communication and documentation. When applying such industry standard methods, critical examination must be exercised to independently evaluate the validity of the recommended methods. Some "standards" have been later found to be deeply flawed based on the underlying physical principles or tainted by the effects of commercial bias in the standards creation process. There is no substitute for a critical investigation of any unfamiliar method regardless of how widely recognized or standardized. Care should always be taken to ensure that the method employed generates data which is useful for the intended purpose. The following example underscores the caution must be exercised before embracing any "standard" method. SEMI Standards, G30-88 and G43-87, discuss the use of liquid bath environments for junction-to-case measurements. These specious methods measure junction-to-case thermal resistance by suspending the component in an agitated fluid. According to the method, the high thermal conductivity of the fluid combined with the agitation effectively creates infinite heat sinking conditions and thereby assures that the entire surface of the case will be isothermal. Any cautious implementation of this method quickly reveals that the component is far from isothermal and that the fluid selection (within the range of specification) and degree of agitation dramatically affect the resulting measurement. These methods do not sufficiently specify the essential liquid cooling parameters but rather rely on fictitious infinite heat sinking. Such bogus "standards" illustrate the hazards of assuming that a standard method is technically sound.
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Another popular junction-to-case thermal resistance measurement standard is found in Mil Std 883, method 1012 as well as SEMI Std G30-88. Here the integrated circuit component is thermally grounded to a very significant heat sink so that almost all of the heat flows directly into the heat sink. The case temperature is usually the surface temperature of the component that is in contact with the heat sink. The resulting junction-to-case thermal resistance value is quite valid and repeatable since the heat flow patterns and cooling conditions are well specified. This variety of junction-to-case thermal resistance is directly applicable to components which are cooled in this manner, i.e., by heat sink attachment in the same manner as the test configuration. But for components which are not intended to be cooled in this way, this technique provides wildly elevated thermal resistances that are nearly useless for predicting the operating junction temperatures in their intended applications. Much of the latest standards work has been by JEDEC. JEDEC committees have recently generated a number of new standardized methods for component thermal characterization including JESD51-1 and JESD52-2. As these "standards" are new, their technical merit, and overall quality has yet to be demonstrated. As with all unfamiliar methods, a cautious, skeptical application approach is warranted. These standards are available from Global Engineering Documents, 800-854-7179.

1.6 Delivery of DC heating power Test procedures for component characterization generally utilize steady state, DC current to heat the semiconductor component. The reason for this is that thermal resistance measurement requires steady-state thermal equilibrium which in turn requires constant heat dissipation for a sufficient period of time. The heating power dissipated in a component is computed as the product of the current flow through the component times the voltage difference between the in-flowing and out-flowing current leads. With the voltage expressed in volts and the current expressed in amps, the product is expressed in Watts.

P = I

Vin Vout
(Equ 5)

For a thermal test die (see glossary), the heat dissipating element may be a pure resistance. When dealing with a linear resistor, the voltage, current, and resistance are governed by Ohm's law:

V =I R

(Equ 6)

Current flow through any resistor generates heat. This is also true of the wires which carry power to the device. Lead wires have a finite resistance and generate a voltage
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difference between any two points when current flows through them. This in turn generates some internal heating of the wires; the magnitude of which is likewise computed as the current flow times the voltage difference. Although the heat dissipation in the lead wires is usually a fraction of the heat dissipated in the component under test, it should not be included as part of the heat dissipation in the component when total power dissipation is computed for thermal resistance measurement. This error can be easily avoided by measuring the voltage difference across the component at the points where the current actually enters and leaves the die. This method is called a "Kelvin connection" or a "four-wire connection". Figure 5 illustrates the two-wire connection with its attendant power measurement error. Figure 6 illustrates the four-wire connection. In the four-wire method, the leads which serve to deliver the heating current are often called the "force" connections; the leads which serve to measure the voltage are called "sense" or "voltage sense" connections. In all cases of thermal characterization of components, the voltage sensing leads and the current delivery leads should be joined at a site which is as close to the actual die as possible to minimize the error in power computation due to losses in the power delivery wires.

Figure 5: Illustration of 2 wire power measurement with attendant error

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Figure 6 Illustration of 4 wire power measurement

A four-wire connection measurement is sometimes used on the junction temperature sensing connections. The concept here is that voltage difference across the temperature sensing junction should not include the voltage drops across the wires which carry the sense current to the sense junction. Using Ohms law, if the total roundtrip resistance of the sense-junction lead-wires is Rl and the sense current is Is, the voltage drop in the lead wires, Vs is

V s = Rl

Is
(Equ 7)

The following is an example using typical-to-high range numbers: lead wire resistance: lead wire length (round trip): sense current: .06 ohms per foot 10 feet 10 milliamp

computed lead voltage drop = .006 volts Although the case can be made that voltages of this magnitude are significant when measuring junction temperatures electrically, the fact often overlooked is that the sense current voltage drops in the leads are essentially constants that are simply nulled out when the electrical method is properly implemented. The inconvenience of using fourwire connection for the sense junction voltage must be weighed against the minimal benefits after considering these points:
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a) If a device is calibrated using sense current lead-lengths approximately the same as those intended for thermal resistance testing, the sense voltage drop in the leads is inherently included in the device calibration parameters. b) If all thermally characterized devices utilize one-point recalibration to adjust for variations in the temperature intercept within a collection of identical components, variations in lead length between that used for device calibration versus device characterization will be nulled out. c) The variation in lead electrical resistance with temperature is insignificant. Based on the above, the four-wire technique is generally confined to connections for heating power delivery.

