Introduction To Computer Fundamentals

FACULTY OF INDUSTREIAL ENGINEERING AND MANGEMENT
(MMEIM -202) COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MANAGMENT

Module 1 : Fundamentals of computers Evolution of Computing Machines, Generations of Computers, Classifications of Computers, Over view of Internal and External Components of a Computer system., binary number system, generation of chips and programming languages Overview of Operating system along with its type and functions. Applications of Computers.
Session 1: Introduction to Computer Fundamentals

Man is still the most extraordinary computer of all.-- John F. Kennedy Introduction Computer has been the premier invention of this century. It plays an important role in almost every part of our lives. It has become so important that without it we would not be able to live the way we do. Look around you and you would find computers scattered all over the places, starting with the machine of computer to washing machine, refrigerator, car, mobile and to life saving devices with the doctors. Everywhere a small computer is working for your convenience and they seem to perform almost any task in the world. Computers have had a tremendous impact on the way information is processed within an organization. Although information has been processed manually throughout the history yet in modern management where decision-making is very fast and in the era of corporate governance, it is not possible without the help of information system managed by computers. Computer The word computer comes from word compute which means to calculate. By definition, a computer is a programmable machine (or more precisely, a programmable sequential state machine) that operates on data and is used for wide range of activities. Computer is an electronic device or a combination of electronic devices which solves problems after accepting data and supplies results to the user. It is a tool which can be used to read and write stories, draw and look at images, and send and receive e-mail. It can store a large amount of information and perform various scientific and mathematical tasks. Basically, a computer system comprises the following five elements: Hardware Software People Procedure Data/information A computer organization is often compared with a human brain. Just think of a human brain, how it works? It can store data with its five senses (like input devices in a computer), process the gathered information and reach to some conclusion drawn from the raw data (like the processing of a computer system). Then, it can deliver an output or result with speech or with expression (like an output device).
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Computer applications in management B2S2

