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Structural Geology Introduction Structural geology is the study of the features formed by geological processes.

Features include faults, folds and dipping strata. Geologists can work out the o rder of events and see which events are related by taking fairly simple measurem ents and using simple methods. Measurements and Techniques The most obvious thing to do when trying to decipher the structural history of a formation is to describe it. One way of doing this is to measure the dip and st rike. The dip is the amount a bed of rock is tipped from the horizontal. The str ike is the direction which is ninety degrees from the dip, i.e.. Along the horiz ontal line on the bed. The strike Igneous comes from the Latin for fire, and all igneous rocks began as hot, fluid m aterial. This material may have been lava erupted at the Earth's surface, or mag ma (unerupted lava) at shallow depths, or magma in deep bodies (plutons). Rock f ormed of lava is called extrusive, rock from shallow magma is called intrusive a nd rock from deep magma is called plutonic. Igneous rocks form in three main places: Where lithospheric plates pull apart at mid-ocean ridges, where plates come together at subduction zones and where cont inental crust is pushed together, making it thicker and allowing it to heat to m elting. People commonly think of lava and magma as a liquid, like molten metal, but geol ogists find that magma is usually a mush. a liquid carrying a load of mineral cr ystals. Magma crystallizes into a collection of minerals, and some crystallize s ooner than others. Not just that, but when they crystallize, they leave the rema ining liquid with a changed chemical composition. Thus a body of magma, as it co ols, evolves, and as it moves through the crust, interacting with other rocks, i t evolves further. This makes igneous petrology a very complex field, and this a rticle is only the barest outline. Igneous Rock Textures The three types of igneous rocks apart by their texture, starting with the size of the mineral grains. Extrusive rocks cool quickly (over periods of seconds to months) and have invisible or very small grains. Intrusive rocks cool more slowl y (over thousands of years) and have small to medium-sized grains. Plutonic rock s cool over millions of years, deep underground, and can have grains as large as pebbles. Even a meter across. Because they solidified from a fluid state, igneo us rocks tend to have a uniform texture, without layers, and the mineral grains are packed together tightly. Think of the texture of a fruitcake, or the pattern of bubbles in a piece of bread, as similar examples. In many igneous rocks, large mineral crystals float in a fine-grained groundmass. The large grains are called phenocrysts, and a rock with phenocrysts is called a porphyry; that is, it has a porphyritic texture. Phenocrysts are minerals that solidified earlier than the rest of the rock, and they are important clues to th e rock's history. Some extrusive rocks have distinctive textures. Obsidian, form ed when lava cools very quickly, has a glassy texture. Pumice and scoria are vol canic froth, puffed up by millions of gas bubbles. Tuff is a rock made entirely of volcanic ash, fallen from the air or avalanched down a volcano's sides. And p illow lava is a lumpy formation created by extruding lava underwater. Basalt, Granite and Other Igneous Rock Types The main minerals in igneous rocks are hard, primary ones: Feldspar, quartz, amp hiboles and pyroxenes (called dark minerals by geologists), and olivine along with the softer mineral mica. The two best-known igneous rock types are basalt and granite, which differ in co mposition. Basalt is the dark, fine-grained stuff of many lava flows and magma i ntrusions. Its dark minerals are rich in magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe), hence bas alt is called a mafic rock. So basalt is mafic and either extrusive or intrusive . Granite is the light, coarse-grained rock formed at depth and exposed after de ep erosion. It is rich in feldspar and quartz (silica) and hence is called a fel sic rock. So granite is felsic and plutonic.

These two categories cover the great majority of igneous rocks. Ordinary people, even ordinary geologists, use the names freely (Stone dealers call any plutonic rock at all granite. ). But igneous petrologists use many more names. They genera lly talk about basaltic and granitic rocks among themselves and out in the field , because it takes lab work to determine an exact rock type according to the off icial classifications. True granite and true basalt are narrow subsets of these categories. But a few of the less common igneous rock types can be recognized by non-special ists. For instance a dark-colored plutonic mafic rock, the deep version of basal t, is called gabbro. A light-colored intrusive or extrusive felsic rock, the sha llow version of granite, is called felsite or rhyolite. And there is a suite of ultramafic rocks with even more dark minerals and even less silica than basalt. Where Igneous Rocks Are Found The deep sea floor (the oceanic crust) is made of basaltic rocks, with ultramafi c rocks underneath. Basalts are also erupted above the Earth's great subduction zones, either in volcanic island arcs or along the edges of continents. However, continental magmas tend to be less basaltic and more granitic. The continents are the exclusive home of granitic rocks. Nearly everywhere on th e continents, no matter what rocks are on the surface, you can drill down and re ach granite eventually. In general, granitic rocks are less dense than basaltic rocks, and thus the continents actually float higher than the oceanic crust on t op of the ultramafic rocks of the Earth's mantle. The behavior and histories of granitic rock bodies are among geology's deepest and most intricate mysteries.

Introduction to Metamorphic Petrology Introduction Metamorphic petrology is the study of rocks which have been changed (metamorphos ed) by heat and pressure. They are broadly categorized into regional and contact . Metamorphism is an extension of the process which forms sedimentary rocks from sediment: Lithification. However, all types of rocks; igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, can all be metamorphosed. During metamorphism no melting takes plac e. All the chemical reactions which take place occur in the solid-state. Factors Controlling Characteristics The characteristics of a metamorphic rock depend on the following factors: Composition of parent rock Temperature and Pressure of metamorphism Fluid Time The composition of the parent rock does not usually change during metamorphism ( if it does it is then called metasomatism). The changes are the due to the miner als changing. A basalt which has around 50% of silica will produce a metabasalt with 50% silica. Temperature and pressure affect the rock in terms of the mineral assemblage whic h is stable at the pressure and temperature obtained. The minerals stable at the pressure and temperatures that metamorphic rocks reach are simulated in a lab. This allows geologists to look at a mineral assemblage and give a (good) estimat e of the pressure and temperature that the sample was exposed to. This gives tec tonic information which is useful in other branches of geology. Fluid changes the chemical composition of the rock being metamorphosed and hence is called metasomatism. The addition of fluid can radically change the rock. Time has an important role as a rock which is heated to an extreme temperature f or a short (years) period of time will not be altered too much. A rock heated fo r a longer period of time (millions of years) will show changes. Classification The classification of metamorphic rocks is split into contact and regionally met amorphosed rocks. After this it is divided according to the amount of metamorphism that has taken place and/or on the mineral content.