1.7 Control of Heating Power The method used to control the heating power delivered to the component under test is specific to the type of die being tested. For this consideration, components are divided into two categories: two-terminal and three-terminal devices. The category of two-terminal devices includes diodes, thyristors (SCRs, TRIACs, etc.), and thermal test dice. These devices exhibit essentially one power dissipation for any specified supply voltage or current. The voltage and the current cannot be independently selected. At any given power dissipation, these devices possess a nearly fixed ratio between the applied voltage and the current flow, much like Ohms law. The ratio is "nearly" fixed since the voltage/current ratio varies somewhat as a function of the die temperature. If a fixed heating current is established in a previously unpowered two-terminal component, the power dissipation will progressively change until a steady die temperature is reached. These variations can be generalized for specific types of power control for specific device types: Fixed Heating Current in Two Terminal Devices: Thermal Test Die - Increasing temperature leads to increasing voltage drop and thus increasing power dissipation with temperature. Diodes and thyristors - Increasing temperature leads to decreasing voltage drop and thus decreasing power dissipation with temperature

Fixed Heating Voltage in Two Terminal Devices: Thermal Test Die - Increasing temperature leads to decreasing current flow and thus decreasing power dissipation with temperature. Diodes and thyristors - Increasing temperature leads to increasing current flow and thus increasing power dissipation with temperature.
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In summary, as die temperatures increase, thermal dice experience higher voltage/current ratios while diodes and thyristors experience lower ratios. These voltage/current ratio variations typically range from 10% to 50% for a 100 C change in die temperature. The power dissipation will thus vary by a comparable amount over the course of a test when using either fixed-voltage or fixed-current power control. When thermally characterizing two-terminal devices, the power dissipation cannot be controlled to a specified level using a fixed heating voltage or heating current. Although application of a fixed voltage or current will eventually result in constant power dissipation and establishment of thermal equilibrium, the final value of the heating power will not be controlled to a pre-selected level. The Thermal Analyzer power control options can be used to establish a controlled constant wattage without junction temperature dependency. The category of three-terminal devices includes bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, junction FETs, and IGBTs. The functional design of these devices permits the heating voltage and current to be simultaneously specified independently. Each of these devices has one pair of terminals which essentially carry all of the power and a third terminal which acts to control the operating voltage/current ratio device. By design, these devices permit a small voltage or current to control much larger voltages and currents, and essentially control the voltage/current operating point of the device. This amplified control behavior of three-terminal devices also exhibits significant temperature dependency in much the same manner as two-terminal devices. Despite this, the capability to select the heating voltage and current independently is a powerful asset when thermally characterizing three-terminal devices. Again, the Thermal Analyzer power control capabilities eliminate these temperature dependencies of power control.

1.8 Device Types and Test Methods This section covers the application of the electrical test method to a variety of functional device categories. These categories are determined by the electrical design of the die utilized in the specific component under test.

1.8.1 Thermal Test Die Thermal test dice are specifically designed for thermal characterization of integrated circuit packages. These dice are available in a variety of sizes and can be mounted into any desired package to create a thermal test vehicle. They have become popular for package characterizations including related thermal enhancements. Thermal dice have been designed to offer electrically independent power dissipation and electrical measurement of junction temperature. The thermal die test method is illustrated schematically in Figure 7. Thermal dice offer accurate thermal characterization with a
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minimum of measurement hardware. The basic concepts of device calibration, junction temperature measurement, power delivery, and wattage control are direct application of the concepts presented previously. The sense diode voltage can be directly measured with a voltmeter and the associated junction temperature computed (Equ. 3) using predetermined calibrating parameters. The Thermal Analyzer provides comprehensive test capabilities for thermal dies.

Figure 7: Illustration of thermal test die test method concept

Care must be taken to ensure that the thermal test die size corresponds the intended functional die application. The die attachment may also be different for the thermal die versus the active die since one is a prototype process and the other a production process. Any component characterizations utilizing thermal test dice should include a specification of the thermal test die size and the type of die attachment.

1.8.2 Active Dice Active or functional dice are often used as the ultimate test for component thermal characterization. The primary feature that distinguishes active die from thermal die is that heat dissipation is not electrically independent from temperature sensing and that the die is designed to perform an electrical function other than providing convenient junction temperature reporting. This requires that the otherwise continuous heating power be interrupted for the measurement of the junction temperature. The process of periodically interrupting the heating power to measure the sense junction voltage is best presented with some standard definitions. This process is automatically performed by the Thermal Analyzer. Temperature sampling interval is the period of time when the heating power has been interrupted and the sense current has been applied to the sensed
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junction. The temperature sensitive voltage is measured during this interval. During the temperature sampling interval, the junction cools passively until the heating power is restored. When properly executed, the cooling is minimal and can be further reduced to negligible levels with rapid data acquisition. One temperature sampling interval is required for each junction temperature reading. The temperature sampling interval is very small compared to the heating interval (less than 0.01%). Heating Interval is the period of time when the heating power is being delivered to the component under test. Active dice are tested with a succession of heating intervals and temperature sampling intervals. During thermal resistance testing, the heating intervals are much longer than the temperature sampling intervals; the heating duty-cycle approaches 100% and thereby essentially satisfies requirement of steady, fixed heat dissipation for thermal resistance measurement. The end of the heating interval corresponds with the beginning of the temperature sampling interval and visa versa. Although the objective of the temperature sampling interval is to measure the junction temperature at the instant the heating interval ends, some junction cooling does occur during the temperature sampling interval. Three approaches are used to minimize the impact of junction cooling from the instant of power interruption until the temperature sensitive voltage has been acquired: a) minimize the duration of the temperature sampling interval to minimize junction cooling b) perform rapid sampling of the temperature sensitive voltage c) extrapolate back to the instant of power interruption to overcome the effects of junction cooling and electrical switching transients These techniques will be discussed below with additional details on the temperature sampling process. Junction temperature measurement on active dice is a unique procedure with special requirements which include: a) b) c) d) rapidly switching the heating power off switching the sense current on measuring the temperature sensitive parameter switching the heating power back on again

Unlike thermal die testing, special purpose electrical switching hardware is required to perform this operation such as that contained within the Analysis Tech Thermal Analyzer. In addition, there is a wide variety of specific requirements for temperature sensing and power control to match the diversity of active dice. Commercially available test systems offer such specialized test functionality with convenient software
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interfaces for testing all types of semiconductor components, active as well as thermal dice.

