TUTORIAL 2 1.

Define the following terms by giving suitable examples: Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Have a small and positive susceptibility magnetic fields to Diamagnetic Have a very weak and negative to Ferromagnetic Have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field Slightly attracted by field Does not retain the magnetic when a magnetic Slightly repelled by field Does not retain the magnetic when a magnetic Exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields Able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. arise the of They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains where large numbers of atom's moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned parallel. and

susceptibility magnetic fields

properties

properties

the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired and the of

the external field is removed Diamagnetic properties from realignment

electrons, from realignment

the electron paths under the

influence of an external magnetic field.

the electron paths caused by the

external magnetic field. Aluminium, Tungsten most metals Gold, Copper,

Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their alloys

Water and most non-metal

2. Discuss and elaborate on the extractive metallurgical processing techniques (gravimetric, flotation, magnetic separation, leaching etc.). List down the minerals which can be extracted using the processing routes by giving appropriate explanations and justifications. i. Gravimetric separation The gravimetric separation is the processing method typically used in smallscale mining. Gravity methods of separation are used to treat a great variety of materials, ranging from heavy metal sulphides such as galena (sp gr. 7.5) to coal (sp gr. 1.3) at particle size in some cases below 50 um. There are two main classes of gravity concentrators: gravity separators, in which the separation is effected in water; and dense medium separators, in which the separation is effected in a fluid or slurry with a density intermediate between the light and heavy fractions. For the sorting of raw ore feed in which heavy minerals are the valuable mineral source, either dry or wet mechanical methods are employed, depending on the location, which utilize the difference in density between minerals to achieve the separation. In gravimetric processes, variations in density-specific phenomena (e.g. falling speed, radial acceleration), which appear in a sorting medium of air (dry sorting) or water (wet mechanical sorting), to produce a separation of the feed into two or more components (streams), one chiefly containing ore minerals and the other host-rock particles. Equipment used in gravimetric sorting includes sluices jigs, sink-float (heavymedium) separators, buddies, spiral separators, cyclones, pneumatic classifiers (sifters), etc.

Spiral separators

Pneumatic jigs

Typical applications for gravimetric separators are concentrating coal from shale and separating heavy oxides like hematite, ilmenite, rutile, cassiterite etc., from light rock minerals. Before the floatation process was developed gravimetric separation was also extensively used for recovering metal sulphides. Jigging and heavy media separation were often used as preconcentration stage for rather coarse ore to reduce the amount of material going on to the more expensive grinding and floatation process. ii. Floatation In mechanized ore mining, flotation is the most widely used processing method. In flotation, the different electro-chemical surface characteristics of minerals are utilized in the separation process, in that some minerals in finegrained slurry are made hydrophobic through the addition of reagents (collectors, activators). A collector is a chemical that attaches to the mineral surface and produces a hydrophobic (water-fearing) surface. While certain minerals are naturally hydrophobic and do not require a collector, recovery is often improved when a collector is used. This water-repellent film facilitates the attachment of the mineral particle to the air bubble. Many different chemicals are used as collectors, such as oils, xanthates, dithiophosphates, petroleum sulfonates and fatty amines. Meanwhile, activators are specific compounds that make it possible for collectors to adsorb onto surfaces that they could not normally attach to. A classic example of an activator is copper sulphate as an activator for sphalerite (ZnS) flotation with xanthate collectors.