Contact Metamorphism (based on mineral content) Parent Rock-Metamorphic rock-Dominant Minerals-Characteristics Limestone-Marble-Calcite-Interlocking grains. Fizzes in weak acid Quartz-Sandstone-Quartzite-Quartz Sugary texture Shale-Hornfels (Spotted Rock) - Micas-Dark colour Regional Metamorphism (name based on degree of metamorphism) Texture-Rock Name-Characteristics Slatey-Slate-Splits easily into sheets Between slate and schistose-Phylitte-Silky lustre, splits into wavy sheets Schistose-Schist-Pearly looking. Silky to touch Gneissic-Gneiss-Wavy, white and dark layers Causes of Metamorphism Contact Caused by heating from an external source. Contact metamorphism occurs next to a n igneous body. The degree of metamorphism decreases away from the body. This oc curs at fairly shallow depths, as temperature not pressure is the dominating fac tor. Regional Regional metamorphism is caused by high pressure and temperatures usually during mountain building (oregenesis). The extremes of regionally metamorphic rocks ar e a high pressure, low temperature rock (called a blueschist) and a high pressur e and very high temperature rock (called a granulite). If the rock is heated to the point of melting, but doesn'tnactually melt, it is called a migmatite. Introduction to Igneous Petrology Introduction Igneous rocks are formed form the cooling of molten rock, magma. They are crysta lline, which means they are made up of crystals joined together. There are many different types of igneous rocks but they fall into two (very) broad categories; intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive rocks are igneous rocks which form at depth. They cool slowly, taking tens of thousand of years to cool. They have large cry stals, tens of millimetres in size. Extrusive rocks are those which have erupted from volcanoes. They have very small crystals, not visible to the naked eye, as they cooled quickly. Of course there is every grain size possible in between th ese two extremes. Chemistry The chemistry of igneous rocks is quite complicated. It depends on two things; e volution and silica saturation. In this tutorial we will concern ourselves with the effect of evolution only, the silica saturation will be assumed to be consta nt. Igneous rocks evolve as they cool. This process is called differentiation. T he mechanism for this process is as follows: Liquid rich in minerals A, B and C. Remove mineral A as it crystallises at a higher temperature than B and C. Liquid is relatively enriched in minerals B and C. Remove mineral B as it crystallises at a higher temperature than C. Liquid is no w completely mineral C. The minerals are removed in order of Bowen's Reaction Se ries. As you can see, if you remove olivine, the magma will become more enriched in py roxenes etc. This process continues until only quartz is left. This leads us to the following, simple, identification. Textures & Names Igneous rocks have many textures which tell us about their cooling histories and /or chemistry. In general rocks which have cooled rapidly are fine grained, that is with grains which are not visible to the naked eye. Rocks which have cooled slowly have large grains, sometimes as large as several centimetres across: Textures & Names This size variation arises as grains grow around a nucleus of some sort, i.e.a m inute grain. The slower the cooling the more time grains have to grow and amalga mate. Grains which show their true shape are said to be euhedral. Grains which s

how no shape are anhedral. Using this information, the order of grain growth can be worked out. For example, a rock may have large euhedral quartz grains, which are surrounded by anhedral feldspar. The quartz grew first as it had space, the feldspar then grew around the quartz. Other features seen are: Porphyritic texture-large grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by much finer grains ( groundamss). This implies that the large grains grew slowly at depth, the magma with the grains in it, then rose up in the crust, cooling much more quickly form ing the fine grains (the matrix). Exsolution-occurs within grains on certain minerals (pyroxenes and feldspars). T his can give an indication of pressure and hence depth. Xenoliths-bits of the rock into which the magma intruded Cumulate layer-when a mineral grows which is denser than the magma, it will sink to the base of the chamber causing a cumulate layer. Minerals may form from liq uid trapped between the grains-interstitial minerals. Igneous Rock Formations Igneous rock bodies are either intrusive or extrusive. Extrusive bodies are lava flows. If these occur under water they form pillow lavas. On land they can form lava tubes, aa (pronounced ah-ah and looks blocky) or pahoehoe (which looks rop ey). Intrusive bodies form when magma is injected into existing rock layers. A dyke i s a body which cuts across the country (host) rock. A sill is parallel to the be dding layers. The baked margin is an area in the country rock, in contact with t he igneous body, which has been thermally metamorphosed. The chilled margin is t he area in an igneous body, in contact with the country rock, which cooled quick er than the rest of the rock due to the temperature difference between the magma and the country rock. These features are not always visible. The scale of these bodies is from millimetres to tens or even hundreds of metres. The largest of igneous bodies is a pluton or batholith. These are massive, hundr eds of kilometres in size. The moors of Cornwall and Devon are outcrops of a mas sive batholith.

orn cool at the Earth's surface, mostly under water. They usually consist of lay ers or strata, hence they are also called stratified rocks. Depending on what th ey'reymade of, sedimentary rocks fall into one of three types.

The Use Of Diatoms As Palaeoenvironmental Indicators Introduction Diatoms are microscopic, photosynthetic algae (which due to the yellow-brown chl oroplasts they contain are sometimes referred to as golden algae). Comprising on e of the most common types of phytoplankton, they are found in a diverse range o f environments from freshwater to saline oceanic waters. It is estimated that 20 ? 25% of all the organic carbon fixation on Earth; via photosynthesis, is attri butable to diatoms-in large due to their great abundance. Characteristics Photosynthetic, unicellular algae containing pigments, but possessing no flagell a or pseudopodia. Also capable of absorbing nutrients in addition to producing t hem. Range in size from mm to 2mm, but are generally ~40 mm. Secrete a frustule or test, composed of silica, which under favourable condition s can be preserved. Each frustule consists of two valves, which fit closely over the top of each other-somewhat analogous to a petri-dish.

The valve surface is often, but not always, ornamented with any combination of p its, pores, or striations (rib-like structures). Always inhabit the photic zone. For this reason, benthic forms are never present on the floor of very deep lakes, for example Loch Ness. Reproduce primarily via asexual cell division. Classification Diatoms are differentiated between by forms that are centric, i.e.. Circular, an d pennate, i.e.. Having bilateral form. The word pennate usually pertains to fea thers, wings, or feather-like structures however; its use with diatoms denotes b ilateral form. In addition, diatoms can be divided into solitary and colonial forms. Diatoms ca n be further sub-divided according to whether they possess a raphe (a median lin e or slot in the cell wall), a pseudoraphe, or completely lack a raphe. Ecology As previously mentioned, diatoms are very abundant, largely existing wherever th ere is water. The study of extant diatom species, and particularly their ecologi es, can provide useful information for the interpretation of palaeoenvironmental conditions. Diatoms exhibit three major modes of existence: Planktonic Benthic (Lake/Sea/Ocean bed) Macrophytic (Attached to plants) Planktonic forms contain oil globules, which help to keep the diatom afloat in t he water column. As a result, it is often easier to identify dead diatoms, in wh ich the internal oil globules and chloroplasts have decayed away to reveal the v alve ornamentation, than it is to identify living diatoms to species level. All diatom species are highly sensitive to environmental changes, giving rise to very different assemblages under rather tight environmental constraints. For ex ample, diatoms display varying assemblages according to pH, trophic status, and pollution levels. Diatoms bloom seasonally, with different species blooming at different times of the year. Sampling Where conditions are conducive, diatom remains will usually accumulate on lake/s ea beds, and will often exhibit mixed assemblages (i.e.. Consist of both benthic and planktonic forms, in addition to those brought in from tributary river/stre am systems, and from soil in-wash), The best preservation conditions in terms of diatoms are those with any mixture of fine grained, anaerobic, and slightly aci dic sediments. Sampling is most frequently carried out by random core samples of a given area, as this preserves changes in the diatom assemblages over time. Where cores are s ampled from beneath existing lakes, care should be taken to disturb the sediment -water interface as little as possible. Often a rich organic mud called gyttja ( typical of interglacial periods), will have accumulated, consisting of mainly fa ecal debris, animal and plant remains, along with some clastic component (sand/s ilt/clay), Will retain a record of the most recent diatom activity. Uses Of Diatoms In general diatoms can be used to trace a variety of environmental phenomena, fr om changes in sea level (whether brought about by climate change or tectonic act ivity), breaches of coastal barriers (as a result of storms and/or sea-level ris e), to the evaporation of lakes (increasing salinity determining diatom assembla ges), Below is an outline of their most prevalent uses. Indicators of Salinity Marine: Some species are restricted to a very narrow range of salinities and are know as stenohaline species, others have no such restrictions and are known as cosmopolitan species. As a result, this causes zonation, which is particularly e vident in estuaries, where a spectrum (and a gradient for such a spectrum) can b e calculated from coastal to offshore species. This has applications in determin ing palaeo-fluvial environments, and sediment focusing. Freshwater: Some freshwater species will tolerate a little salt, and are known a