Heating Interval

Heating Power
Measurement Interval

Time

Figure 8: Graphic illustration of the heating and measurement intervals The test procedure for testing a rectifier diode provides an excellent example of some common issues associated with application of the electrical method to active die testing. Figure 9 schematically illustrates the electrical test method for a rectifier diode. Here the diode serves as both the heat dissipator as well as the temperature sensor. During the heating interval, the diode is powered with a controlled heating current. Since diodes have a very small voltage/current ratio when operating in heavy forward conduction mode, control of the power dissipation via current control is far less "delicate" than a comparable voltage control. In addition, diode power dissipation via current control is inherently stable whereas the counterpart via voltage control is not. This is because of the change in diode power dissipation as a function of junction temperature. As previously stated, diode power dissipation decreases with increasing junction temperature under fixed current heating whereas dissipation increases with temperature under fixed voltage control. Thus voltage control has a tendency toward "thermal runaway" where the diode temperature spirals higher and higher, positively reinforcing with higher and higher wattage.

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Figure 9: Illustration of diode test method concept

The junction temperature measurement interval is of critical importance when making thermal measurements on active dice. When the heating interval ends, the heating power is abruptly terminated and the sense current is applied. Ideally, this process would occur instantaneously in zero time. In reality there are a number of factors which cause deviation from this ideal. First, the switching process tends to stimulate electrical transients which vary in magnitude depending on the device tested. The most common electrical transient is caused by the parasitic electrical capacitance that exists across any junction. Figure 10 illustrates this situation for the case of the rectifier diode. In this case this capacitance must be electrically discharged from the higher voltage (apparent lower temperature) associated with the passage of the heating current to the lower voltage associated with sense current. During this recharging interval, the electrical transients dominate the sense junction voltage samples and which thus project inaccurate junction temperatures. Although the electronic switching circuits within the Thermal Analyzer reduce the duration of the electrical transients, ultimately, temperature-dependent diode sense voltages can only be measured after the switching transients have died out. This waiting interval is often called the "measurement delay interval".

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Figure 10: Typical electrical transient for rectifier diode

Measurement delay interval is the initial portion of temperature sampling interval between the instant of heating power interruption and acquisition of the first valid, temperature dependent voltage reading. This interval always begins at the instant of power interruption and lasts until the electrical switching transients have subsided. The typically range is from 0 to 500 microseconds and tends to be higher for larger junctions. It is specific to the functional category of the active die as well as the part type designation. The determination of the correct measurement delay interval is quite critical: If too short, the junction temperature will be spurious; if too long, excessive junction cooling will occur. In addition, the correct measurement delay interval is often junction temperature sensitive. The determination of the correct interval is discussed below. Review of the event sequence for the active-die test method: a) The heating power is interrupted at the end of the heating interval. b) The electrical transients are "waited out" during the measurement delay interval.
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c) Sampling of the temperature sensitive voltage is performed for the remainder of the temperature sampling interval. d) Heating power is resumed at the end of the temperature sampling interval. The recommended approach for acquiring the desired junction temperature at the instant of heating power interruption utilizes repetitive sampling for the remaining duration of the temperature sampling interval. [Oettinger, F.F., Blackburn, D.L., 1990] Typical sampling rates range from 50 to 200 kilohertz (5 to 20 microsecond sampling period) for 10 to 30 samples. The Analysis Tech Thermal Analyzers utilize up to 10 kilohertz reading rates at 25 or more samples. The temperature sensitive voltages are then converted into junction temperature readings (Equ 3). Since the junction cools during the temperature sampling interval, extrapolation should be utilized to determine the junction temperature at the instant of power interruption. This extrapolation becomes critical for longer measurement delay intervals. The process of extrapolation also improves sample accuracy since the random noise present in the sense voltage readings will be averaged-out. The extrapolation can use normal linear methods or a linear extrapolation using a square root transformation of time [Oettinger, F.F., Blackburn, D.L., 1990]. The Analysis Tech Thermal Analyzers utilizes sampling both before and after the end of the measurement delay interval for optimal perspective on the transient electrical activity. Figures 10, 11, and 12 illustrate some typical sampling intervals with a variety of electrical transients. It is seldom difficult to recognize transient-corrupted temperature data when examining samples spanning the entirety of a sufficiently long temperature sampling interval.

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Figure 11: Electrical transient from MOSFET

Figure 12: No electrical transient exhibited from signal diode

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1.9 Standard Test Methods Standard methods have been developed for applying the electrical method of junction temperature measurement to a variety of different functional device categories, i.e., bipolar transistor, rectifier, and MOSFET. A resource for these methods is MIL STD 750C, 3100 series methods. Devices can be divided into two categories for thermal testing: two-terminal and threeterminal. The issues and differences in powering these two device types have already been covered in the section on Delivery of Heating Power. The junction-temperature sensing is somewhat specific to the functional device type. Table #1 provides an overview of the temperature sensitive parameters used for various device types. A detailed description of these methods are available in the MIL Std 750C, 3100 series methods.