Characteristics of Computers The ever-increasing use of computers is due to their special characteristics. A computer is not just a calculating machine. It is also capable of doing complex activities and operations. The main characteristics of a computer are given below: 1. Speed A computer is a very fast and accurate device. Since electronic pulses travel at incredible speed and are electronic devices, their internal speed is virtually instantaneous. A microcomputer can process millions of instruction per second over and over again without any mistake. 2. Accuracy Computers physical circuits rarely make errors, if the data and instruction are correctly fed. Most of the errors occurring in computers are either hardware errors or human errors. 3. Storage They have a large amount of memory to hold a very large amount of data. A large amount of data/information can be stored in secondary storage devices. 4. Programmability A computer is programmable device, i.e. what it does depend on the lines of instruction (program) it is using. 5. Diligence It is free from problems like lack of concentration, confusions etc. It is never confused like humans and can consecutively take instructions without failing or getting bored. 6. Versatility Many different types of tasks can be performed on computer. At one point of time, it might be busy in calculating statistical data for annual performance evaluation of a business organization and at the other point of time, it might be working on inventory control. 7. Power of Remembrance Unlike humans, computers can store things for unlimited period of time. They have a great remembering power. Classification Computers can be classified on the basis of different factors. At present, there are two categories of computers. These are as follows: 1. Analog Computers Analog computers are analog devices (refer to figure 1.1). It means that they have continuous states rather than discrete numbered states. An analog computer can represent fractional or irrational values exactly, i.e. with no round off. Analog computers are almost never used outside of experimental settings. They handle or process information which is of physical nature. 2. Digital Computers A digital computer is a programmable-clocked sequential state machine (refer to figure 1.2). It uses discrete states. A binary digital computer uses two discrete states, such as positive/negative, high/low, on/off, to represent the binary digits zero and one. They process information which is essentially in a binary state. Another Classification Computers can also be classified on the basis of size and speed. Based on this classification, five types of computers are as follows: 1. Micro Computers A microcomputers CPU is a microprocessor. The microcomputer originated in late 1970s. The first microcomputer was built around 8-bit microprocessor chips. An 8-bit chip is the chip that can retrieve
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instructions/data from storage, manipulate and process an 8-bit data at a time. One can also say that the chip has a built-in 8-bit data transfer path. 8088 is an 8/16-bit chip, i.e. an 8-bit path is used to move data between chip and primary storage (external path) but processing is done within the chip using a 16-bit path (internal path) at a time. 8086 is a 16/16-bit chip, i.e. both the internal and external paths are 16-bit wide. Both these chips can support a primary storage capacity of upto 1 Mega Byte (MB). Most of the popular microcomputers are developed around Intels chips while most of the minis and super minis are built around Motorolas 68000 series chips. There are, however, new trends developing. With the advancement of display and VLSI technology, a microcomputer is now available in a very small size. Some of these are laptops/notebook computers etc. Most of these are of the size of a small notebook but with an equivalent capacity of an older mainframe. 2. Minicomputers The term minicomputer was originated in 1960s when it was realized that many computing tasks do not require an expensive contemporary mainframe computers but can be solved by a small, inexpensive computer also. Initial minicomputers were 8-bit and 12-bit machines but by 1970s, almost all minicomputers were 16-bit machines. The 16-bit minicomputers have the advantages of large instruction set and address field, efficient storage and handling of text. Thus, a 16-bit minicomputer was a more powerful machine and could be used in variety of applications. It could support business applications along with the scientific ones. With the advancement in technology, the speed, memory size and other characteristics developed and the minicomputer was then used for various stand-alone or dedicated applications. The minicomputer was then used as a multi-user system which can be used by various users at the same time. Gradually, the architectural requirement of minicomputers grew and a 32-bit minicomputer, called super mini, was introduced. The super mini had more peripheral devices, larger memory and could support more users working simultaneously on a computer in comparison to previous minicomputers. 3. Workstation It is a powerful stand-alone computer of the sort used in computer-aided design and other applications requiring a high-end, expensive machine with considerable calculating or graphics capability. Machines using Intel Processor P2 at 400 MHz is an example of a workstation. 4. Mainframe Computers They are very powerful, large-scale general-purpose computers. Their word length may be 48, 60 or 64 bits, memory capacity 256 to 512 MB, hard disk capacity 1 to 100 GB or more and processing speed 100 to 200 MIPS. They are used where large amounts of data are to be processed or very complex calculations are to be made. It should be noted that these tasks are beyond the capacities of mini computers. They are used in research organizations, large industries, airlines reservation etc. where a large database has to be maintained. Its examples include IBM 4300 series and IBM Enterprise system/9000 series. 5. Super Computers Its processing capabilities lie in the range of 400-10,000 MIPS, word length 64-96bits, memory capacity 1024 MB and more, and hard disk capacity 1000 GB and more. It contains a number of CPUs that operate in parallel to make it faster, i.e. CPUs give them their speed through parallel processing. They are used for weather forecasting, weapons research and development, rocketing, aerodynamics, atomic, nuclear and plasma physics. Supercomputers have limited use and limited market because of their very high price. They are being used at some research centers and government agencies involving sophisticated scientific and engineering tasks.
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Need for Computer Literacy Computers are found nearly everywhere in our personal lives. Unless you intend to be a hermit, computers will affect you. Computer literacy means having a general knowledge about computers. For example, to know who uses them, what kind of functions they perform, how others use them, where they are, how they are affecting society and how they can be beneficial to your own life or work. Some experts think that the person who does not know how to use a computer will be just as handicapped in performing his or her job as the person today who cannot read. Several microcomputer application packages, such as word processor, data manager, spreadsheet and graphics and communication will be introduced. These programs give people, who are not mathematical wizards or computer programmers, an opportunity to use computers and take their advantages. Although the courses you chose in school might not have demanded a technical knowledge of computers and programming yet you are likely to be directly or indirectly involved with them in your work. Many jobs and careers depend on some familiarly with the use of computers. For those who are interested in careers or jobs directly involved with information or computer technology, all kinds of possibilities exist. These include keying in data, defining the way data are processed, managing the computer system, or managing the information system. Computer Limitations You have studied that computer is one of the most powerful tools ever developed. But we all have read articles similar to the one about the man who was treated for pneumonia and then charged by the hospitals computer for the use of the delivery room and nursery. Such computer failures may be amusing but most of the foul-ups happen because people fail to consider some basic computer limitations. Without reliable programs and sound logic, no computer system can perform sufficiently. Computer cannot think of its own. Also, it cannot be moved. Components of a Computer System Introduction We have seen that computer affects our life in a big way by increasing the efficiency and enhanced ability. Now we will have to look for the anatomy of computer. What is it made up of? The parts of computer did not appear all at once in one machine by one person. It is a continuously evolving process starting as early as 17th century when people began to work on machines that would automate task. The first such machine was developed in the 17th century by mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal but it was not an electronic device. It was purely a mechanical machine which used meshed gears to add and multiply the numbers. But after him, there was a long gap before an idea emerged from Charles Babbage to process information. Although he could never successfully develop such mechanical machine yet his idea was of million-dollar worth. That is why he is known as the father of computer. Modern electronic computer started taking shape in 1940s with the invention of Mark-I Computer. Since then, there have been a lot of research and new inventions in the technology of computers. Components of a Computer Components of a computer can be broadly divided into the following two categories: 1. Software Software refers to the programs required to operate a computer. For example, DOS (Disk Operating System), BASIC, COBOL, dBase, Accounting Software etc. are all software. An analogy of hardware can be the book which you are reading and, in this case, software would be the text written on it. Another analogy could be that brain is hardware but memory stored in brain is software.
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Both hardware and software are dependent on each other. CPU, memory unit, hard disk etc. are useless unless they are provided with instructions and data for storage and processing. Similarly, BASIC or COBOL has no importance unless they are used along with various hardware components of computer. 2. Hardware Hardware refers to any physical component of computer. For example, CPU, monitor (VDU), keyboard, hard disk, floppy disk, printer etc. are physical components and, thus, are all hardware. Hardware can be compared to a human body capable of doing any activity. But without the presence of blood and oxygen, it will not be able to do anything. The same is the case with computer and hardware. It is capable of doing many things but without software it just cannot work. Thus, for computer both software and hardware components are essential. Organization of Computer We will discuss the basic structure of a computer system. The diagram of a generalized architecture of a computer system is shown below. A computer system has the following main components (refer to figure 2.1): Input/output unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory unit
In order to solve a computational problem, a computer has to perform the following four major tasks: Input Process Output Storage Input/output Unit The computer is a machine which processes input data according to a given set of instructions and gives output. Before a computer does processing, it should be given data and instructions. After processing, output should be displayed or printed by computer. The unit used for getting the data and instructions into computer and displaying or printing output is known as an Input/Output Unit (I/O Unit). There are many peripheral devices which are used as input/output units for a computer. The most common form of an input device is known as terminal. A terminal has an electronic typewriter-like device called