s halophilic, occurring in coastal lakes, or where the groundwater is rich in sa lts. However most freshwater species are stenohaline and will not tolerate salt. Indicators of Productivity (Trophic Status) There are several ways of deducing palaeotrophic status using diatoms: Total Diatom Count-This is relatively simple, the more diatoms there are in your sample, the more productive a given body of water is: Centric: Pennate Ratio-The more centrics there are in your sample, the more prod uctive the environment is (With the exception of a species called Cyclotella.). Indicator Species-Certain species are typical of certain conditions, for example Stephanodiscus is typical of eutrophic (abundant nutrient) conditions, and Tabe llaria of oligotrophic (very low nutrient) conditions. Planktonic: Non-planktonic Ratio-Planktonic forms are more common in eutrophic l akes. Diversity Indicators-A low overall diversity amongst diatoms indicates stressful conditions, for example extreme trophic status (hyper-oligotrophic or hyper-eut rophic). However this could also indicate a source of pollution etc. Indicators of Palaeo-pH This perhaps the most important and most widely used application of diatom studi es. Diatoms are highly sensitive to pH and can illustrate differences of as little a s 0.1 pH units. To accomplish this species are classified as either: Acidobiontic (Acid Living) pH < 7 Acidophilous (Acid Preferring) pH 7 Circumneutral pH = 7 Alkaliphilous (Alkali Preferring) pH 7 Alkalibiontic (Alkali Living) pH > 7 This method is highly dependent upon knowing the pH preference for all of the di atoms present, as the percentage of each of the above groups is measured and the ratios used to calculate a log index of the given population. With the use of s ome complicated mathematics this, in turn, can then be used to determine the pal aeo-pH. Obviously, it is not always possible to know the preference of all of th e species in your sample, and therefore this method can not always be applied. Indicators of Palaeo-pH This perhaps the most important and most widely used application of diatom studi es. Diatoms are highly sensitive to pH and can illustrate differences of as little a s 0.1 pH units. To accomplish this species are classified as either: Acidobiontic (Acid Living) pH < 7 Acidophilous (Acid Preferring) pH 7 Circumneutral pH = 7 Alkaliphilous (Alkali Preferring) pH 7 Alkalibiontic (Alkali Living) pH > 7 This method is highly dependant upon knowing the pH preference for all of the di atoms present, as the percentage of each of the above groups is measured and the ratios used to calculate a log index of the given population. With the use of s ome complicated mathematics this, in turn, can then be used to determine the pal aeo-pH. Obviously, it is not always possible to know the preference of all of th e species in your sample, and therefore this method can not always be applied. Indicators of Palaeo-temperature Diatoms are not very useful in determining changes in palaeo-temperature, due to the fact that the large majority of species will tolerate very wide ranges of t emperature, typically from 0 C to 20 C. That said, different assemblages are present when comparing warm and cold waters . However, this is almost certainly due to other overriding factors such as: Inc ident solar radiation, water chemistry, pH, and nutrient availability. Difficulties in Interpreting Diatom Samples Not all diatoms present in a body of water may settle out, they can be lost via outflows, dissolve, be crushed or eaten. In the best case scenario your assembla ge is simply incomplete, or comparatively low in overall abundance. In the worst

case scenario the ratios of different diatoms may be completely skewed (for exa mple planktonic forms with their oil-filled globules may be more prone to out-wa shing), Samples may contain diatoms washed in from outside your sample area, from soils, animal droppings, or tributaries. The sample becomes augmented, and in the wors t case scenario may include indicator species contrary to the actual palaeo-envi ronmental conditions. There may be insufficient silica dissolved in the body of water for diatoms to p roduce robust, preservable frustules, resulting in a complete absence in your sa mple. Taxonomy, especially in poorly preserved specimens, can often be difficult resul ting in mis-identification and a chain of consequent errors. The ecology is not well known for all species, causing problems and/or errors wi th interpretation.

Ooid Formation Introduction Ooids are spherical or ellipsoid concretions of calcium carbonate, usually less than 2mm in diameter (Donahue, 1969; Tucker and Wright, 1990). There have been e xamples in the Neoprotozoic of ooids that are 16mm in diameter (Sumner, 1993), b ut all modern ooids are 2mm or less. The interior of an ooid is usually composed of a nucleus, which is surrounded by a cortex of calcite or aragonite crystals that are arranged radially, tangentia lly or randomly. These crystals are arranged in concentric lamina. The nucleus c an be a shell fragment, quartz grain or any other small fragment (including an a ragonite/calcite amalgamation). The formation of these objects has been speculated from the early 19th Century a nd ideas for their origin range from crinoid eggs, insect eggs to the present da y explanation of precipitated layers of CaCO3 (Simone, 1981). Recent ooids are forming today in places such as the Bahamas (Tucker and Wright, 1990; Newell et al. 1966) and Shark Bay, Australia and are all composed of arag onite. Life Cycle Ooids do not form continuously; instead they go through stages of growth and res t (Davis et al. 1978). Davies et al (1978). Describe the typical life cycle of a Bahamian ooid: Suspension Growth Phase Nuclei introduced into a suitable location, with enough turbulence to keep them in suspension and water that is supersaturated in CaCO3, will induce a short lived inorganic precipitation of calcium carbonate on their surfaces. The precipitation is stopped by crystal poisoning, which is the addit ion of Mg2 + or H + onto the surface. If the proto-ooids remain in this environm ent the outer coating will be lost due to attrition. This means the suspension p hase is short lived, but may be repeated several times. Temporary Resting Phase Coated nuclei resting in the marine environment will qui ckly equilibrate with the surrounding fluid. Removal of the poisonous ions will re activate the coated surface in such conditions. However, not all poisonous ions ar e removed, so after several growth and temporary resting stages have been comple ted a third stage is required. Sleeping Stage A new surface is required in order to form a new coating. This me mbrane is probably organic in origin. Experiments show that this takes 1 ? 3 wee ks to form. The membrane forms a new, stable substratum for new CaCO3 precipitat ion. The timing of these stages means that an ooid spends only 5% of its time actuall y growing; the rest is spent sleeping (Davis et al. 1978; Bathurst, 1967). Formation As can be seen from the life cycle, the following factors will have an affect oo id growth: (Monoghan and Lytle, 1956; Newell, 1960; Bathurst, 1967; Davis et al.