Device Family diode, rectifier, SCR, TRIAC integrated circuit, thermal test die integrated circuit, functional die

bipolar transistor, NPN bipolar transistor, PNP MOSFET (N channel) MOSFET (P channel) darlington transistor IGBT

Temperature Sensitive Parameter diode V die sensing diode V substrate isolation diode sensed and powered or sense diode voltage and functional powering base-to-emitter or base-to-collector diode V emitter-to-base or collector-to-base diode V source-to-drain diode V or gate turn-on V drain-to-source diode V or gate turn-on V base-to-emitter diode or saturation V saturation V or gate turn-on V

Table #1: Temperature Sensitive Parameter Listing for Various Device Types
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1.9.1 Integrated Circuits Integrated circuit components can be thermally characterized using a functional die or by substituting a thermal test die. Active die testing can be quite simple despite the potentially complex functionality and high lead counts that integrated circuits may present. The simplest technique utilizes the substrate isolation diode that is present on most (although not all) integrated circuit dice. The substrate isolation diode is electrically accessed by reverse biasing the power and ground pins and can be used as both the heat dissipator and sense junction. This technique is the same as the procedure for testing rectifier diodes. The die heating is not concentrated but rather is quite uniform much like that of the thermal test die. The advantage of using substrate isolation diode testing on active dice is that the die size and die attachment is identical to the final production components. This is often not true when a thermal test die is substituted for the active die. A difference in either die size or attachment can cause a discrepancy between component characterization data with the thermal test die versus that with an active die. The disadvantage of using the substrate isolation diode method or the thermal test die method is that the heat dissipation pattern on the die can be quite different from that which exists during functional operation of the integrated circuit. This difference can yield higher junction temperature in actual operation of functional dies than that predicted by thermal testing.

1.10 Component Thermal Impedance This section deals with the topic of transient, non-equilibrium, component characterization. Consideration of transient effects is required in applications where the component never reaches steady state during the course of operation. For example, the components in some small on-board missile applications experience no more than 100 seconds of intended operation. Characterization of components at steady state is not useful for such situations. Characterization of component transient behavior can also reveal aspects of internal device construction. It can be used to perform non-destructive testing for die attachment quality and to delineate the effective thermal performance of component construction details. Further, transient component characterization can be used to predict the performance of components in response to non-steady, irregular, or cyclic heating waveforms.

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1.10.1 Transient and Steady State When a component is unpowered and at thermal equilibrium with the ambient environment, its temperature is uniform throughout. When a constant level of power is abruptly applied to the component and held constant for long period of time, the component temperature undergoes a transition from an initially unpowered equilibrium condition to a new, final powered steady state equilibrium condition. Steady state thermal equilibrium is the condition where the previous temperature of the component no longer influences the present temperature disposition of the component. At thermal equilibrium, the only variables that control the temperature of the component are the fixed power dissipation and the thermal environment; when both of these are constant for a sufficient period of time, the part approaches thermal equilibrium. Prior to equilibrium, the component is considered to be in thermal transition or a transient thermal state. At thermal equilibrium, time becomes an irrelevant parameter. Once equilibrium has been reached, the duration of previous heating is not needed to predict the temperature of the component. During a transient thermal condition, the temperatures within the component package are changing toward a new thermal equilibrium. Thermal resistance can only be measured at equilibrium conditions. The physical reason for this is the existence of thermal mass or heat capacitance that is present in all matter. These capacitances are distributed throughout the body of a component and must be thermally "charged" to different temperatures when a component makes a thermal transition from one equilibrium condition to another. This thermal "charging" via heat flow requires time. The definition of thermal resistance requires the same total heat flow across both of the two isothermal surfaces. This can only occur when all of the heat capacitances between the two isothermal surfaces have stopped changing temperature and have reached equilibrium. The greater the heat capacity of the package contained between the isothermal surfaces, the longer the transient period until the onset of thermal equilibrium. Prior to thermal equilibrium, the attempted computation of thermal resistance yields thermal impedance. Thermal impedance is defined as the difference in temperature between two isothermal surfaces divided by the heat flow entering the hotter of the two surfaces. Thermal impedance at thermal equilibrium is synonymous with thermal resistance. Thermal impedance must specify the powering condition and duration whereas thermal resistance is only defined at thermal equilibrium. These "surfaces" are not physical, solid surfaces but rather imaginary surfaces of constant temperature. Defining Tj and Tx as the hot and cold isothermal surface temperatures respectively and the total heat flow rate entering the
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isothermal surface at temperature Tj as P, the thermal impedance between these surfaces is Tj Tx Zjx =

(Equ 8) The units of thermal impedance are C / Watt. Thermal impedance is simply thermal resistance without the condition of equal heat flux across both isotherms. This inequality occurs when heat capacitances between the isothermal surfaces are storing heat energy prior to thermal equilibrium. The thermal impedance concept is analogous to electrical impedance. Electrical impedances include resistances and reactances, i.e., capacitors and inductances. Reactances only manifest themselves during periods of transition. Once electrical steady state has been reached, only the presence of resistance is apparent. This situation is precisely analogous to thermal impedances although electrical inductors have no thermal analog. As an example to illustrate the difference between thermal resistance and thermal impedance, consider a device that is in unpowered thermal equilibrium with the ambient air at 25 C. Beginning at a time defined as "time = 0", a constant power of 3 Watts is initiated. After 5 seconds, the temperature of the part is measured at 35 C. and power continues to be applied for a total of 3000 seconds. The junction-to-ambient thermal impedance for this part would be computed and stated as:

Power Duration, t (sec) 5 15 30 1000 2000 3000

Power (watts) 3 3 3 3 3 3

Tj (C) 35 49 55 60 61 61

Tamb (C) 25 25 25 25 25 25

Zja @ t (C/watt) 3.33 8.00 10.00 11.66 12.00 12.00

Table 2: Example data for definition of thermal impedance and resistance and Rja = 12.00 C/Watt (@ equilibrium)
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Clearly, by the time the component has been powered for 2000 seconds, it has reached steady state and therefore the impedance at 2000 seconds is actually the thermal resistance of the component. In summary for any given power level, selected temperature references, and cooling environment, a component can have an unlimited number of thermal impedances but can have only one thermal resistance for any set of selected isothermal surfaces. Figure 13 illustrates component junction-to-ambient thermal impedance versus heating duration after a step change in power dissipation. Theoretically, equilibrium requires an infinite heating duration, although for all practical purposes, equilibrium begins after 5 or 6 times the longest thermal time constant of the system enclosed between the two isothermal surfaces. Collectively, the thermal impedance data taken during transient response to a step-change in power is often called "heat characterization" or "heating curve," since a plot of the data plot details the heating of the device.

Figure 13: Example of linear-time heating characterization plot

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Heating Characterization is the complete response of a component to a stepheating condition. It defines the relationship of thermal impedance to heating duration and contains a complete signature of the thermal behavior of the device ranging from transient to steady state. When properly analyzed, the data can be used to predict the operation of the device under any set of operating power conditions. Heating characterization also provides valuable insights into the cross sectional disposition of thermal resistances and capacitances within the component. In summary, the transient thermal data contained in a heating characterization can offer a wealth of insight into the thermal performance of a component. (See following paper on Synthetic Models in Heating Characterization.) Figure13 presents a heating characterization plot of impedance versus heating duration in response to a heating power step. The X-axis is a linear time axis where zero is the instant of step-initiation and the Y-axis is the component impedance. The longest duration of this heating characterization is 1000 seconds. A very large portion of this plot presents equilibrium data. Figure 14 presents the same heating characterization data plotted using a logtime. When plotted in this manner, the curve

Figure 14: Example of log-time heating characterization

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exhibits plateaus or ripples which are associated with the internal thermal capacitances and resistances of the package. The bulk of the log-time plot presents non-equilibrium data. This example illustrates a useful fact regarding the selection of time axes for plotting heating characterization data. The linear time axis provides a much better presentation of equilibrium data; the log time axis presents a more detailed presentation of the short duration, transient, non-equilibrium thermal data. Since heating characterization focuses on the transient data, the log-time plot is universally accepted for heating curves. Figures15 and 16 each present a comparison of two heating curves. Figure 15 contains the heating characterization for two plastic packages, one with an internal heat spreader pad and one without the spreader. Comparing the data starting from the shortest duration, the curves progressively diverge as the duration increases. After about 4 seconds, the curves track parallel to each other at a fixed impedance difference. This is indicative of a thermal difference quite close to the die.

Figure 15: Heating curve comparison for two plastic packages

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Figure 16 presents a comparison of heating curves for the same part in natural and forced convection. Here the curves coincide up to about 10 seconds duration and then begin to diverge. This is indicative of a thermal difference which is quite far from the die.

Figure 16: Heating curve comparison for a device in natural and forced convection

Examination of the overall heating characterization profile of a component indicates where the most significant thermal resistances lie with respect to the die. Components with heating curves which rise sharply for short durations have most of their internal thermal resistance close to the die; such a component would benefit most from thermal improvements which are close the die, i.e., the die attachment. Alternatively, components which have heating curves that rise sharply for long durations can benefit most by thermal enhancements to the heat transfer at the outer surface of the package, i.e., increased air flow or heat sinking. In this manner, interpretation of heating characterizations can provide an excellent source of direction for thermal performance enhancement efforts.
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1.11 Heating Characterization Measurements Conceptually, heating characterization begins with a component in an unpowered equilibrium condition. Ideally, the power-step begins when the component heatingpower is instantaneously elevated to the specified level and then held constant for the duration required to ensure complete thermal equilibrium. The junction - reference temperature difference climbs steadily from its initial value to the final equilibrium value as the heating-step progresses. During this heating power step, the temperature of the junction-to-reference temperature difference is measured continuously. The component impedance is computed as the instantaneous difference between the junction and the reference temperature divided by the power level. For a number of practical reasons, the implementation of the heating characterization diverges significantly from this basic concept. In the single-step heating characterization, the junction temperature rises are quite small shortly after the commencement of the heating step. As the heating progresses, the temperatures differences increase and eventually reach a maximum at equilibrium. Since the fundamental errors associated with the measurement of junction temperature rises are not tolerance ratios but rather a fixed error level expressed in C, measurement errors will tend to overwhelm the small temperature rise data early in the heating pulse. As the heating progresses and temperatures rise, the relative significance of these fixed errors will subside to manageable levels. Thus, the single step response heating characterization will suffer from massive errors for the short duration impedances and minimal errors for long duration impedances and thermal resistance. One solution is to use a higher heating power level throughout the step. This marginally improves the measurement errors and would be restricted by the maximum power and junction temperature limits of the component. The fundamental problem with the idealized, fixed power, single step heating response is that the heating power is limited to the steady state DC power limit. Another problem with the ideal heating characterization concept is that only thermal dice can be continuously powered while simultaneously being measured for junction temperature. All active non-thermal dice require fixed duration interruption in the heating power for the measurement of the junction temperature. For short duration impedances, these power interruptions comprise a significant "duty cycle" factor and an unacceptable deviation from the requirement of continuous heating at a fixed level. As the heating duration progresses, the off-power intervals become insignificant as a proportion of the heating duration. For these reasons, heating characterization for components with active, non-thermal dice is performed using a sequence of single pulses which are successively delivered at reduced power levels as the pulse duration increases. After each pulse, the
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component impedance can be computed for that particular heating duration as the temperature difference rise at the end of the pulse divided by the pulse power level. The heating curve is then composed by collecting the impedances, one from each pulse. After each pulse, the component must be allowed to passively cool to nearly its original unpowered equilibrium state. When the pulse wattages are chosen to generate a uniform temperature rise for all heating durations, the impedance measurements exhibit a uniform accuracy throughout the heating characterization. In the interest of reducing the total time required for a heating characterization, longer heating durations can be performed in the idealized, fixed-power level approach. When performing heating characterization with a respect a reference temperature which is assumed to be fixed, i.e., ambient air temperature, care should be taken to ensure that the reference temperature does not inadvertently "drift" during the heating characterization. Such a "drift" would generate systemic errors in the resultant data. Alternatively the reference temperature can be monitored with a thermocouple to eliminate such errors.