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keyboard and has a display screen called Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor. Keyboard is the main input device while the monitor can be considered both as an input as well as an output device. There are some other common input devices like mouse, punch card, tape, joystick, scanner, modem etc. Monitor, printer and plotter are the main peripheral devices used as output units for a computer. Central Processing Unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main component or brain of a computer. It performs all the processing of input data. Its function is to fetch, examine and execute the instructions stored in the main memory of a computer. In microcomputers, CPU is built on a single chip or Integrated Circuit (IC) and is called a microprocessor. A CPU consists of the following distinct parts: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Control Unit (CU) Registers Buses Clock Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) The arithmetic and logic unit of CPU is responsible for all arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as logical operations, such as less than, equal to and greater than. All calculations and comparisons are performed in arithmetic logic unit. Control Unit The control unit is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer. It is considered as the central nervous system of a computer as it manages and coordinates all the units of computer. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of computer. It also performs the physical data transfer between memory and peripheral devices. Registers Registers are small high-speed circuits (memory locations). These are used to store data, instructions and memory addresses (memory location numbers) when ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. Registers can store one word of data (1 word = 2 bytes and 1 byte = 8 bits) until it is overwritten by another word. Depending on the processors capability, the number and type of registers vary from one CPU to another. Depending upon their functions, these can be divided into the following six categories: General purpose registers Pointer registers Segment registers Index registers Flags registers Instruction pointer registers Buses Data is stored as a unit of eight bits (bit stands for binary digit, i.e. 0 or 1) in a register. Each bit is transferred from one register to another by means of a separate wire. This group of eight wires that is used as a common way to transfer data between registers is known as a bus. It is actually a connection between two components to transmit signal between them. A bus can be of three major types. These types are as follows: 1. Data bus-- It is used to move data. 2. Control bus-- It is used to move address or memory location. 3. Address bus-- It is used to send control signals between various components of a computer. Clock A clock is another important component of CPU. It measures and allocates a fixed time slot for processing each and every micro-operation (smallest functional operation). In simple terms, CPU is allocated one or more clock cycles to complete a micro-operation. CPU executes the instructions in
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synchronization with the clock pulse. The clock speed of CPU is measured in terms of Mega Hertz (MHz) or Millions of Cycles per second. The clock speed of CPU varies from one model to another in the range 4.77 MHz (in 8088 processor) to 266 MHz (in Pentium II). The speed of CPU is also specified in terms of Millions of Instructions Per Second (MIPS) or Million of Floating Point Operations Per Second (MFLOPS). Memory Unit Memory unit is that component of a computer system which is used to store data, instructions and information before, during and after the processing by ALU. It is actually a work area (physically a collection of integrated circuits) within a computer where CPU stores data and instructions. It is also known as a main/primary/internal memory. Input Devices Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into RAM. These devices can be classified into the following two broad categories: Basic input devices Special input devices The structure and function of common input devices of these two categories are discussed below in detail. Basic Input Devices The input devices which have now-a-days become essential to operate a PC (personal computer) may be called as basic input devices. These devices are always required for basic input operations. These devices include keyboard and mouse. Keyboard Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer (refer to figure 2.2). It contains three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one. Mouse Mouse (similar to a mouse) is another important input device (refer to figure 2.3). It is a pointing device used to move cursor, draw sketches/diagrams, select text/object/menu item etc. on monitor screen while working on Windows (graphics-based environment of a computer). Mouse is a small, palm size box containing three buttons and a ball underneath which senses the movement of the mouse and sends the corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Special Input Devices The input devices which are not essential to operate a PC are called as special input devices. These devices are used for various special purposes, and are generally not required for basic input operations. These devices include trackball, light pen, touch screen, joystick, digitizer, scanner, OMR, OCR, bar code reader, MICR and voice input devices. Output Devices Output devices are hardware components which are used to display or print the processed information. The structure, working and uses of common output devices is discussed below.
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Monitor Visual Display Unit (VDU), commonly known as monitor, is the main output device of a computer (refer to figure 2.14). It consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) which displays characters as an output. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels. Pixels are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels. Types of Monitors Depending upon the resolution, monitors can be classified as follows: (a) CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) (b) MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) (c) HGA (Hercules Graphics Adapter) (d) EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) The differences between these monitors are summarized below. Depending upon the color of display, monitors can be classified as monochrome (with single color/ black and white display) and color (with all colors display) monitors.
Printer Printer is the most important output device. It is used to print information on paper. It is essential for getting output of any computer-based application. Types of Printers Printers can be broadly categorized into the following two types: 1. Impact Printers The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called impact printers. These are of two types: (a) Character Printers These printers print one character at a time. These printers are further of two types: (i) Daisy Wheel Printers These printers print the characters by a mechanism that uses a plastic or metal hub with spokes, called daisy wheel (refer to figure 2.20). The characters are embossed on the radiating spokes and printed by striking these spokes against the ribbon and paper. These printers give a good quality but are more expensive than dot matrix printers.
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(ii) Dot Matrix Printers These printers print the characters by putting dots onto paper. They do not give better printing quality than daisy wheel printers but are faster in speed. The printing speed of a dot matrix printer can be upto 360 cps (characters per second). They are widely used with microcomputers. (b) Line Printers These printers print one line at a time. Their printing speed is much more than character printers. They are also of two types: (i) Drum Printers These printers print line by a rotating drum having a ring of characters for each print position (refer to figure 2.22). The hammers strike each character of the drum simultaneously so that entire line is printed in one full rotation of the drum. These printers are also called as barrel printers. The printouts obtained from these printers have even character spacing but uneven line height. (ii) Chain Printers These printers print the line by a rotating chain having ring characters for each print position. Their printing mechanism is similar to drum printers. The printouts, thus, obtained from these printers have uneven character spacing but even line height. 2. Non-Impact Printers The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called non-impact printers. These printers print a complete page at a time and, therefore, are also called as page printers. Page printers are of three types: (a) Laser Printers These printers look and work like photocopiers. They are based on laser technology which is the latest development in high speed and high quality printing. In these printers, a laser beam is used to write an image on a paper. First, the image is formed by electrically charged thousands of dots on a paper by laser beam. Then, the paper is sprayed with a toner having the opposite charge and is passed over a heated roller to make the image permanent. Laser printers are very popular and have become an essential part of DTP. Although laser printers are costlier than dot matrix yet they are generally preferred in all offices due to their high quality of printing. There are many models of laser printers depending upon the speed and number of dots printed. The latest model of laser printer is 1200 DPI (dots per inch) which can print 10 pages per minute. Some high-speed laser printers give a speed of upto 100 pages per minute. (b) Inkjet Printers These printers print characters by spraying electrically charged ink on paper. These printers give better quality than character printers but not better than laser printers. They are cheaper than laser printers and hence used widely in many offices. They also offer an option of using color cartridges for multi-color printing. (c) Thermal Printers These printers print characters by melting a wax-based ink off a ribbon onto a special heat sensitive paper. They give letter-quality printing but are relatively expensive in maintenance than other printers. Computer Generations The Computer Evolution over the period of time has resulted in development of various generations and devices. Different technologies have been used for manufacturing the computer hardware. Based on the component technology, computers are classified into five generations. Each computer generation is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, architectural structure, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more