1978; Deelman, 1978; Heller, 1980; Simone, 1981; Sumner and Grotzinger, 1993): Supersaturation: The supersaturation of the seawater is of vital importance (Mon oghan and Lytle, 1956). Monoghan and Lytle (1956) investigated the effect of CO3 concentration on the formation of ooids. They found that the concentration need ed to be above 0.002 moles/litre and below 0.0167 moles/litre for ooids to form successfully. Below 0.002 moles/litre only aragonite needles or poor ooids forme d. Above 0.0167 moles/litre the ooids formed an amorphous mass. Other authors ha ve stressed the importance of supersaturation, but they give no quantitative inf ormation (Bathurst, 1967; Davies et al. 1978; Simone, 1981). Nuclei: The type of nuclei affects the rate of growth and the size of each lamin ation (Davies et al. 1978). Organic coating on the nuclei give faster and longer precipitation, while using oxidised quartz show much slower and shorter precipi tation. Davies et al (1978). Show their results as a change of pH (a negative pH change is assumed to indicate precipitation), rather than growth or precipitati on rates. Agitation: The agitation an ooid undergoes must be enough to keep it in suspensi on for the growing phase followed by removal to a non-supersaturated fluid (the rest phase) (Newell, 1960; Davies et al. 1978; Heller, 1980). Davies et al (1978 ). Conducted a study using two different speeds of water current to test this: 5 Cm/s and 10 cm/s. The ooids were kept in suspension by this water flow, and in o ther experiments involving horizontal shaking and tumbling motion formed, the oo ids were non-existent or more like those formed in non-agitated water in the pre sence of organic compounds. In all cases of different nuclei the larger water cu rrent increase precipitation rates, but the time that precipitation changed depe nding on the nuclei type. Agitation may also control ooid size (Sumner and Grotz inger, 1993). As the ooid grows the mass lost per impact with another object inc reases as the cube of the radius. The mass gained from growth is proportional to the square of the radius. Eventually, the mass loss will equal or exceed the ma ss gained, limiting the size of the ooid. Sumner and Grotzinger (1993) performed numerical modelling on ooid formation. Their model gave a higher ooid radius in higher velocity flows, with a decrease that looks like an exponential or a powe r law with decreasing velocity (Sumner and Grotzinger, 1993, their fig 6). They did not include the impact of ooids to limit size. The agitation can come from w aves or tidal movements. Storms provide that mixing of ooids in the rest stage a nd those that can no longer precipitate. There is some change in crystal orienta tion with the amount of agitation (Donahue, 1969). Ooids can form in quiet water s, but organic CaCO3 precipitation is needed for them to form (Suess and Fattere r, 1972). These ooids will show radial crystals. Ooids formed in agitated waters have crystals arranged tangentially. The change between suspension to bedload t ransport may also initiate this change (Deelman, 1978). Location: The location off ooid formation is important. They must be kept in the same area throughout the formation, in order that their life cycle can be compl eted (Simone, 1981). Water Depth: Most ooids form in water less than 2m deep (Simone, 1981), but this may have more to do with wave agitation and tidal movements than water depth it self. Newell et al (1960). Surveyed sediment at various depths and calculated th e % fraction of ooids in the sediment. All the sediments that are near 100% ooid s are formed with 8m of the surface.

Minerals Geologists know about thousands of minerals locked in rocks, but when rocks are exposed at the surface and weather away, less than 10 minerals remain. They are the ingredients of sediment, which in turn becomes sedimentary rock. When the mo untains crumble to the sea, all of their rocks, whether igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic, break down. Physical or mechanical weathering reduces the rocks to

small particles. These break down further by chemical weathering in water and ox ygen. A very small number of minerals can resist indefinitely: Zircon is one and native gold is another. Quartz resists for a very long time, which is why sand, being nearly pure quartz, is so persistent, but given enough time even quartz d issolves into silicic acid, H4SiO4. But most of the silicate minerals produce solid residues after chemical weatheri ng. Silicate residues are what make up the minerals of the Earth's land surface. The olivine, pyroxenes and amphiboles of igneous or metamorphic rocks react with water and leave behind rusty iron hydroxides. These are an important ingredient in soils but uncommon as solid minerals. They also add brown and red colors to sedimentary rocks. Feldspar, the most common silicate mineral group and the main home of aluminum i n minerals, reacts with water too. Water pulls out silicon and other major catio ns (positive ions) except for aluminum. The feldspar minerals thus turn into hyd rated aluminosilicates that is, clays. Amazing Clays Clay minerals are not much to look at, but life on Earth depends on them. At the microscopic level, clays are tiny flakes, like mica but infinitely smaller. At the molecular level, clay is a sandwich made of sheets of silica (SiO4) tetrahed ra and sheets of magnesium or aluminum hydroxide (Mg (OH) 2 and Al (OH) 3). Some clays are a proper three-layer sandwich, a Mg/Al layer between two silica layer s, while others are open-face sandwiches of two layers. What makes clays so valuable for life is that with their tiny particle size and open-faced construction, they have very large surface areas and can readily acce pt many substitute cations for their Si, Al and Mg atoms. Oxygen and hydrogen ar e available in abundance. From the viewpoint of microbes, clay minerals are like machine shops full of tools and power hookups. Indeed, even the building blocks of life amino acids and other organic molecules are enlivened by the energetic, catalytic environment of clays. The Makings of Clastic Rocks But back to sediments. With quartz and clay, the overwhelming majority of surfac e minerals, we have the ingredients of mud. Mud is what geologists call a sedime nt that is a mixture of particle sizes ranging from sand (visible) to clay (invi sible), and the world's rivers steadily deliver mud to the sea and to large lake s and inland basins. That is where the clastic sedimentary rocks are born, sands tone and mudstone and shale in all their variety. The Chemical Precipitates When the mountains were crumbling, much of their mineral content dissolved. This material reenters the rock cycle in other ways than clay, precipitating out of solution to form other surface minerals. Calcium is an important cation in igneous rock minerals, but it plays little par t in the clay cycle. Instead calcium remains in water, where it affiliates with carbonate ion (CO3). When it becomes concentrated enough in seawater, calcium ca rbonate comes out of solution as calcite. Living organisms can extract it to bui ld their calcite shells, which also become sediment. Where sulfur is abundant, calcium combines with it as the mineral gypsum. In oth er settings, sulfur captures dissolved iron and precipitates as pyrite. There is also sodium left over from the breakdown of the silicate minerals. That lingers in the sea until circumstances dry up the brine to a high concentration , when sodium joins chloride to yield solid salt, or halite. And what of the dis solved silicic acid? That precipitates underground, from deeply buried fluids, a s the silica mineral chalcedony. Thus every part of the mountains finds a new pl ace in the Earth. Minerals, Gemstones & Mineral Resources What Is a Mineral? A mineral is any substance with all of four specific qualities. Minerals Are Natural: Substances that form without any human help. Minerals Are Solid: Substances that don'tndroop or melt or evaporate. Minerals Are Inorganic: Substances that aren'tncarbon compounds like those found

in living things. Minerals Are Crystalline: Substances that have a distinct recipe and arrangement of atoms. Unnatural Minerals Until the 1990S, mineralogists could propose names for chemical compounds that f ormed during the breakdown of artificial substances, things found in places like industrial sludge pits and rusting cars (although iron rust is the same as the natural minerals hematite, magnetite and goethite). That loophole is now closed, but there are minerals on the books that aren'tntruly natural. Soft Minerals Traditionally, native mercury is considered a mineral, even though the metal is liquid at room temperature. At about 40 degrees below zero, mercury solidifies a nd forms crystals like other metals. So there are parts of Antarctica where merc ury is unimpeachably a mineral. For a less extreme example, consider the mineral ikaite, a hydrated calcium carb onate that forms only in cold water. It degrades into calcite and water above 8 degrees Celsius. It is significant in the polar regions, the ocean floor and oth er cold places, but you can'tnbring it into the lab except in a freezer. Ice is a mineral, even though it isn'tnlisted in the mineral field guide. But wh en ice collects in large enough bodies, it flows in its solid state, that's what glaciers are. And salt (halite) behaves similarly, rising underground in broad domes and sometimes spilling out in salt glaciers. Indeed, all minerals, and the rocks they are part of, slowly deform given enough heat and pressure. That's wh at makes plate tectonics possible. So in a sense, no mineral is really solid exc ept maybe diamond. Other minerals that aren'tnquite solid are instead flexible. The mica minerals a re the best-known example, but molybdenite is another. Its metallic flakes can b e crumpled like aluminum foil. And of course the asbestos mineral chrysotile is stringy enough to weave into cloth. Organic Minerals The rule that minerals must be inorganic may be the strictest one. The substance s that make up coal, for instance, are different kinds of hydrocarbon compounds derived from cell walls, wood, pollen and so on. These are called macerals inste ad of minerals (for more see Coal in a Nutshell). But if coal is squeezed hard e nough for long enough, the carbon sheds all its other elements and becomes graph ite. Even though it is of organic origin, graphite is a true mineral, carbon ato ms arranged in sheets. Diamond, similarly, is carbon atoms arranged in a rigid f ramework. After some 4 billion years of life on Earth, it's safe to say that all the world's diamonds and graphite are of organic origin even if they aren'tnstr ictly speaking organic. Amorphous Minerals A few things fall short in crystallinity, hard as we try. Many minerals form cry stals that are too small to see under the microscope. But even these can be show n to be crystalline at the nano-scale using the technique of X-ray powder diffra ction, though, because X-rays are a super-short-wave type of light that can imag e extremely small things. Having a crystal form means that the substance has a definite recipe, or chemica l formula. It might be as simple as halite's (NaCl) or complex like, say, epidot e (Ca2Al2 (Fe3 +, Al) (SiO4) (Si2O7) O (OH) ), but if you were shrunk to an atom 's size, you could tell what mineral you were seeing by its molecular makeup and arrangement. But a few substances fail the X-ray test. They are truly glasses or colloids, wi th a fully random structure at the atomic scale. They are amorphous, scientific Latin for formless. These get the honorary name mineraloid. Mineraloids are a small club: Strictly speaking it includes only opal and lechat elierite. Opal is a nearly random combination of silica (SiO2, the same as quart z) and water formed under near-surface conditions, while lechatelierite is a qua rtz glass formed by the shock of a meteorite impact or lightning striking the gr ound. Other substances considered mineraloids include the gemstones jet and amber, whi