1.11.1 Interpreting Heating Characterizations The heating step-response curve of Figure 14 illustrates typical characteristics worth noting. The variations in slope with shallow "plateaus" are a common, although not universal, manifestation. Each ripple in the heating step-response indicates an equilibrium condition in the distributed network of thermal resistances and capacitances at a particular depth of the component with respect the outer portions of the package. The final plateau is reached when all of the intermediate levels of the component package are near thermal equilibrium on the extreme right of the plot. Recalling that an exponential function exceeds 95% of its final value after 3 exponential time constants have elapsed, each of the points of inflection correspond to approximately three-times one of the inherent internal thermal time constants of the component packaging configuration. The heating characterization represents a type of cross sectional view of the internal thermal resistances and capacitances of a component as depicted. To appreciate this fact, it is helpful to envision the flow of heat in the component beginning at the instant that the power-step commences: As heat spreads through the die, it begins to enter the die attachment region. The small heat capacitance of the die region and the high heat flux density present causes a significant increase in the die temperature with only a small accumulation of heat energy. Thus initial temperature rises are almost entirely governed by thermal spreading in the die region; the short duration impedances are overwhelmingly representative of the heat flux network in the die region. The mass of the component package, with its larger heat capacitance, responds after further heating and sufficient energy accumulates to alter its temperature. The larger the heat capacitance associated with a thermal resistance, the longer the heating duration before its influence will be manifested. Thus heating curve data plots depict the disposition of internal thermal resistances as a function of distance from the die 39

effectively a thermal resistance cross section of the component [Sofia, J.W.,1995, D.L. Blackburn, 1975, D.L. Blackburn, F.F. Oettinger, 1974, C. Neugebauer, [et al.], 1986].

1.11.2 Impedance Testing As the duration of heating characterization continues, the component approaches equilibrium as the measured impedances approach the steady state thermal resistance. At equilibrium, the thermal resistance embodies all of the distributed, constituent thermal resistances elements between the two designated reference temperature sites. For heating durations less than that required for thermal equilibrium, those thermal resistances are partially reflected in the associated impedances as a function of the heating duration: The longer the heating duration, the greater the proportion of the thermal resistances between the reference sites that will be included in the associated thermal impedance. Based on this, pre-equilibrium heating durations can be chosen to selectively exclude the outer portions of a component. Essentially, an impedance measurement can be "tuned" to probe a particular internal component interface by selecting the correct heating duration. Such tests are specific and highly sensitive to the thermal performance of the component package-depth of interest. One of the most popular applications of "tuned" impedance measurement is the die attachment test. [F.F. Oettinger, R.L. Gladhill, 1973] This test is also referred to as the "power pulse" test. The objective is to evaluate the thermal resistance of the mechanical/thermal bond between the die-attachment and the package. Since most of the heat dissipated from a die is first conducted through the die-attachment, evaluation of the thermal integrity of the die-attachment is crucial to ensuring good thermal performance. If the die-attachment is incomplete or defective and thus offers a poor heat-conduction path from the chip to the chip-package, the packaged semiconductor device will operate with higher junction temperatures and thus have a shortened life expectancy. The die attachment test does not approach thermal equilibrium but is a totally transient, non-equilibrium test. Typical heating durations range from 10 to 200 milliseconds. The test begins by heating the component with a short, precisely controlled pulse causing rapid heating of the die without substantially heating the package into which it is mounted. At the end of the heating pulse the chip temperature rise is determined and the impedance computed. When the pulse duration has been correctly chosen, the impedance measured reflects the thermal resistance of the package from the die outward to slightly beyond the die attachment. The local ambient is used as the implicit reference temperature although, since this temperature does not change during the test and the device is assumed to be at unpowered thermal equilibrium prior to the test, the impedance is simply the difference in junction temperature before and after the power pulse. The peak junction temperature rise above the starting temperature is strongly controlled by the thermal resistance of the die attachment. Voids or defects in the
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attachment will result in reduced thermal conduction and higher chip temperatures. The short duration of the power pulse required for die attachment testing is ideally suited to screening production lots of devices for acceptable thermal die-attachment. It should be noted that the pulse power in die-attachment tests is often significantly higher than the steady state, DC power level limit. Such augmented power levels offer significantly higher temperature rises than the DC limit and thereby improves the measurement accuracy of the test. In a similar manner, longer heating duration pulses can be used to test internal component-interface layers. The testing of header attachments is a good example of this. Here the pulse duration can range from 50 to 500 milliseconds. This test effectively determines the quality of the header attachment but is also affected by the quality of the die attachment since the longer pulse measures the thermal resistance from the die through the die attachment, the header, and the header attachment, respectively. A test of this type does not comprise a good indicator of header attachment unless a previous test for die attachment has been performed. In production environments, large quantities of devices can be "screened" for die attachment. The results of this screening can be represented as a histogram. Figure 17 presents an example of this type of evaluation. The shape of these curves is often a bell curve with an extended "hot-foot" as shown in the figure. This type of analysis helps to determine production consistency and provides the basis for enhancement of thermal quality of manufacture.