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efficient and reliable devices. The study of these aspects, helps one to distinguish between past and the present dimensions of the computer First Generation Computers (1937-1953) These computers were pure hardware machines which contained no Operating System. Programming was done in the machine language which differs from one computer to another. The user deals with several switches in the front panel to start, run or halt the computer. The internal status of the computer is displayed on several lights on the front panel. Invariably only a designer or programmer could operate the computer due to the complexities involved. These machines used electronic switches, in the form of vacuum tubes, instead of electromechanical relays. In principle, the electronic switches would be more reliable, since they would have no moving parts that would wear out, but the technology was still new at that time and the vacuum tubes were comparable to relays in reliability. Electronic components had one major benefit, they could open and close about 1,000 times faster than mechanical switches. The earliest attempt to build an electronic computer was by J.V. Atanasoff, a Professor of Physics and Mathematics at Iowa State, in 1937. Atanasoff set out to build a machine that would help his graduate students solve systems of partial differential equations. By 1941, he and his graduate student Clifford Berry had succeeded in building a machine that could solve 29 simultaneous equations with 29 unknowns. However, the machine was not programmable, and was more of an electronic calculator. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator(ENIAC) was the first general purpose electronic computer. It was an enormous machine weighing about 30 tons and containing more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. Second Generation Computers (1954-1962) Transistor Invention by Bell Labs was a boon to second generation computers. Smaller in size and also consumes less power. Several companies such as IBM, NCR, RCA etc. quickly introduced transistor technology which also improved reliability of computers. Instead of wiring circuits, photo printing was used to build Printed Circuit Boards (PCB). Both computer production and maintenance of computers became easier. The second generation saw several important developments at all levels of computer system design, from the technology used to build the basic circuits to the programming languages used to develop scientific applications .Electronic switches in this era were based on discrete diodes and transistors technology with a switching time of approximately 0.3 microseconds. The first machines to be built with this technology include TRADIC (TRAnsistor Digital Computer) at Bell Laboratories in 1954 and TX-0 at MITs Lincoln Laboratory. Memory technology was based on magnetic cores, which could be accessed in random order, as opposed to mercury delay lines, in which data was stored as an acoustic wave that passed sequentially through the medium and could be accessed only when the data moved by the I/O interface. Important innovations in Computer Architecture were index registers for controlling loops and floating point units for calculations based on real numbers. Floating-point operations were performed by libraries of software routines in early computers, but were done in hardware in second generation machines. Third Generation Computers (1963-1972) Integrated Circuit(IC) chip Invention is a great event for electronics field giving rise to microelectronics. IC has multiple advantages over discrete components: smaller size, higher speed, lower hardware cost, improved reliability etc. Digital computer design became more attractive and interesting. The use of computers in a continuous processing and manufacturing sectors such as petroleum refining and electrical power distribution became popular. The computer families by leading companies such as IBM, UNIVAC, HP,ICL and DEC dominated the computer industry. The third generation brought huge gains in
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computational power: Integrated Circuits, or ICs (semiconductor devices with several transistors built into one physical component), semiconductor memories instead of magnetic cores, microprogramming for efficiently designing complex processors, pipelining and other forms of parallel processing techniques. Operating System software allowed efficient sharing of a computer system by several user programs. The first ICs were based on Small-Scale Integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices per circuit (or chip), and evolved to the use of Medium-Scale Integrated (MSI) circuits, which had up to 100 devices per chip. Multilayered printed circuits were developed and core memory was replaced by faster, solid state memories. Computer designers began to take advantage of parallelism by using multiple functional units, overlapping CPU and I/O operations, and pipelining (internal parallelism) in both the instruction stream and the data stream. In 1964, Seymour Cray developed the CDC 6600, which was the first architecture to use functional parallelism. By using 10 separate functional units that could operate simultaneously and 32 independent memory banks, the CDC 6600 was able to attain a computation rate of 1 million floating point operations per second (1 MFlops). Fourth Generation Computers (1972- 1984) Computers built after 1972, called Fourth Generation computers were based on LSI (Large Scale Integration) of circuits (such as microprocessors) - typically 500 or more transistors on a chip. Later developments included VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) integrated circuits typically 10,000 transistors. Modern circuits may now contain millions of components. This has led to very small, yet incredibly powerful computers. The fourth generation is generally viewed as running right up until the present, since, although computing power has increased, the basic technology has remained virtually the same. By the late 1990s many people began to suspect that this technology was reaching its limit, further miniaturization could only achieve so much. 1 GB RAM chips have circuitry so small that it can be measured in terms of atoms. Such small circuits pose many technical problems like the increase in temperature and radiation. Fifth Generation Computers (1984-1990) The use of VLSI and artificial intelligence concept is used in this generation of computers. Expert systems, pattern recognition, voice recognition, signature capturing and recognition, microprocessor controlled robots etc. are some of the sophisticated developments in the field of computers. They will be able to take commands in a audio visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the operations which require low human intelligence will be performed by these computers. The development of the next generation of computer systems is characterized mainly by the acceptance of parallel processing. Until this time, parallelism was limited to pipelining and vector processing, or at most to a few processors sharing jobs. The fifth generation saw the introduction of machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working on different parts of a single program. The scale of integration in semiconductors continued at an incredible pace - by 1990, it was possible to build chips with a million components - and semiconductor memories became standard on all computers. Other new developments were the widespread use of Computer Networks and the increasing use of single-user workstations. Large scale parallel processing was employed in commercial products. A typical Computer System We will see a real life situation. In a college, Principal is the person who instructs the others to do their corresponding work. But he will not do all the work by himself. The fig. shows the structure of above.
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In the above structure, principal is instructed by the management or government. Without any knowledge of the management or government he does not take any action. Principal has to depend upon the management or government. But principal has to instruct the staff working under him to carry out the administrative activity in a satisfactory manner. The staff members can interact with the students and vice-versa. From the above example we know what the work of principal is. Now we will compare this with the computer system. A Computer system may be divided into four major components 1. Hardware (Principal) 2. Operating System (Management) 3. Application Programs (Teaching & Non- Teaching Staff) 4. Users (Students)
The computer is an electronic machine with built-in intelligence to execute the instructions. A Computer System is an arrangement of hardware and software. The term hardware generally refers to the electronic circuits in the computer. The main hardware modules are keyboard, CRT monitor, Disk Drive, Printer, and other peripherals. In practice, the term hardware is used for all physical items in a computer including mechanical, electrical and electronic assemblies and components. The Electrical components are Motors, power supplies, Transformers, Relays, Fans, PCBs, Wires, and Cables. The Mechanical components are Switches, Panels, Covers, Chassis, Nuts and Screws. The Electronic components are Resistors, Capacitors, Coils, Diodes, Transistors, ICs, Crystals, LED, Speakers, and CRT. Fig 1.3 Shows Components of a Typical Computer System
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Any program is software. The software is developed to solve a problem and it controls the hardware when the program is executed. The hardware can be seen visually whereas the software is a logical action plan that is not visually noticeable. Computer Software is classified into two types: Application and System Software. An application program is a program solving users problems. Typical examples are: Payroll program, Inventory control program, tax calculator, class room scheduler, library management software, train reservation software, billing software and game programs. A system program is a program which helps in efficient utilization of the system by other programs and the users. It is generally developed for a given type of computer and it is not concerned with specific application or user. Operating system and compiler are examples of system software.
Another way of looking into a typical personal computer is as shown Fig 1.4. At the core of this computer is a single-chip microprocessor such as the Pentium Dual Core or AMD. The microprocessors internal (micro) architecture usually contains a number of speedup features not found in its earlier version. A system bus connects the microprocessor to a main memory based on semiconductor DRAM technology and to an I/O subsystem. The widely used I/O bus (peripheral bus) used in computers of all sizes, provides a shared data path between the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and peripheral controllers, such as network, display, SCSI and RAID cards.
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A separate I/O bus, such as the industry standard PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) local bus, connects the I/O devices and their controllers. The I/O bus is linked to the system bus via a special bus-to-bus control unit sometimes referred to as a Bridge. The I/O devices of a personal computer include the traditional keyboard, a TFT-based or flat-panel video monitor, USB and disk drive units for the hard and flexible (floppy) disk storage devices that constitute secondary memory. More recent additions to the I/O devices include drive units for DVD (Digital Versatile Disk), which have extremely high capacity and allow sound and video images to be stored and retrieved efficiently. Other common audiovisual I/O devices in personal computers are microphones, loudspeakers, LCD projectors, video scanners, and webcam which are referred to as multimedia equipments. Computer Types Mainframe: Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry/consumer statistics, ERP, financial transaction processing. They require large power and storage capacity. Desktop: Is a personal computer made for use on a desk in an office or home. Desktop systems are normally set up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable counter parts. Desktops are currently the most affordable computers; Nearly all desktop computers are modular, with components that can easily be replaced or upgraded. Portable: Is a computer that is designed to be moved from one place to another. Also called notebooks/laptops - are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard disk drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book. Workstation: A desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of tasks, such as 3D Graphics or game development. Supercomputer: This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most are comprised of multiple high performance computers working in parallel as a single system. Supercomputers are used for the largescale numerical calculations required in applications such as weather forecasting and aircraft What is an Operating System An Operating System is a software program or set of programs that acts as a central control program for the computer. It mediates access between physical devices (such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, disk drive or network connection) and application programs (such as word processor, World-Wide Web browser or electronic mail client). An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined Application Program Interface (API). A set of routines, protocols, and tools for building software applications, which provides all the building blocks for the programmer to put together. Most operating environments, such as MS-Windows, provide an API so that programmers can write applications consistent with the operating environment. Although APIs are designed for programmers, they are ultimately good for users as their similar interfaces make it easier for users to learn new programs. In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI). The basic resources of a computer system are provided by its hardware, software and data. The operating system provides the means for the proper