Simplified schematic of a conventional flotation cell

The process of flotation entails crushing and grinding the ore to a fine size. This fine grinding separates the individual mineral particles from the waste rock and other mineral particles. The grinding is normally done in water with the resultant slurry called the pulp. The pulp is processed in the flotation cells, which agitate the mixture and introduce air as small bubbles. Air injected into a tank (flotation cell) containing the slurry carries the hydrophobic particles to the surface where they collect as foam which is then subsequently scooped off. This form of separation, where the mineral concentrate is removed in the foam is known as direct flotation; when the mineral remains in the heavy liquid component, the process is known as indirect flotation. The ability of a mineral to float depends upon its surface properties. Chemical modification of these properties enables the mineral particles to attach to an air bubble in the flotation cell. The air bubble and mineral particle rise through the pulp to the surface of the froth or foam that is present on the flotation cell. Even though the air bubbles often break at this point, the mineral remains on the surface of the froth. By varying the pH-values of the slurry and the reagent additives, different minerals can be selectively recovered. The mineral is physically separated from the remaining pulp material and is removed for further processing. Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, iron, potash, phosphate, and even sand for glass are often processed by flotation. iii. Magnetic separation Magnetic separation takes advantage of differences in the magnetic properties of minerals. Minerals fall into one of three magnetic properties: ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic. Ferromagnetic minerals are themselves magnetic (i.e., magnetite and pyrrhotite) and can be easily separated from other minerals with a magnet since they will stick to the poles of the magnet. These minerals can be separated by wrapping the poles of a magnet in paper, passing the magnet over the mineral mixture. The ferromagnetic minerals will stick to the magnet and may be easily separated by removing the paper covering the magnet. Paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals are not magnetic, but they differ in how they interact with a magnetic field. Paramagnetic minerals are weakly attracted into a magnetic field and diamagnetic minerals are weakly repelled by a magnetic field. Thus, if a mixture of paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals is passed through a magnetic field, they will be pulled into the field (paramagnetic) or repelled from the field (diamagnetic) and may be separated. Furthermore, paramagnetic minerals with different degrees of paramagnetism can be separated from one another in the same way.

Magnetic separator The magnetic separator consists of a large electromagnet through which mineral mixtures can be passed on a metal trough which is divided near its exit end. Varying the strength of the magnetic field and/or slope of the separation trough is used to separate minerals. Its application includes recovery of ilmenite, garnet, chromite and monazite into the magnetic fraction and rutile, leucoxene and zircon into the nonmagnetic fractions from mineral sands suites. iv. Leaching Leaching is the process of dissolving desired metal values contained in the ore or concentrate using aqueous solution of the lixiviating agent. The aqueous effluent thrown back in the natural environment by a dump is leachate. The solution obtained after leaching of a waste or a material in the laboratory is called an eluate. The products of leaching are: i. Metal-enriched solution that will go to further processing ii. Worthless material free from the valuable minerals that will go to the dumping site Cyanide leaching is most common in processing gold and silver ores. Various methods such as carbon adsorption, precipitation, solvent extraction, and electrowinning can be used to concentrate the target mineral and remove it from solution.

3. Discuss and elaborate the process flow in the iron ore pelletizing system, pebble lime production system and coke calcining system (refer to slides No. 27, 28 and 29). Explain the extractive metallurgical processes and equipment involved in these processes. a. Iron ore pelletizing system The iron ore pelletizing plant took iron ore concentrate and produced superior iron ore pellets (high iron content and uniform quality) for blast furnace and direct reduced iron feed. There are two main processes for producing iron ore pellets: The Grate-Kiln system and the straight grate system. In the straight grate system, a continuous parade of grate cars moves at the same speed though the drying, induration and cooling zones. Any change in one section effects the residence time in another. In the Grate-Kiln system, independent speed control of the grate, kiln and cooler are available to the operator. This provides process flexibility to adjust to changes in concentrate feed.

The Grate-Kiln system and the straight grate system Pelletization process Pelletization is comprised of two main stages: (1) Agglomeration During agglomeration, finely ground particulates (usually 80% passing 44 micron) of ore concentrate (with a moisture content of approximately 9%) are mixed with additives and binders and sent to the balling drums or discs where the forces act between the particle grains to create a bonded pellet referred to in the industry as a green ball.

(2) Induration The green balls formed during the agglomeration process are then strong enough for transport to the Grate-KilnTM induration machine. There the green pellets are subjected to certain varying process zones of drying, preheating, firing and cooling. Each zone varies by temperature and residence time in order to ensure that all bonds and mineral bridging is formed, strengthening and heat hardening each green ball into an indurated pellet product which is then suitable for feed in the steel making process.