ch are respectively high-quality fossils of coal and tree resin. Pearl goes here too, although I disagree because by that logic, seashells should be included. T he last mineraloid is rather like the rusty car I mentioned earlier: Limonite is a mixture of iron oxides that, while it may assume the shape of a proper iron-o xide mineral, has no structure or order whatever. Examine Mineral Steps to Mineral Identification: The first thing to do is to observe and test yo ur mineral. Use the largest piece you can find, and if you have several pieces, make sure sure that they are all the same mineral. Examine your mineral for all of the following properties, writing down the answers. After that you'llube read y to take your information to the right place. Step 1: Pick Your Mineral Step 2: Luster. Luster is the way a mineral reflects light and the first key ste p in mineral identification. Look for luster on a fresh surface. The three major types of luster are metallic, glassy (vitreous) and dull. A luster between meta llic and glassy is called adamantine, and a luster between glassy and dull is ca lled resinous or waxy. Step 3: Hardness. Use the 10 - point Mohs hardness scale. The important hardness es are between 2 and 7. For this you'lluneed your fingernail (hardness about 2), a coin (hardness 3), a knife or nail (hardness 5.5) and a few key minerals. Step 4: Color. Color is important in mineral identification, but it can be a com plicated subject. Experts use color all the time because they have learned the u sual colors and the usual exceptions for common minerals. If you'reua beginner, pay close attention to color but do not rely on it. First of all, be sure you ar en'tnlooking at a weathered or tarnished surface, and examine your specimen in g ood light. Color is a fairly reliable indicator in the opaque and metallic miner als for instance the blue of the opaque mineral lazurite or the brass-yellow of the metallic mineral pyrite. In the translucent or transparent minerals, color i s usually the result of a chemical impurity and should not be the only thing you use. For instance, pure quartz is clear or white, but quartz can have many othe r colors. Step 5: Other Mineral Properties. Taste is definitive for halite (rock salt), of course, but a few other evaporite minerals also have distinctive tastes. Just t ouch your tongue to a fresh face of the mineral and be ready to spit after all i t's called taste, not flavor. Don'tnworry about taste if you don'tnlive in an ar ea with these minerals. Fizz means the effervescent reaction of certain carbonat e minerals to the acid test. For this test, vinegar will do. Heft is how heavy a mineral feels in the hand, an informal sense of density. Most rocks are about t hree times as dense as water, that is, they have a specific gravity of about 3. Make note of a mineral that is noticeably light or heavy for its size. Step 6: Look It Up. Now you are ready for mineral identification. Once you have observed and noted these mineral properties, you can take your information to a book or to an online resource. Start with my table of the rock-forming minerals, because these are the most common and the ones you should learn first. Each min eral's name is linked to a good photograph and notes to help you confirm the ide ntification. If your mineral has metallic luster, go to my Minerals with Metalli c Luster gallery to see the most likely minerals in this group. If your mineral is not one of these, try the sources in the Mineral Identification Guides catego ry. Minerals to Gemstones Mineral Gemstone Albite Moonstone Olivine Chrysolite, Peridot Almandine Garnet Opal Opal Almandine-Pyrope Garnet Rhodolite Orthoclase Feldspar Moonstone

Amber Amber Plagioclase Feldspar Moonstone Andalusite Andalusite Pyrope Garnet Andradite Demantoid Garnet Quartz Amethyst, Ametrine, Cairngorm, Citrine, Morion Apatite Apatite Rhodochrosite Rhodochrosite Benitoite Benitoite Scapolite Scapolite Beryl Aquamarine, Beryl, Emerald, Goshenite, Heliodore, Morganite Sinhalite Sinhalite Brazilianite Brazilianite Sodalite Sodalite Chalcedony Agate, Aventurine, Bloodstone, Carnelian, Chrysoprase, Heliotrop e, Jasper, Onyx, Sard Spessartine Mandarin Garnet Chrysoberyl Alexandrite, Chrysoberyl Sphene Titanite Cordierite Cordierite, Dichroite, Iolite Spinel Pleonast, Rubicelle Corundum Ruby, Sapphire Spodumene Hiddenite, Kunzite Diamond Diamond Sugilite Sugilite Diopside Chrome Diopside, Violan Taaffeite Taaffeite Grossularite Hessonite, Tsavorite Garnet Topaz Topaz Jadeite Jade Tourmaline Achroite, Dravite, Indigolite/Indicolite, Rubellite, Schorl, Ver delite Lazurite Lapis Lazuli Turquoise Turquoise Malachite Malachite Uvarovite Garnet, Uvarovite Microcline Feldspar Amazonite, Moonstone Zircon Zircon Nephrite Jade Zoisite Tanzanite Oligoclase Feldspar Sunstone

Metamorphism The Four Agents of Regional Metamorphism Heat and pressure usually work together, because both rise as you go deeper in t he Earth. The clay minerals of sedimentary rocks, in particular, respond to high temperatures and pressures. Clays are surface minerals, which form as feldspar and mica break down in the conditions at the Earth's surface. With heat and pressure they slowly return to mica and feldspar. Thus the sedimen tary rock shale metamorphoses first into slate, then into phyllite, then schist. The mineral quartz does not change under high temperature and pressure, althoug h it becomes more strongly cemented as the sedimentary rock sandstone turns to q uartzite. Intermediate rocks that mix sand and clay. Mudstones. Metamorphose int o gneiss. The sedimentary rock limestone recrystallizes and becomes marble. Fluids are the most important agent of metamorphism. Every rock contains some wa ter, but sedimentary rocks hold the most. First there is the water that was trap