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use of these resources in the operation of the computer system. It simply provides an environment within which other programs can do useful work. We can view an operating system as a resource allocator. A computer system has many resources (hardware and software) that may be required to solve a problem: CPU time, memory space, files storage space, input/output devices etc. The operating system acts as the manager of these resources and allocates them to specific programs and users, as necessary for their tasks. An operating system is a control program i.e, it acts as a controller. This program controls the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer. OS Objectives The primary goal of an operating system is convenience for the user. A secondary goal is the efficient operation of a computer system. This goal is particularly important for large, shared multi-user systems. It is known that sometimes these two goals, convenience and efficiency, are contradictory.
OS Functions A computers operating system (OS) is a group of programs designed to serve two basic purposes: To control the allocation and use of the computing systems resources among the various users and tasks, and To provide an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that simplifies and makes feasible the creation, coding, debugging, and maintenance of application programs. An Operating System does the following: Facilitate creation and modification of program and data files through an editor program, Provide access to compilers to translate programs from high-level languages to machine language, Provide a loader program to move the complied program code to the computers memory for execution, Provide routines that handle the intricate details of I/O programming, Assure that when there are several active processes in the computer, each will get fair and non interfering access to the central processing unit for execution, Take care of storage and device allocation, Provide for long term storage of user information in the form of files, and Permit system resources to be shared among users when appropriate, and be protected from unauthorized or mischievous intervention as necessary.
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An operating system performs these services for applications: In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn. It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications. It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports. It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred. On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time. All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an operating system. Linux, Windows 2000, VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS are all examples of operating systems. Evolution of OS The History of OS is linked with the development of various computer generations. By tracing that evolution we can identify the common elements of operating systems, and see how, and why they evolved as they are now. Operating systems and computer architecture have a great deal of influence on each other. To facilitate the use of the hardware, operating systems were designed, developed and simplified. Since operating systems have historically been closely tied to the architecture of the computers on which they run. The mapping of operating systems to computer generations is admittedly crude, but it does provide some structure where there would otherwise be none. Because the history of computer operating systems parallels that of computer hardware, it can be generally divided into five distinct time periods, called generations, that are characterized by hardware component technology, software development, and mode of delivery of computer services. The Zeroth Generation The term Zeroth Generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing, which predated the commercial production and sale of computer equipment. In particular, this period witnessed the emergence of the first electronic digital computers on the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), designed by John Atanasoff in 1940; the Mark I, built by Howard Aiken and a group of IBM engineers at Harvard in 1944; and the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania by Wallace Eckert and John Mauchly. Perhaps the most significant of these early computers was the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC), developed in 1944-46 by John von Neumann, Arthur Burks, and Herman Goldstine, since it was the first to fully implement the idea of the stored program and serial execution of instructions. The development of EDVAC set the stage for the evolution of commercial computing and operating system software. The hardware component technology of this period was electronic vacuum tubes. The actual operation of these early computers took place without be benefit of an operating system. Early programs were written in machine language and each contained code for initiating operation of the computer itself.
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The First Generation, 1951-1956 The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing, including the introduction of Eckert and Mauchlys UNIVersal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I) in early 1951, and a bit later, The IBM 701 which was also known as the Defense Calculator. Operation continued without the benefit of an operating system for a time. Application programs were run one at a time, and were translated with absolute computer addresses that bound them to be loaded and run from these pre assigned storage addresses set by the translator, obtaining their data from specific physical I/O device. There was no provision for moving a program to a different location in storage for any reason. Similarly, a program bound to specific devices could not be run at all if any of these devices were busy or broken down. The inefficiencies inherent in the above methods of operation led to the development of the mono programmed operating system, which eliminated some of the human intervention in running a job and provided programmers with a number of desirable functions. The OS consisted of a permanently resident kernel in main storage, and a job scheduler and a number of utility programs kept in secondary storage. User application programs were preceded by control or specification cards (in those days, computer program were submitted on data cards) which informed the OS of what system resources (software resources such as compilers and loaders and hardware resources such as tape drives and printer) were needed to run a particular application. The systems were designed to be operated as batch processing system. These systems continued to operate under the control of a human operator who initiated operation by mounting a magnetic tape that contained the operating system executable code onto a boot device, and then pushing the IPL (initial program load) or boot button to initiate the bootstrap loading of the operating system. Once the system was loaded, the operator entered the date and time, and then initiated the operation of the job scheduler program which read and interpreted the control statements, secured the needed resources, executed the first user program, recorded timing and accounting information, and then went back to begin processing of another user program, and so on, as long as there were programs waiting in the input queue to be executed. At the same time, the development of programming languages was moving away from the basic machine languages; first to assembly language, and later to procedure oriented languages, the most significant being the development of FORTRAN by John W. Backus in 1956. Several problems remained, however. The most obvious was the inefficient use of system resources, which was most evident when the CPU waited while the relatively slower, mechanical I/O devices were reading or writing program data. In addition, system protection was a problem because the operating system kernel was not protected from being overwritten by an erroneous application program. Moreover, other user programs in the queue were not protected from destruction by executing programs. The second Generation, 1956-1964 (Batch Operating Systems): The second generation of computer hardware was most notably characterized by transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. In addition, some very important changes in hardware and software architectures occurred during this period. For the most part, computer systems remained card and tape-oriented systems. Significant use of random access devices, that is, disks, did not appear until towards the end of the second generation.
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Program processing was, for the most part, provided by large centralized computers operated under mono programmed batch processing operating systems. The most significant innovations addressed the problem of excessive central processor delay due to waiting for input/output operations. Recall that programs were executed by processing the machine instructions in a strictly sequential order. As a result, the CPU, with its high speed electronic component, was often forced to wait for completion of I/O operations which involved mechanical devices (card readers and tape drives) that were order of magnitude slower. This problem led to the introduction of the data channel, an integral and special-purpose computer with its own instruction set, registers, and control unit designed to process input/output operations asynchronously from the operation of the computers main CPU, near the end of the first generation, and its widespread adoption in the second generation. The data channel allowed some I/O to be buffered. That is, a programs input data could be read ahead from data cards or tape into a special block of memory called a buffer. Then, when the users program came to an input statement, the data could be transferred from the buffer locations at the faster main memory access speed rather than the slower I/O device speed. Similarly, a programs output could be written in another buffer and later moved from the buffer to the printer, tape, or cardpunch. What made this all work was the data channels ability to work asynchronously and concurrently with the main processor. Thus, the slower mechanical I/O could be happening concurrently with main program processing. This process was called I/O overlap. The data channel was controlled by a channel program set up by the operating system I/O control routines and initiated by a special instruction executed by the CPU. Then, the channel independently processed data to or from the buffer. This provided communication from the CPU to the data channel to initiate an I/O operation. It remained for the channel to communicate to the CPU such events as data errors and the completion of a transmission. At first, this communication was handled by polling-the CPU stopped its work periodically and polled the channel to determine if there was any massage. Polling was obviously inefficient (imagine stopping your work periodically to go to the post office to see if an expected letter has arrived) and led to another significant innovation of the second generation - the interrupt. The data, channel was now able to interrupt the CPU with a message- usually I/O complete. In fact, the interrupt idea was later extended from I/O to allow signaling of number of exceptional conditions such as arithmetic overflow, division by zero and time-run-out. Of course, interval clocks were added in conjunction with the latter, and thus operating system came to have a way of regaining control from an exceptionally long or indefinitely looping program. Towards the end of this period, as random access devices became available, tape-oriented operating systems began to be replaced by disk-oriented systems. With the more sophisticated disk hardware and the operating system supporting a greater portion of the programmers work, the computer system that users saw was more and more removed from the actual hardware - users saw a virtual machine. The second generation was a period of intense operating system development. Also it was the period for sequential batch processing. But the sequential processing of one job at a time remained a significant limitation. Thus, there continued to be low CPU utilization for I/O bound jobs and low I/O device utilization for CPU bound jobs. This was a major concern, since computers were still very large (roomsize) and expensive machines. Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and multiprocessing in their computing services called the time-sharing system. A noteworthy example is the Compatible Time Sharing System (CTSS), developed at MIT during the early 1960s.