Iron ore pelletizing system Equipment involved: i. Grate The traveling grate is a conveyor that transports balled iron ore concentrate through cross-flow processing zones. The conveying element is a continuous loop assembly of slotted ferrous stainless steel grate plates, chain castings, and side plates to carry a bed of agglomerates. The upper, active, carrying portion of the conveying element is supported level and flat over a head shaft, intermediate upper supporting shaft/roller assemblies and a tail shaft. The grate is driven by a bull gear drive assembly and a variable frequency drive and motor or hydraulic drive at the head shaft, and sufficient speed variation is provided to maintain the required bed depth over a reasonable wide variation in feed rate. The processing zones consist of furnace over the active run, and windboxes underneath. These are enclosures to contain and direct process gases as they flow through the grate.
7

Detailed grate chain and its components The elements of the conveyor and the upper and lower enclosures are supported on a frame of steel structural members. The frame, being a machine element, is meticulously set, rigidly braced, and force-air cooled in the preheat zone to assure the true alignment of the conveying element during operation, heat-up, and cool-down. ii. Kiln The kiln is a refractory lined cylinder rotating about its axis. The kiln slopes slightly downward from feed to discharge end. The slope and rotation of the kiln move the material through it. Kiln speed is variable to vary pellet retention time. The kiln is a single chamber with an open feed end connected by housing to the grates preheat furnace. Through this connection is the inflow of material to the kiln and outflow of kiln gas to the preheat furnace. The kilns discharge end is open and connected to the cooler by a firing hood. Through the firing hood, pellets flow from the kiln to the cooler and primary cooler offgas flows into the kiln. The rotary kiln has two (2) main drive motors for speed control between 0.5 to 1.5 rpm kiln speed. Two auxiliary drives, one electric and one diesel, are provided and they drive the kiln at 0.1 rpm. iii. Cooler The cooler is essentially a grate formed into a rotating annular channel. Pellets discharging from the kiln are leveled to a uniform bed depth by the screed wall. As the annulus rotates, the bed of pellets is conveyed
8

through the cooling zones. The bed is carried on slotted, heat resistant pallets from the upward vertical passage of outside air. The sides of the bed are supported by refractory walls. After cooling, the pallets are tipped to discharge the pellets. Cooler speed is variable to control indexing of cooler. The active run of the cooler is enclosed above and below superimposed chambers that form the cooling zones. b. Pebble lime production system

Crushing The first step in the manufacturing of lime is to crush the pieces of limestone to make them smaller. There are two basic types of primary crushers: compression and impact. Compression crushers use slow, steady amounts of pressure to reduce the size of the rock, whereas impact crushers rely on intense, repeated blows. Compression crushers are used mainly for larger stones, impact crushers for smaller sizes. In some plants, stones undergo secondary crushing as well. The crushed stone is screened to provide the desired stone size and then conveyed to storage in conical stockpiles.

Before entering the kiln, the limestone passes through the preheater, where it is heated with hot exhaust gases from the kiln. Burning fuel is injected into the cylinder just beneath the calcining zone, causing the limestone in this zone to calcine. Hot gasses from the calcining zone migrate upward, warming the stone in the preheating zone which is discharged at the lower end of the cylinder.

 Calcination Limestone is converted into lime through heating in a kiln, a process known as calcination. When limestone is subjected to high temperatures, it undergoes a chemical decomposition resulting in the formation of lime (CaO) and the emission of carbon dioxide gas (CO2). High-Calcium Lime CaCO3 + heat CO2 + CaO Dolomitic Lime CaCO3 + MgCO3 + heat 2CO2 + CaO.MgO To complete the thermal decomposition of limestone into lime, the stone must be heated to the dissociation temperature of the carbonates, and this temperature must be maintained for a certain period of time. The dissociation temperature varies depending on the type of limestone being burned. For example, calcite dissociates at 898C (1,648F) while magnesium carbonate dissociates at 402 to 480C (756 to 896F). Because this is a reversible chemical reaction, the carbon dioxide emitted as a result of calcination must be removed to prevent recarbonation. Recarbonation occurs when carbon dioxide is reabsorbed by the cooling lime, diminishing the quality of the finished product. Lime must be cooled after exiting the rotary kiln. Finished lime drops into the cooling zone, wherecool air is blown through it. Air blown into the cooling zone carries recovered heat upward into the calcining zone, where it also provides air for combustion. Various types of coolers are used, including contact coolers, satellite coolers, rotary coolers, and grate coolers. Cooled lime is removed from the bottom, making room for the limestone and lime in the upper levels to descend. Quicklime, hydrated lime, and deadburned dolomite are the three broad categories of lime produced at the end of these processes. Equipment involved: i) Rotary Kilns. A rotary kiln is a long cylinder, ranging in length from 75 to 500 feet, with a diameter between 4 and 11 feet. This cylinder is set at an incline of 3 to 5 degrees and rotates at a rate of 35 to 80 revolutions per hour. The inner surface of the cylinder is lined with refractory brick. Surrounding the brick is a layer of insulation, then an outer casing of steel boiler plate. Most rotary
10