Figure 17: Sample histogram of die-attachment test results

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The topic of heating characterization is also discussed in SEMI Std G46-88.

1.11.3 Further Applications of Heating Characterization A heating characterization contains all of the information needed to accurately predict the behavior of the component to any non-steady heating condition. A technique for synthesizing dynamic models comprised of discrete thermal resistances and capacitances has been developed for improved physical insight. [Sofia, 1995] These models provide three significant benefits: a) delineation of effective internal package thermal resistances and time constants b) delineation of the best "target" for package thermal enhancement efforts and estimate of probable results c) simulation of the behavior of the device to non-steady or cyclic powering conditions. These component dynamic models can be used to simulate the thermal performance in response to power conditions other than the simple step. Arbitrary power waveforms can be specified as the input to the synthetic model. The resulting simulation can completely detail the thermal performance of the device. Figure 18 presents a typical simulation using square-wave heating power over a range duty cycles.

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Figure 18: Sample of square-wave impedance simulation

Arbitrary heating waveforms can be utilized when expressed in step-wise approximation. This simulation technique essentially involves a superposition in time of a sequence of power steps that, when added together, produce the desired heating waveform. Since the response of the component to a single heating step is known, superimposing the responses of the individual steps comprising the desired heating waveform produces the desired response. This technique is called "temporal superposition". It can be applied to simulate the thermal response of any component for any arbitrary heating waveform, transient or steady-state, based on the information contained in the standard heating characterization.

1.12 Thermal Resistance Methods for Hybrids/Multi-Chip Components 1.12.1 Introduction Thermal resistance characterizations of electronic packages having multiple heat sources are unique and can often pose problems, particularly for the thermal test
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engineer. Such packages are typified by multi-chip packages or hybrid electronic assemblies. Such components possess multiple dice in close proximity with independent heat dissipations. The fundamental effect that differentiates these components from the single die packages is that each die heats the adjacent dice and the relative heat dissipation of the dice may independently be a function of the component operation. The following discussion covers the method of thermal resistance characterization in multi-chip components. The underlying theory of linear superposition is briefly discussed followed by the matrix method of thermal resistance formulation.

1.12.2 Method of Linear Superposition The physics of heat transfer is expressed by the general heat-conduction equation and governs the temperature distribution and the conduction heat flow in a solid having uniform physical properties. The Laplace transformation theory that can be used to solve this differential equation includes the superposition theorem, the Duhamel integral theorem, as part of its formulation. The idea of superposition is that known heat conduction solutions for specific heat transfer problems can be superimposed to yield valid solutions for more complex problems of interest. This principle of linear superposition of heat conduction solutions is an extremely powerful tool which can be applied to thermal testing. As a simple example of linear superposition, consider the hypothetical case of onedimensional heat conduction in a bar. Here, the bar contains two internal heat sources and is insulated everywhere except at the ends where a fixed temperature is imposed. The temperature distribution within this bar is shown in Figure 19A, where only a single heat source is operating. With a different heat source operating, a second solution can be easily generated as shown in Figure 19B. Using the method of linear superposition, the solution for the bar with the two heat sources operating simultaneously can be created by simply adding the temperature fields and the heat fluxes. This superimposed solution is shown in Figure 19C which was created by summing the temperature rises from each single source solution.

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Figure 19 A, B, C: Illustraion of superposition concept This is a powerful technique since it allows simple, single heat source temperature fields to be superimposed to generate solutions for more complex problems which are relatively difficult to solve by direct approach. It is most accurate for application which are dominated by conduction. The method of superposition can be conveniently expressed through a matrix method of thermal resistance formulations for multiple heat source thermal problems.

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1.12.3 Superposition Method for Thermal Resistance The method of linear superposition can easily be applied to thermal resistance characterization and measurement of components with multiple, independent heat sources where the heat transfer is dominated by solid conduction. Consider the case of the linear bar conduction shown in Figure 18. Physically, this example represents a bar with internally embedded heat sources. The sides of the bar are insulated such that heat can only escape the bar from the uninsulated end faces which are both exposed to an infinite heat sink of temperature T0. The reference temperature for this simple example is the infinite heat sink temperature, i.e., Tref = T0. Superimposing Figures 18A and 18B, the temperature of point 1 equals the temperature rise of point 1 with only the heat source at point 1 operating plus the temperature rise of point 1 with only the heat source at 2 operating. This is expressed:

T = T T + T T +T T = T T + T T +T

where the single-source temperatures are defined: T11 = temperature of point 1 with heating from point 1 T22 = temperature of point 2 with heating from point 2 T12 = temperature of point 1 with heating from point 2 T21 = temperature of point 2 with heating from point 1 and the superimposed temperatures are : T1 = temperature of point 1 due to heat from both point 1 & point 2 T2 = temperature of point 2 due to heat from both point 1 & point 2 This superposition solution can be similarly expressed in terms of thermal resistances:

R =

T T Q

where all thermal resistances here are from the heat source "junctions" to the reference temperature, Tref or T0. Here R11 is the thermal resistance of point 1 due to heating at point 1. These thermal resistance manipulations can be cast in matrix form for convenience. This yields a 2 by 2 matrix, R , for our case of two heat sources:

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R 11 R 12 R 21 R 22 R

Q1 T1 T 0 = Q2 T 2 T0 Q = T
Equ. 9 Equ. 10

The general thermal resistance description of a component having 'N' heat sources is an N-by-N matrix, R . The heat dissipation of each source is formed into a column matrix, Q The differences between the source temperatures and the reference temperature also form a column matrix, , where with the elements of the array are equal to Ti - Tref, for i = 1 to N. With the thermal resistance matrix determined, the temperature of each source can be calculated from the above matrix equation (Equ. 10) based on the principle of superposition. It should be noted that R12 and R21 are equal when the selected reference temperature is equally sensitive to the heat fluxes from each of the heat sources. Conversely, the reference temperature should not be more sensitive to the heat flux from any particular heat source due to its proximity to reference temperature site. When this condition is satisfied, the R matrix is a symmetrical matrix. This is a very desirable condition from the perspective of component characterization. In regard to the selection of a reference temperature site, the degree of matrix symmetry is a good indicator of the desirability of candidate reference temperature sites. Usually the local ambient or the average heat sink temperature is the best selection for the reference temperature site. Since the local ambient air temperature is nearly equally influenced by each of the heat sources. An average heat sink reference temperature is ideally influenced by the total heat flux of all of the nodes and not the proximity of any particular heat source(s). This issue should be considered when selecting the reference temperature site for multi-chip modules (MCMs). When the matrix must be symmetric (as in the case of the ambient reference temperature) averaging the elements can be use to create a symmetric matrix. In cases where the mattrix is known to be symmetric as is the case isothermal ambient reference temperature, non-equal symmetric elements should be replaced by their average value. This correctly averages out random measurement errors. This superposition technique is extremely useful for effective thermal resistance characterization of multi-chip modules, hybrid devices, or any components having multiple heat sources. The method simply requires that for each independent heat source present, one test must be performed. During each test, junction temperatures for all dice must be measured.

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1.12.4 Limitations and Sources of Error The method of superposition may be used effectively over a wide range of problems. Random errors are always present but these can be quantified by test repetition and analysis of the sensitivity of the final results to such errors. There are however some situations which may cause significant systematic errors: a) radiation effects: When radiation becomes a significant means of heat transfer (greater than 5 to 10 % of the total heat transfer) superposition will begin to generate systematic errors. The reason is that radiation heat transfer has fourth power dependency on temperature, hence, is not superimposable. b) temperature variations in material properties: These are nonlinearities which are not superimposable. To minimize these non-linear effects, all single source tests should be performed at peak temperatures close to those expected in the superimposed solution. c) transport by convection: Natural convection generates a nonsuperimposable non-linearity since the convective action depends on the total amount of heat dissipated leading to buoyancy. Convection affects components that are down-stream of the heated component(s). Fluid dynamic effects are often non-linear and thus can create systematic errors for superposition method.

1.13 Component Characterization Method Summary The following list comprises the primary steps for component characterization. Device Calibration a) Determine the electrical connections for the temperature sensitive parameter (TSP). b) Select the sense current and calibration environment. c) Perform calibration to determine the calibration relationship for the TSP. Thermal Resistance Testing a) Determine the means to heat the component with DC power. b) Determine the reference temperature site and the means to measure it. c) Fixture the component in the desired test thermal environment. d) Allow the component to reach unpowered equilibrium with the environment. e) Measure the sense voltage and compute the unpowered junction temperature.
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f) Compare the junction temperature with the environment temperature and correct temperature intercept if necessary (one-point recalibration). g) Begin heating the component. h) Check the junction temperature readings to ensure the correct value for the measurement delay interval to avoid spurious electrical noise. i) When powered thermal equilibrium has been reached, report the thermal resistance based on the final power level, measured reference temperature, and junction temperature (computed using the recalibrated calibration parameters). Thermal Impedance Testing a) Perform thermal resistance first to establish steady state power limits and stable DC power conditions. b) Let component reach unpowered equilibrium in test environment. c) Determine the desired duration of heating . d) Determine the desired power level for sufficient temperature rise. e) Deliver the desired power pulse and determine the junction temperature rise. Be sure that the correct value for the measurement delay interval is used to avoid spurious electrical noise. f) Compute thermal impedance based on the temperature rise and the power level delivered. g) If performing a heating characterization, repeat steps b) - f) for another combination of duration and power level.

1.14 References Azar, K., Benson, J. R., Manno, V., "Liquid Crystal Imaging for Temperature Measurement of Electronic Devices" Seventh IEEE SEMI-THERM Symposium pp 2329, 1991 Blackburn, D.L., "An Electrical Technique for the Measurement of the Peak Junction Temperature of Power Transistors", 13th Annual Proceedings Reliability Physics, '75, IEEE 75CH0931-6PHY, pp. 142-145, 1975 Blackburn, D.L., Oettinger, F.F., "Transient Thermal Response Measurements of Power Transistors," IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference (PESC), 1974 Record, June 1974, pp 140-148 "Circuit-Performance and Thermal Resistance Measurements" (3100 Series) MIL-STD750C, February, 1993
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Kraus, A.D., Bar-Cohen, A., Thermal Analysis and Control of Electronic Equipment, McGraw Hill, 1983, ch. 1 C. Neugebauer, [et al.], Thermal Response Measurements for Semiconductor Devices, New York: Gordon & Breach Science Publications, 1986, ch. 4, 5, 6 Oettinger, F.F., Blackburn, D.L. Thermal Resistance Measurements, NIST Special Publication 400-86 from Series on Semiconductor Measurement Technology, July, 1990 Oettinger, F.F., Gladhill, R.L., "Thermal Response Measurements for Semiconductor Device Die Attachment Evaluation," International Electronic Device Meeting Technical Digest (IEDM), 1973, pp. 47-50 Sofia, J.W., "Analysis of Thermal Transient Data with Synthesized Dynamic Models for Semiconductor Devices", IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology Part A (CPMT), Volume 18, March 1995, pp 39-47

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