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The Third Generation, 1964-1979 (Multiprogramming and Time Sharing Systems): The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBMs announcement of its System/360 family of computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated circuits (ICs), which yielded significant advantages in both speed and economy. Operating system development continued with the introduction and widespread adoption of multiprogramming. These systems worked by introducing two new systems programs, a system reader to move input jobs from cards to disk, and a system writer to move job output from disk to printer, tape, or cards. Operation of spooling system was, as before, transparent to the computer user who perceived input as coming directly from the cards and output going directly to the printer. The idea of taking fuller advantage of the computers data channel, I/O capabilities continued to develop. That is, designers recognized that I/O needed only to be initiated by a CPU instruction - the actual I/O data transmission could take place under control of separate and asynchronously operating channel program. Thus, by switching control of the CPU between the currently executing user program, the system reader program, and the system writer program, it was possible to keep the slower mechanical I/O device running and minimizes the amount of time the CPU spent waiting for I/O completion. The net result was an increase in system throughput and resource utilization, to the benefit of both user and providers of computer services. This concurrent operation of three programs (more properly, apparent concurrent operation, since systems had only one CPU, and could, therefore executes just one instruction at time) required that additional features and complexity be added to the operating system. The Fourth Generation, 1980 - 1994(Personal Computers and Workstations): The fourth generation is characterized by the appearance of the personal computer and the workstation. Miniaturization of electronic circuits and components continued and large-scale integration (LSI), the component technology of the third generation, was replaced by very large scale integration (VLSI), which characterizes the fourth generation. VLSI with its capacity for containing thousands of transistors on a small chip, made possible the development of desktop computers with capabilities exceeding those that filled entire rooms and floors of building just twenty years earlier. The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
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Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. Types of Operating Systems Modern computer operating systems may be classified into three groups, which are distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place between the computer user and his or her program during its processing. The three groups are called batch, time-shared and real time operating systems. In a batch processing operating system environment, users submit jobs to a central place where these jobs are collected into a batch, and subsequently placed on an input queue at the computer where they will be run. In this case, the user has no interaction with the job during its processing, and the computers response time is the turnaround time-the time from submission of the job until execution is complete, and the results are ready for return to the person who submitted the job. Another mode for delivering computing services is provided by time sharing operating systems. In this environment a computer provides computing services to several or many users concurrently on-line. Here, the various users are sharing the central processor, the memory, and other resources of the computer system in a manner facilitated, controlled, and monitored by the operating system. The user, in this environment, has nearly full interaction with the program during its execution, and the computers response time may be expected to be no more than a few second. The third classes of operating systems, real time operating systems, are designed to service those applications where response time is of the essence in order to prevent error, misrepresentation or even disaster. Examples of real time operating systems are those, which handle airlines reservations, machine tool control, and monitoring of a nuclear power station. The systems, in this case, are designed to be interrupted by external signal that require the immediate attention of the computer system. In fact, many computer operating systems are hybrids, providing for more than one of these types of computing services simultaneously. It is especially common to have a background batch system running in conjunction with one of the other two on the same computer. A number of other definitions are important to gaining an understanding of operating systems: A multiprogramming operating system is a system that allows more than one active user program (or part of user program) to be stored in main memory simultaneously. Thus, it is evident that a timesharing system is a multiprogramming system, but note that a multiprogramming system is not necessarily a time-sharing system. A batch or real time operating system could, and indeed usually does, have more than one active user program simultaneously in main storage. Another important, and all too similar, term is multiprocessing. A multiprocessing system is a computer hardware configuration that includes more than one independent processing unit. The term multiprocessing is generally used to refer to large computer hardware complexes found in major scientific or commercial applications. A networked computing system is a collection of physically interconnected computers. The operating system of each of the interconnected computers must contain, in addition to its own stand-alone functionality, provisions for handing communication and transfer of program and data among the other computers with which it is connected.
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A distributed computing system consists of a number of computers that are connected and managed so that they automatically share the job processing load among the constituent computers, or separate the job load as appropriate particularly configured processors. Such a system requires an operating system, which in addition to the typical stand-alone functionality provides coordination of the operations and information flow among the component computers. The networked and distributed computing environments and their respective operating systems are designed with more complex functional capabilities. In a network operating system the users are aware of the existence of multiple computers, and can log in to remote machines and copy files from one machine to another. Each machine runs its own local operating system and has its own user (or users). A distributed operating system, in contrast, is one that appears to its users as a traditional uniprocessor system, even though it is actually composed of multiple processors. In a true distributed system, users should not be aware of where their programs are being run or where their files are located; that should all be handled automatically and efficiently by the operating system. Network operating systems are not fundamentally different from single processor operating systems. They obviously need a network interface controller and some low-level software to drive it, as well as programs to achieve remote login and remote files access, but these additions do not change the essential structure of the operating systems. What OSs Are Available Today The list of different types of operating systems and a few examples of Operating Systems that fall into each of the categories. Many computer Operating Systems will fall into more then one of the below categories given below. GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is commonly navigated using a computer mouse. Below are some examples of GUI Operating Systems. System 7.x Windows 98 Windows CE Multi-user - A multi-user Operating System allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the same time and/or different times. Below are some examples of multi-user Operating Systems. Linux UNIX Windows 2000 VMS MVS Multiprocessing - An Operating System capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing Operating Systems. Linux UNIX Windows 2000 Multitasking - An Operating systems that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to be run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking Operating Systems. UNIX Windows 2000 Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are: Linux UNIX
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Windows 2000 Networking OS: Windows 2000 Novell Netware OS Layers An operating system provides the environment within which programs are executed. To construct such an environment, the system is partitioned into small modules with a well-defined interface. The design of a new operating system is a major task. It is very important that the goals of the system be well defined before the design begins. The type of system desired is the foundation for choices between various algorithms and strategies that will be necessary. The important modules for an operating system are listed below. Process Management, Memory Management, Secondary Storage Management I/O System File Management Protection System Networking Command Interpreter System Obviously, not all systems have the same structure. The Binary Number System Why Binary? The number system that you are familiar with, that you use every day, is the decimal number system, also commonly referred to as the base-10 system. When you perform computations such as 3 + 2 = 5, or 21 7 = 14, you are using the decimal number system. This system, which you likely learned in first or second grade, is ingrained into your subconscious; its the natural way that you think about numbers. Of course it is not just you: It is the way that everyone thinksand has always thoughtabout numbers and arithmetic. Evidence exists that Egyptians were using a decimal number system five thousand years ago. The Roman numeral system, predominant for hundreds of years, was also a decimal number system (though organized differently from the Arabic base-10 number system that we are most familiar with). Indeed, base-10 systems, in one form or another, have been the most widely used number systems ever since civilization started counting. In dealing with the inner workings of a computer, though, you are going to have to learn to think in a different number system, the binary number system, also referred to as the base-2 system. Before considering why we might want to use a different number system, lets first consider: Why do we use base-10? The simple answer: We have 10 fingers. Before the days of calculators and computers, we counted on our hands (many of us still do!). Consider a child counting a pile of pennies. He would begin: One, two, three, , eight, nine. Upon reaching nine, the next penny counted makes the total one single group of ten pennies. He then keeps counting: One group of ten pennies two groups of ten pennies three groups of ten pennies eight groups of ten pennies nine groups of ten pennies Upon reaching nine groups of ten pennies plus nine additional pennies, the next penny counted makes the total thus far: one single group of one hundred pennies. Upon completing the task, the child might find that he has three groups of one hundred pennies, five groups of ten pennies, and two pennies left over: 352 pennies. More formally, the base-10 system is a positional system, where the rightmost digit is the ones position (the number of ones), the next digit to the left is the tens position (the number of groups of 10), the next digit to the left is the hundreds position (the number of groups of 100), and so forth. The base-10 number system has 10 distinct symbols, or digits (0, 1, 2, 3,8, 9). In decimal notation, we write a number as a string of symbols,