kilns are fired by coal; however, with the correct adaptations, coke, oil, and natural gas can also be used. ii) Preheaters Preheaters improve thermal efficiency by using heat from the kiln that might otherwise be lost. Contact coolers Coolers serve to cool the lime for further handling and to recapture heat.

iii)

c. Coke calcining system Calcined coke is produced from green coke by a process of further heating at temperatures in excess of 1200oC .Most uses other than for fuel or gasification require green coke to be calcined in order to improve its properties. The process of calcining removes moisture, reduces the volatile matter to less than 0.4%, increases the density of the coke structure, increases physical strength, and increases the electrical conductivity of the material (Ellis and Paul, 2000a). When green coke is calcined, devolatilization of volatile matter occurs at 500 to 1000C. Heating further to 1200 to 1400C causes additional dehydrogenation, some desulfurization, and coke structural shrinkage (densification). The result is a hard, dense substance with low hydrogen content, a low coefficient of thermal expansion, and good electrical conductivity. These properties along with low metals and ash contents make calcined petroleum coke highly desirable for use in the aluminum smelting industry. Calcined coke is characterized as either anode-grade coke or graphite needlegrade coke depending upon its physical and chemical characteristics, with needle-grade coke having a higher purity (i.e., lower ash, sulfur, and metals contents than anode-grade coke, which is used in electric furnaces in aluminum and steel smelting. The physical characteristics of petroleum coke are important in determining the suitability of a coke sample for a specific use. These characteristics are typically the real and bulk densities and, in the case of anode and needle grade coke, the resistivity and coefficient of thermal expansion. Fuel grade coke may also be characterized by its fuel value (Btu/lb).

11

Coke calcining system

Equipment involved: I. The rotary kiln This component consist of shell, tires, carrying stations, seals, refractory and a drive train which includes girth gear, pinion, speed reducer and variable speed motor. The drive train also includes an auxiliary drive for use during start up and periods of power failure. Burner systems Process heat is furnished to the rotary kiln from two sources. The first is the kiln burner system, which can be designed to handle gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels. The second source of process heat is the burning of a controlled amount of the evolved volatile matter and a small amount of coke fines in the kiln. Combustion of volatile matter is enhanced by the introduction of secondary and tertiary combustion air. Secondary air is introduced through the firing hood and tertiary air introduced through ports in the kiln shell to control combustion of the volatile matter and coke fines. Tertiary air utilization results in significant reduction in kiln fuel requirements. After burner Designed for sufficient residence time, temperature, and effective mixing to affect the required volatile matter and particulate combustion.

II.

III.

12

Combustion air to the afterburner is furnished by a combustion air fan and preheated air from the cooler exhaust system. Afterburners can be designed for 100% firing capacity when the kiln is down, thus providing the operator uninterrupted steam production and/or electrical power generation.

IV.

Coolers Utilizes both a direct water quench of the hot coke at the cooler entrance and counterflow movement of ambient air to cool the coke.The direct quench type is the most widely used method of cooling in the coke calcining industry. Kiln Feed Pipe The stainless steel double wall construction, refractory lining, and forced fluid cooling of the pipe enhance the design reliability and extend its operating life. A carbon steel Y piece outside the kiln hood provides easy cleanout access. Air Seals Provide an air seal that significantly reduces ambient air infiltration into the rotary kiln. By limiting air infiltration, fuel efficiency is improved and power consumption is reduced.

V.

VI.

13