ped in the sediment as it became rock. Second is the water that is liberated by clay minerals as they change back to feldspar and mica. This water can become so charged with dissolved materials that the resulting fluid is no less than a liq uid mineral. It may be acidic or alkaline, full of silica (forming chalcedony) o r full of sulfides or carbonates or metals, in endless variety. Fluids tend to w ander away from their birthplaces, interacting with rocks elsewhere. That proces s, the interaction of rock with chemically active fluids, is called metasomatism . Strain refers to any change in the shape of rocks due to the force of stress. As fluids form and move in buried rocks, new minerals grow with their grains orien ted according to the direction of pressure. Where the strain makes the rock stre tch (shear strain), these minerals form layers. In most metamorphic rocks the la yers are made of mica. The presence of mineral layers is called foliation and is important to observe when identifying a metamorphic rock. As strain increases, the foliation becomes more intense, and the mineral sort themselves into thicker layers. That's what gives schist and gneiss their foliation. Metamorphism can be so intense, with all four factors acting at their extreme ra nge, that the foliation can be warped and stirred like taffy, and the result is called migmatite. With further metamorphism, rocks can be turned into something hard to tell from plutonic granites. These kinds of rocks give joy to experts be cause of what they say about deep-seated conditions during things like plate col lisions. The rest of us can only admire the laboratory skills needed to make sen se of such rocks. What I'veIdescribed is how regional metamorphism affects sedimentary rocks. Igne ous rocks give rise to a different set of minerals and metamorphic rock types; t hese include serpentinite, blueschist, greenschist and other rarer species such as eclogite. If you'reua mineral collector it's worth your while to learn about these, but they aren'tnfound in most parts of the world. Contact or Local Metamorphism A lesser type of metamorphism, important in specific localities, is contact meta morphism. This usually occurs near igneous intrusions, where hot magma forces it self into sedimentary strata. The rocks next to the lava invasion are baked into hornfels, another subject for specialists. Lava can rip chunks of country rock off the channel wall and turn them into exotic minerals, too. Underground coal fires can also cause mild contact metamorphism of the same degr ee as occurs when baking bricks. Identification of Metamorphic Rocks Foliation e foliated foliated Grain Size fine fine soft soft Hardness dark dark Usual Color Other Rock Typ Phyllite

tink when struck Slate shiny; crinkly foliation

foliated coarse n has large crystals foliated coarse foliated coarse foliated nonfoliated nite nonfoliated ar intrusions nonfoliated Eclogite nonfoliated Marble

hard mixed dark and light wrinkled foliation; ofte Schist hard mixed banded Gneiss hard mixed distorted melted layers Migmatite dark mostly hornblende Amphibolite

coarse hard fine soft

greenish

shiny, mottled surface Serpenti dull and opaque colors, found ne dense; garnet and pyroxene

fine or coarse hard dark Hornfels coarse hard red and green coarse soft light

calcite or dolomite by the test

nonfoliated coarse hard light quartz (no fizzing with acid) Quartzit e Metamorphic rocks are the third great class of rocks. These are what happens whe n sedimentary and igneous rocks become changed, or metamorphosed, by conditions underground. The four main agents that metamorphose rocks are heat, pressure, fl uids and strain. These agents can act and interact in an infinite variety of way s. As a result, most of the thousands of rare minerals known to science occur in metamorphic ( shape-changed ) rocks. Metamorphism acts at two scales, the regiona l scale and the local scale.

Identification of Igneous Rocks Grain Size Usual Color Other Composition Rock Type fine dark glassy appearance lava glass Obsidian fine light many small bubbles lava froth from sticky lava Pumice fine dark many large bubbles lava froth from fluid lava Scoria fine or mixed light contains quartz high-silica lava Felsite fine or mixed medium between felsite and basalt medium-silica lava Andesite fine or mixed dark has no quartz low-silica lava Basalt mixed any color large grains in fine-grained matrix large grains of feldspar, quartz, pyroxene or olivine Porphyry coarse light wide range of color and grain size feldspar and quartz with minor mica, amp hibole or pyroxene Granite coarse light like granite but without quartz feldspar with minor mica, amphibole or pyroxene Syenite coarse medium to dark little or no quartz low-calcium plagioclase and dark minerals Diorite coarse medium to dark no quartz; may have olivine high-calcium plagioclase and dark minerals Gabbro coarse dark dense; always has olivine olivine with amphibole and/or pyroxene Peridotite coarse dark dense mostly pyroxene with olivine and amphibole Pyroxenite coarse green dense at least 90% olivine Dunite very coarse any color usually in small intrusive bodies typically granitic Pegmatite Chemical Sedimentary Rocks These same ancient shallow seas sometimes allowed large areas to become isolated and begin drying up. In that setting, as the seawater grows more concentrated, minerals begin to come out of solution (precipitate), starting with calcite, the n gypsum, then halite. The resulting rocks are certain limestones or dolomites,

gypsum rock, and rock salt respectively. These rocks, called the evaporite seque nce, are also part of the sedimentary clan. In some cases chert can also form by precipitation. This usually happens below the sediment surface, where different fluids can circulate and interact chemically. Diagenesis: Underground Changes All kinds of sedimentary rocks are subject to further changes during their stay underground. Fluids may penetrate them and change their chemistry; low temperatu res and moderate pressures may change some of the minerals into other minerals. These processes, which are gentle and do not deform the rocks, are called diagen esis as opposed to metamorphosis (although there is no well-defined boundary bet ween the two). The most important types of diagenesis involve the formation of dolomite mineral ization in limestones, the formation of petroleum and of higher grades of coal a nd the formation of many types of ore bodies. The industrially important zeolite minerals also form by diagenetic processes. Sedimentary Rocks Are Stories The beauty of sedimentary rocks is that their strata are full of clues to what t he past world was like. Those clues might be fossils, marks left by water curren ts, mudcracks or more subtle features seen under the microscope or in the lab. From these clues we know that most sedimentary rocks are of marine origin, usual ly forming in shallow seas. But some sedimentary rocks formed on land: Clastic r ocks made on the bottoms of large freshwater lakes or as accumulations of desert sand, organic rocks in peat bogs or lake beds, and evaporites in playas. These are called continental or terrigenous (land-formed) sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are rich in geologic history of a special kind. While igneous and metamorphic rocks also have stories, they involve the deep Earth and require intensive work to decipher. But in sedimentary rocks you can recognize, in very direct ways, what the world was like in the geologic past.

Gemstones to Minerals Gemstone Mineral Achroite Tourmaline Kunzite Spodumene Agate Chalcedony Lapis Lazuli Lazurite Alexandrite Chrysoberyl Malachite Malachite Amazonite Microcline Feldspar Mandarin Garnet Spessartine Amber Amber Moonstone Orthoclase, Plagioclase, Albite, Microcline Feldspars Amethyst Quartz Morganite Beryl Ametrine Quartz Morion Quartz Andalusite Andalusite Onyx Chalcedony Apatite Apatite Opal Opal Aquamarine Beryl Peridot Olivine Aventurine Chalcedony Pleonast Spinel Benitoite Benitoite

Quartz Quartz Beryl Beryl Rhodochrosite Rhodochrosite Bloodstone Chalcedony Rhodolite Almandine-Pyrope Garnet Brazilianite Brazilianite Rubellite Tourmaline Cairngorm Quartz Rubicelle Spinel Carnelian Chalcedony Ruby Corundum Chrome Diopside Diopside Sapphire Corundum Chrysoberyl Chrysoberyl Sard Chalcedony Chrysolite Olivine Scapolite Scapolite Chrysoprase Chalcedony Schorl Tourmaline Citrine Quartz Sinhalite Sinhalite Cordierite Cordierite Sodalite Sodalite Demantoid Garnet Andradite Spinel Spinel Diamond Diamond Sugilite Sugilite Dichroite Cordierite Sunstone Oligoclase Feldspar Dravite Tourmaline Taaffeite Taaffeite Emerald Beryl Tanzanite Zoisite Garnet Pyrope, Almandine, Andradite, Spessartine, Grossularite, Uvarovite Titanite Sphene Goshenite Beryl Topaz Topaz Heliodore Beryl Tourmaline Tourmaline Heliotrope Chalcedony Tsavorite Garnet Grossularite Hessonite Grossularite Turquoise Turquoise Hiddenite Spodumene Uvarovite Uvarovite Indigolite/Indicolite Tourmaline Verdelite Tourmaline Iolite Cordierite Violan Diopside Jade Nephrite or Jadeite Zircon Zircon Jasper Chalcedony