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where each symbol is one of these ten digits, and to interpret a decimal number, we multiply each digit by the power of 10 associated with that digits position For example, consider the decimal number: 6349. This number is:
There is nothing essentially easier about using the base-10 system. It just seems more intuitive only because it is the only system that you have used extensively, and, again, the fact that it is used extensively is due to the fact that humans have 10 fingers. If humans had six fingers, we would all be using a base-6 system, and we would all find that system to be the most intuitive and natural. So, long ago, humans looked at their hands, saw ten fingers, and decided to use a base-10 system. But how many fingers does a computer have? Consider: Computers are built from transistors, and an individual transistor can only be ON or OFF (two options). Similarly, data storage devices can be optical or magnetic. Optical storage devices store data in a specific location by controlling whether light is reflected off that location or is not reflected off that location (two options). Likewise, magnetic storage devices store data in a specific location by magnetizing the particles in that location with a specific orientation. We can have the north magnetic pole pointing in one direction, or the opposite direction (two options). Computers can most readily use two symbols, and therefore a base-2 system, or binary number system, is most appropriate. The base-10 number system has 10 distinct symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The base-2 system has exactly two symbols: 0 and 1. The base-10 symbols are termed digits. The base-2 symbols are termed binary digits, or bits for short. All base-10 numbers are built as strings of digits (such as 6349). All binary numbers are built as strings of bits (such as 1101). Just as we would say that the decimal number 12890 has five digits, we would say that the binary number 11001 is a five-bit number. The point: All data in a computer is represented in binary. The pictures of your last vacation stored on your hard driveits all bits. The YouTube video of the cat falling off the chair that you saw this morningbits. Your Face book pagebits. The tweet you sentbits. The email from your professor telling you to spend less time on vacation, browsing YouTube, updating your Face book page and sending tweetsthats bits too. Everything is bits. To understand how computers work, you have to speak the language. And the language of computers is the binary number system. The Binary Number System Consider again the example of a child counting a pile of pennies, but this time in binary. He would begin with the first penny: 1. The next penny counted makes the total one single group of two pennies. what number is this? When the base-10 child reached nine (the highest symbol in his scheme), the next penny gave him one group of ten, denoted as 10, where the 1 indicated one collection of ten. Similarly, when the base-2 child reaches one (the highest symbol in his scheme), the next penny gives him one group of two, denoted as 10, where the 1 indicates one collection of two. Back to the base-2 child: The next penny makes one group of two pennies and one additional penny: 11. The next penny added makes two groups of two, which is one group of 4: 100. The 1 here indicates a collection of two groups of two, just as the 1 in the base-10 number 100 indicates ten groups of ten. Upon completing the counting task, base-2 child might find that he has one group of four pennies, no groups of two pennies, and one penny left over: 101 pennies. The child counting the same pile of pennies in base-10
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would conclude that there were 5 pennies. So, 5 in base-10 is equivalent to 101 in base-2. To avoid confusion when the base in use if not clear from the context, or when using multiple bases in a single expression, we append a subscript to the number to indicate the base, and write:
Just as with decimal notation, we write a binary number as a string of symbols, but now each symbol is a 0 or a 1. To interpret a binary number, we multiply each digit by the power of 2 associated with that digits position. For example, consider the binary number 1101. This number is:
Since binary numbers can only contain the two symbols 0 and 1, numbers such as 25 and 1114000 cannot be binary numbers. We say that all data in a computer is stored in binarythat is, as 1s and 0s. It is important to keep in mind that values of 0 and 1 are logical values, not the values of a physical quantity, such as a voltage. The actual physical binary values used to store data internally within a computer might be, for instance, 5 volts and 0 volts, or perhaps 3.3 volts and 0.3 volts or perhaps reflection and no reflection. The two values that are used to physically store data can differ within different portions of the same computer. All that really matters is that there are two different symbols, so we will always refer to them as 0 and 1. A string of eight bits (such as 11000110) is termed a byte. A collection of four bits (such as 1011) is smaller than a byte, and is hence termed a nibble. (This is the sort of nerd-humor for which engineers are famous.) Decimal and Binary Numbers When we write decimal (base 10) numbers, we use a positional notation system. Each digit is multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 depending on its position in the number:
For whole numbers, the rightmost digit position is the ones position (100 = 1). The numeral in that position indicates how many ones are present in the number. The next position to the left is tens, then hundreds, thousands, and so on. Each digit position has a weight that is ten times the weight of the position to its right. In the decimal number system, there are ten possible values that can appear in each digit position, and so there are ten numerals required to represent the quantity in each digit position. The decimal numerals are the familiar zero through nine (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). In a positional notation system, the number base is called the radix. Thus, the base ten systems that we normally use have a radix of 10. The term radix and base can be used interchangeably. When writing numbers in a radix other than ten, or where the radix isnt clear from the context, it is customary to specify the radix using a subscript. Thus, in a case where the radix isnt understood, decimal numbers would be written like this:
Generally, the radix will be understood from the context and the radix specification is left off.
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The binary number system is also a positional notation numbering system, but in this case, the base is not ten, but is instead two. Each digit position in a binary number represents a power of two. So, when we write a binary number, each binary digit is multiplied by an appropriate power of 2 based on the position in the number:
In the binary number system, there are only two possible values that can appear in each digit position rather than the ten that can appear in a decimal number. Only the numerals 0 and 1 are used in binary numbers. The term bit is a contraction of the words binary and digit, and when talking about binary numbers the terms bit and digit can be used interchangeably. When talking about binary numbers, it is often necessary to talk of the number of bits used to store or represent the number. This merely describes the number of binary digits that would be required to write the number. The number in the above example is a 6 bit number.
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A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely. The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms and player pianos. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many being created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative style, i.e., as a sequence of commands, although some languages, such as those that support functional programming or logic programming, use alternative forms of description. The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard), while other languages, such as Perl 5 and earlier, have a dominant implementation that is used as a reference. The first programming languages predate the modern computer. The 19th century saw the invention of "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls, both of which implemented examples of domainspecific languages. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were created. Grace Hopper, was one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, a pioneer in the field, developed the first compiler, around 1952, for a computer programming language. Notwithstanding, the idea of programming language existed earlier; the first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkl, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.
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Programmers of early 1950s computers, notably UNIVAC I and IBM 701, used machine language programs, that is, the first generation language (1GL). 1GL programming was quickly superseded by similarly machine-specific, but mnemonic, second generation languages (2GL) known asassembly languages or "assembler". Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of "third generation" programming languages (3GL), such as FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL. 3GLs are more abstract and are "portable", or at least implemented similarly on computers that do not support the same native machine code. Updated versions of all of these 3GLs are still in general use, and each has strongly influenced the development of later languages. At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as ALGOL 60 was introduced, and later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol. The format and use of the early programming languages was heavily influenced by the constraints of the interface Refinement The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of ideas in the very first Third-generation programming languages: APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming. PL/I (NPL) was designed in the early 1960s to incorporate the best ideas from FORTRAN and COBOL. In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language. C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language, and remains popular. Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language. In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages. Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry. The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages. The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an early 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck. Consolidation and growth The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decade. One important trend in language design for programming large-scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, already had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to generic programming constructs.
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The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic websites. Javacame to be used for server-side programming, and bytecode virtual machines became popular again in commercial settings with their promise of "Write once, run anywhere" (UCSD Pascal had been popular for a time in the early 1980s). These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages. Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft's LINQ. The 4GLs are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as SQL, which manipulates and returns sets of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. Perl, for example, with its 'here document' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming. Generational list of programming languages ALGOL based ALGOL (also under Fortran) Atlas Autocode ALGOL 58 (IAL, International Algorithmic Language) MAD and GOM (Michigan Algorithm Decoder and Good Old MAD) ALGOL 60 MAD/I Simula (see also Simula based languages) ALGOL 68 Burroughs Extended ALGOL ALGOL W Pascal Ada SPARK PL/SQL Turbo Pascal Object Pascal (Delphi) Free Pascal (FPC) Kylix (same as Delphi, but for Linux) Euclid Concurrent Euclid Turing Turing Plus Object Oriented Turing Modula-2 Modula-3 Oberon (Oberon-1) Go (also under C) Oberon-2 Component Pascal
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Active Oberon Zonnon Oberon-07 Lua (also under Scheme and SNOBOL) Plus
SUE
CPL
BCPL B C