Gemstones and Precious Stones Gemstones are the sexy minerals. If minerals are like different sorts of people, gemstones are the supermodels. If mineralogists are like zookeepers, who collec t and classify all the different animals, gemologists are like butchers, who foc us on the edible ones. Where the mineralogist asks What variety of cow is this? th e gemologist asks Where's the beef? Gemstone Fanciers versus Mineral Collectors Just as beeves and cows are different names for the same thing, many gemstones h ave names that differ from their proper mineral names. Olivine is an important r ock-forming mineral, for example, but as a gemstone it's called peridot. To keep the two sets of names straight, use the Gemstones to Minerals tables. There are two ways of appreciating the mineral kingdom. The collector of minerals loves their natural crystal form, chemical variety, fl uorescence, rarity the personality of minerals in themselves. If you'reua minera l-collecting kind of person, you might find a place like Emeralds appealing, whi ch sells only uncut emerald crystals. The fancier of gemstones is in love with what makes minerals sexy: Their purity, color, size, optical effects and value in a word, their beauty. The rest of thi s article is for fanciers. Of course these categories overlap. That's why I have a big Gemstones category t hat gives you a peek over the fence from the mineral collector's side. Digging Gemstones I suppose there could be a third reaction to browsing all these jewels Where can I dig up my own? There are gemstone mines all over the place. One place they'reyc oncentrated in is the Franklin district of North Carolina. One of Carly Wickell' s favorites is the Sheffield Ruby Mine. But most mines are generally enriched th e old-fashioned term is salted with extra stones. If you don'tnmind that, or if you'reutaking children with you, then these places are fine. To do better, join the rockhounds near you and follow them around: The ultimate gemstone fanatic dreams of opening a mine. People have found valuab le things in their own yards, after all. You might not have to move to Franklin. For a real-life example, read about Scott Klein's fresnoite mine deep in the Ca lifornia Coast Range. Mineralogy There are three main minerals that form carbonates: Calcite (CaCO3), which comes in high magnesium and low magnesium forms. Aragonite (CaCO3), which has a different structure to calcite. Dolomite (CaMg (CO3) 2), a magnesium rich carbonate produced by diagenesis. Only low magnesium calcite is stable at surface pressure and temperatures. It is therefore the most common mineral in ancient carbonates. However, most modern c arbonates are composed of aragonite as this is the mineral that most biological organisms create to make their shells or skeletons. Examples of organisms that p roduce aragonite shells are bivalves (sea shells), gastropods (snails) and Halim eda (a green algae). Organisms that produce a calcite shell include brachipods ( a rare type of sea shell) and ostrocods (a small crustacean). Components Carbonates can be made of several components. These are: Bioclasts: Bioclasts are fragments of dead sea creatures. These include shells a nd corals. The creatures precipitate the carbonate in order to produce some kind of structure. Ooids: Ooids are rounded grains formed by precipitation of calcite around a nucl eus to produce concentric circles (Figure 3). They form in warm, shallow waters, with a strong tidal currents. Wave action may also contribute to their near-sph erical shape. Peloids: Peloids are sand sized grains (100 ? 150 micrometers) of micro-crystall ine carbonate. They are generally rounded or sub-rounded. They originate from fe cal pellets, algae and mud clasts. They are sometimes found clumped together, in a formation known as a grapestone. Intraclasts: Intraclasts are clast of other limestone that appear in younger lim estones. They can be quite difficult to distinguish at times, as they may be mad

e of a similar rock as that which encases it. For example, hardgrounds can from when sea water flows through carbonate sediment, lithifying it rapidly. Subseque ntly, the hardground may be broken up and incorporated into the surrounding sedi ment. Micrite: Micrite is microcystalline carbonate mud, with grains less than 4 micro meters. Sparite: Sparite is coarser than micrite, with a grain size of more than 4 micro meters and is crystalline. Both micrite and sparite form the matrix or cement in carbonate rocks.

The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds Introduction Birds are phylogenetically considered to be members of the theropod dinosaurs; t heir closest non-avian relatives are the dromaeosaurid theropods. The first know n fossil bird is Archaeopteryx, from the late Jurassic of Bavaria, Germany, whic h is represented by seven skeletons and a feather. There is no fossil evidence f rom before this time that has been proven to be of avian origin. The fossil reco rd of modern birds began in the early Tertiary (Padian et al. 1998). There are a lot of anatomical terms used to describe the evolution of birds, the refore diagrams showing the skeletons of a theropod dinosaur, Archaeopteryx and a modern bird are shown in figure one, in order to define most of the terms used . The Thecodont Hypothesis The thecodont hypothesis for the origin of birds is characterised by being a def ault option. This is because it is not due to positive correlation of characters and taxa but due to the negative association with other taxa. It was originally thought that theropods shared more features with birds than any other group. Ho wever, at the time there was no evidence for clavicles in theropods, which are t he equivalent of the furcula or wishbone in birds. It was thought that clavicles could not have been lost and then re-evolved into furcula and so a more ancient ancestor for birds was sought for: The candidate suggested was the thecodonts from which all other archosaurs are t hought to have evolved. A problem is that the archosaurs are a wastebasket group c ontaining all archosaurian reptiles that do not fit into dinosaurs, crocodiles o r pterosaurs. Hence, they have no diagnostic characters of their own and are not a good phylogenetic group. This makes it difficult to compare them with other tax onomic groups (Padian et al. 1998). The thecodont hypothesis for the origin of birds is characterised by being a def ault option. This is because it is not due to positive correlation of characters and taxa but due to the negative association with other taxa. It was originally thought that theropods shared more features with birds than any other group. Ho wever, at the time there was no evidence for clavicles in theropods, which are t he equivalent of the furcula or wishbone in birds. It was thought that clavicles could not have been lost and then re-evolved into furcula and so a more ancient ancestor for birds was sought for. The candidate suggested was the thecodonts f rom which all other archosaurs are thought to have evolved. A problem is that th e archosaurs are a wastebasket group containing all archosaurian reptiles that do not fit into dinosaurs, crocodiles or pterosaurs. Hence, they have no diagnostic characters of their own and are not a good phylogenetic group. This makes it diff icult to compare them with other taxonomic groups (Padian et al. 1998). The Crocodylomorph Hypothesis Crocodylomorphs include crocodiles and some Triassic-Jurassic forms that are clo sely related but not true crocodiles. This hypothesis has fewer problems than th e thecodont hypothesis, as crocodiles are a monophyletic group, which can be com pared to other taxa. The synapomorphies of birds and crocodiles have been tested , but it has been found that most are general to the archosaurs. Even if these a