Alef C++
Java

Groovy Scala Join Java J# Processing X10 Cobra (class/object model and other features) Windows PowerShell (also under DCL, ksh and Perl)
C#

C-D ColdFusion Coyote eC (Ecere C) Go (also under Oberon) Harbour Limbo LPC Pike Objective-C (also under Smalltalk) PCASTL (also under Lisp) Perl Windows PowerShell (also under C#, DCL and ksh) S2 PHP Ruby (also under Smalltalk) PDL (also under APL) Python QuakeC tcsh (also under sh) MCPL
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APL based APL A+ Glee J (also under FL) K (also under LISP) NESL PDL (also under Perl) BASIC based BASIC (also under Fortran II) AmigaBASIC AMOS BASIC BASIC Stamp BASIC09 Basic4GL BBC Basic Blitz BASIC Blitz3D BlitzMax BlitzPlus Business Basic Cach Basic Chinese BASIC COMAL Commodore BASIC DarkBASIC DarkBASIC Professional Euphoria Gambas GW-BASIC GLBasic PlayBASIC PowerBASIC QuickBASIC QBasic FreeBASIC Liberty BASIC Just BASIC Run BASIC REALbasic thinBasic TI-BASIC True BASIC Visual Basic VBScript Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) Visual Basic .NET
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Small Basic YaBasic Batch languages MS-DOS Batch files Winbatch CLIST IBM Job Control Language (JCL) COBOL based COBOL DIBOL WATBOL COMIT based COMIT SNOBOL Icon Unicon Lua (also under Modula and Scheme) DCL based DCL Windows PowerShell (also under C#, ksh and Perl) ed based ed (programming language) sed AWK Perl (also under C) Eiffel based Eiffel Cobra (design by contract) Sather Ubercode Forth based Forth InterPress PostScript Joy Factor Cat RPL (also under Lisp) Fortran based Fortran Fortran II BASIC (see also BASIC based languages) Fortran IV PORTRAN WATFOR WATFIV
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Fortran 66 FORMAC Ratfor Fortran 77 WATFOR-77 Ratfiv Fortran 90 Fortran 95 F Fortran 2003 ALGOL (see also ALGOL based languages) FP based FP (Function Programming) FL (Function Level) J (also under APL) FPr (also under Lisp and object-oriented programming) HyperTalk based HyperTalk AppleScript Revolution Java based Ateji PX Groovy Obix OptimJ Processing Scala JOSS based JOSS CAL TELCOMP FOCAL MUMPS Cach ObjectScript Lisp based Lisp Arc AutoLISP Clojure Common Lisp Emacs Lisp K (also under APL) Logo Turtle graphics Nu programming language
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REBOL RPL (also under Forth) S R PCASTL (also under ALGOL) Scheme GNU Guile Racket Hop Pico T Lua (also under Modula and SNOBOL) ML based ML Standard ML (SML) Caml OCaml F# MCPL (also under BCPL) PL based PL/I PL/M PL/M-86 PL/C REXX SP/k Prolog based Prolog PROLOG II, III, IV CLP(R), CLP(FD) Mercury Erlang Logtalk SASL Based SASL Kent Recursive Calculator Miranda Haskell SETL based SETL ABC Python Boo Cobra (syntax and features)

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sh based Sh bash csh (also under C) tcsh zsh ksh Windows PowerShell (also under C#, DCL and Perl) Simula based Simula (also under ALGOL 60) C++ (also under C) Smalltalk Objective-C (hybrid of C and Smalltalk) Cobra (support both dynamic and static types) Ruby Fancy Self JavaScript (originally LiveScript) ActionScript JavaScript OSA ECMAScript JScript HaXe NewtonScript Io BETA TCL based Tcl Tea Today based Today BuildProfessional Others Assembly BLISS Candle CORAL Curl GPSS LabVIEW occam POP-2, POP-10, POP-11 Progress REFAL Seed7 TUTOR AND XMLmosaic
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Applications of computers in various fields Computers have their application or utility everywhere. We find their applications in almost every sphere of lifeparticularly in fields where computations are required to be done at a very fast speed and where data is so complicated that the human brain finds it difficult to cope up with. As you must be aware, computer now-a-days are being used almost in every department to do the work at a greater speed and accuracy. They can keep the record of all the employees and prepare their pay bill in a matter of minutes every month. They can keep automatic checks on the stock of a particular item. Some of the prominent areas of computer applications are: In Tourism: Hotels use computers to speed up billing and checkout the availability of rooms. So is the case with railways and airline reservations for booking tickets. Architects can display their scale models on a computer and study them from various angles and perspectives. Structural problems can now be solved quickly and accurately. In Banks: Banks also have started using computers extensively. Terminals are provided in the branch and the main computer is located centrally. This enables the branches to use the central computer system for information on things such as current balance,deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, etc. MICR encoded cheques can be read and sorted out with a speed of 3000 cheques per minute by computers as compared to hours taken by manual sorting. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) allows a person to transfer funds through computer signals over wires and telephone lines making the work possible in a very short time. In Industry: Computers are finding their greatest use in factories and industries of all kinds. They have taken over the work ranging from monotonous and risky jobs like welding to highly complex jobs such as process control. Drills, saws and entire assembly lines can be computerized. Moreover, quality control tests and the manufacturing of products, which require a lot of refinement, are done with the help of computers. Not only this, Thermal Power Plants, Oil refineries and chemical industries fully depend on computerized control systems because in such industries the lag between two major events may be just a fraction of a second. In Transportation: Today computers have made it possible for planes to land in foggy and stormy atmosphere also. The aircraft has a variety of sensors, which measure the planes altitude, position, speed, height and direction. Computer use all this information to keep the plane flying in the right direction. In fact, the Autopilot feature has made the work of pilot much easy. In Education: Computers have proved to be excellent teachers. They can possess the knowledge given to them by the experts and teach you with all the patience in the world. You may like to repeat a lesson hundred times, go ahead, you may get tired but the computer will keep on teaching you. Computer based instructions (CBI) and Computer Aided Learning (CAL) are common tools used for teaching. Computer based encyclopedia such as Britannica provide you enormous amount of information on anything. In Entertainment: Computers are also great entertainers. Many computer games are available which are like the traditional games like chess, football, cricket, etc. Dungeons and dragons provide the opportunity to test your memory and ability to think. Other games like Braino and Volcano test your knowledge.
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FACULTY OF INDUSTREIAL ENGINEERING AND MANGEMENT

Use of computer in different fields Business. Medical. Banking sector. Education. Service sector. Defense. Engineering and Robotics. Entertainment. BUSINESS MARKETING: - Computer is mainly used for sales promotion, e.g. designing of advertisements. Internet marketing (emarketing), comparing the sales figure. Studying the demand graph. PRODUCTION:-It is used for making design of product.CAD (computer aided design) HUMAN RESOURCE: - Computer is used in keeping the records of all the employees. Recruitment and Selection. FINANCE: - Helps in making the financial statement. Comparing the financial statement of two year. Preparing the BUDGETS. MEDICAL Research:-Used in different pharmaceutical companies. Hospitals: - Mainly computer is used for keeping the record of patients. Inventory of medicines. Surgeries. Diagnosis: - CT scan. Ultra-sound. Blood test. Electro-cardio gram. BANKING SECTOR Maintaining the record and storing the files instead of manual record. Internet banking (ebanking). Transaction from ATMs. Bank sell their insurance online. Bank provides 247 online services. EDUCATION Higher education: - All the universities and colleges are furnished with computer labs. Online education: - This can done with the help of computer and internet. Self-Learning. Faculty usage. School library. Used to generate letters and documents. SERVICE SECTOR Railways :- Computerized reservation and cancellation is done. Online reservation, Schedule, Availability and fare, Position of the train Transportation. Airways Hotels. DEFENCE Air force: - the entire fighter planes are equipped with computer system for targeting and navigation. With the help of computer, PREDATOR an unmanned fighter can be controlled. Army: - uses computerized ROBOT in the battle field. Tanks are also installed with computer. Navy :- Today all the submarines uses computer far navigation and targeting.
ENGINEERING AND ROBOTICS Software. Design of buildings and maps. Designing VLSI chip and many more. Robotics research. ENTERTAINMENT Chatting /browsing. Music/Videos Games etc..
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Introduction To Computer Fundamentals

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FACULTY OF INDUSTREIAL ENGINEERING AND MANGEMENT

(MMEIM -202) COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MANAGMENT

Session 1: Introduction to Computer Fundamentals

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

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Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

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Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

Computer applications in management B2S2

FACULTY OF INDUSTREIAL ENGINEERING AND MANGEMENT

Computer applications in management B2S2

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