re accepted, there are only 15 ? 20 synapomorphies compared to over 70 with the theropods (Padian et al. 1998). The Theropod Hypothesis Cladistic analysis supports this hypothesis and shows that the most closely rela ted group (sister group) of theropods to the birds includes the dromaesaurids su ch as Deinonychus. There are numerous synapomorphies of the skeleton and skull t hat link birds and theropods. There have been found a series of skeletal changes in theropods that are considered to be avian. For example, basal theropod dinos aurs have lightly built bones and a foot reduced to three main toes, with the fi rst held off the ground and the fifth lost. Moving through the theropod sequence towards birds, there is a reduction and loss of manual digits four and five, in creasing lightness of the skeleton, and a reduction in the number, and partial i nterlocking, of the tail vertebrae. In coelurosaurs, which include birds, dromae osaurids and other groups, the arms become longer and the first toe begins to ro tate backwards behind the metatarsals. Fused clavicles (furcula) are apparently basal to Tetanurae (carnosaurs and coelurosaurs) and sternal plates are known in a variety of tetanurans. In the pelvis, the pubis and ischium begin to show a g reater disparity in length. Finally, in the dromaeosaurids and Archaeopteryx, th e pubis begins to point backwards instead of forwards, the anterior projection o n the foot of the pubis is lost, the tail becomes even shorter and the hyperflex ing wrist joint is present, which allows the action that is crucial to the fligh t stroke in birds. These features were passed to birds from their dinosaurian an cestors and not specifically evolved for an avian lifestyle (Padian et al. 1998) . The Evolution of Feathers The first known feathers are from a small coelurosaurian dinosaur called Sinosau ropteryx, which has a row of small fringed structures along its vertebral column . Therefore, feathers are not a synapomorphy of birds, they are shared by a broa der group within the theropod dinosaurs. This shows that feathers did not evolve specifically for flight (Padian et al. 1998). Hypotheses for the original function of feathers include insulation, display and camouflage. These are hypotheses are difficult to test, and it seems likely tha t feathers were used for several different purposes as they are now (Padian et a l. 1998). The Cursorial Theory The cursorial theory is based on the evidence that Archaeopteryx was a strong, a gile, biped, and from evidence that birds evolved from small, active, running pr edators. It has been suggested that feathers were used as nets to capture insect s, but it has been shown that this action would cause the proto-bird to lose its balance by throwing off its angular momentum. As an alternative, it was suggest ed that insects were caught using the teeth with the arms held out laterally. An increased airfoil surface would increase lift and stability. This suggests that flight could have begun by running, leaping and sustaining short, leg-powered g lides after prey or away from predators (Padian et al. 1998). Criticisms of this include the problems of drag and needing to work against grav ity. It is biomechanically easier to evolve flight from gliding than from the gr ound, although this does not indicate that it evolved this way. The other proble m is the ground speed that would be required to reach a typical flight speed of 6 ? 7 mS ? 1. Modern lizards have been reported to reach theses speeds, but it i s not known whether proto-birds could reach such speeds. There has been some dou bt as to whether selection could improve both the forelimb and hindlimb at the s ame. However, decoupling of the fore-and hindlimbs was achieved in the coelurosa urs and the tail and hindlimb were progressively decoupled in the earliest birds (Padian et al. 1998). Any model also needs to account for the evolution of the flight stroke. It has b een shown that the immediate sister groups of birds, Deinonychus and the other d romaeosaurs, already had the sideways-flexing wrist joint that in birds is essen tial to the production of thrust. In dinosaurs, this feature was used as a preyseizing stroke (Padian et al. 1998). It would have only taken a slight adjustment of the angle of attack of this pred

atory stroke to create a suitable vortex wake. By running, leaping and a few suc h strokes, extension of the time in the air, and eventually flight from the grou nd up could have evolved. This idea requires no features not already known from fossils. It has been suggested that advantage may have been taken of any ridge o r incline and so the model does have an element of the arboreal theory (Padian e t al. 1998). Overall, the evidence seems to point to a modified version of the cursorial theo ry of bird. Running leaps were aided by wings outstretched for balance, the wing s were expanded at the distal ends for increased stability. The leaps were gradu ally extended by short flapping motions that elaborated the down and forward mot ion already present in the sister groups of the first birds. Running and leaping may have been enhanced by ridge-gliding or jumping from small heights (Padian et al. 1998). The Arboreal Theory The arboreal theory is more intuitive in that flight evolving from an arboreal g liding stage would seem to be relatively easy. However, this theory has little s upport from comparative biology as it requires the ability to climb trees and to glide. Neither capacity seems to be present in Archaeopteryx or in theropod din osaurs. Archaeopteryx has none of the features of typical vertebrate gliders, nor is it aerodynamically designed to fly. It has been argued that the lateral grooves and curvature of the claws are an arboreal specialisation, but these have also been compared to those of ground-dwelling birds. The evidence for an arboreal lifest yle overall is weak. It should also be considered that large theropods such as A llosaurus and Tyrannosaurus have curved claws with deep lateral grooves, and the y were obviously not arboreal. Also, palaeobotanical evidence shows an absence o f large trees anywhere near the Solnhofen lagoons in which Archaeopteryx is pres erved (Padian et al. 1998). Flight Capabilities of Archaeopteryx The general consensus is that Archaeopteryx was a weak flier. This is supported by two arguments. The first is that Archaeopteryx lacks evidence of a supracorac oideus system, which in birds is the tendon that powers the upstroke. Experiment s have shown that pigeons with a severed supracoracoideus tendon can not take-of f from ground level, can not maintain level flight and can not land safely. Howe ver, it is questionable whether Archaeopteryx can be compared with modern birds in this way (Padian et al. 1998). The second argument is that the feathers of Archaeopteryx are asymmetrical, whic h suggests that it was capable of some flight. However, data shows that the asym metry is less than that of modern fliers and gliders and this argument is only v alid if it is assumed that fossil animals must look exactly like modern ones whe n performing the same function (Padian et al. 1998). Generally it is thought that Archaeopteryx could glide as well as most modern bi rds and fly by flapping to some extent. The evidence for this is: its wing planform and size are like those of some modern weakly flying birds the flight feathers are well-developed the sternum was a strong site of origin for flight muscles its aerodynamic planform is unlike that of birds that only glide (Padian et al. 1998). Flight Improvements After Archaeopteryx Phylogenetic analysis has shown that many of the characteristics associated with the origin of flight were already present in non-avian theropod dinosaurs befor e birds evolved. Feathers evolved in non-avian coelurosaurs whose forelimbs were too short to bear functional wings. Archaeopteryx had a forelimb longer than th e hindlimb, and flight feathers on the wings and long tail feathers. It is thoug ht to have had a fully evolved flight stroke capable of generating thrust as wel l as lift. The presence of an alula in the early Cretaceous Eoalulavis shows tha t the wing mechanism that allowed flying at lower speeds and to manoeuvre like l iving birds evolved early in bird history. Iberomesornis, of the early Cretaceou s, has features diagnostic of a perching ability (Padian et al. 1998). What kinds of isolation can lead to the formation of a new species?

Introduction According to the biological species concept, populations are different species i f gene flow between them is prevented by biological differences, known as reprod uctive barriers. If populations exchange genes they are conspecific, i.e.. Belon g to the species, even if they differ greatly in morphology. If they are reprodu ctively isolated, they are different species even if they are indistinguishable phenotypically. Therefore speciation arises from the evolution of biological bar riers to gene flow (Futuyma, 1998). The factors leading to reproductive isolation can be divided into two categories ; prezygotic factors, which operate before fertilisation can occur; and postzygo tic factors, which operate after fertilisation leading to partial or complete fa ilure of crosses between the two forms. These are summarised below: Prezygotic factors Geographical isolation: Forms are separated by land or water barriers that they are unable to cross. Ecological isolation: The forms fail to meet because they live in different plac es within the same geographic region. Temporal isolation: The forms are active at different seasons or times of day. Behavioural isolation: The forms meet, but do not mate. Mechanical isolation: Copulation occurs, but no transfer of male gametes takes p lace. Gametic incompatibility: Gamete transfer occurs, but egg is not fertilised. Postzygotic factors Zygote dies: Zygotic mortality soon after fertilisation. F1 hybrids (first generation) have reduced viability (hybrid inviability). F1 hybrids viable but have reduced fertility (hybrid sterility) Hybrid breakdown: Reduced viability or fertility in F2 (second generation) or ba ckcross (F1 crossed with parents) generations. Prezygotic Barriers: One or more of these may be operating within a given popula tion at any time. The evolutionary functions of these mechanisms are the same, t o limit or prevent gene flow between species. They may occur only partially; for example, behavioural isolation can be complete or females may only show a sligh t preference for males of their own species (Dobzhansky et al. 1977).

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