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Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles: A kinematic analysis

S Hillmansen and C Roberts Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 2007 221: 135 DOI: 10.1243/09544097JRRT99 The online version of this article can be found at: http://pif.sagepub.com/content/221/1/135

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Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles: a kinematic analysis

S Hillmansen and C Roberts Department of Electronic, Electrical, and Computing Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK The manuscript was received on 21 July 2006 and was accepted after revision for publication on 28 November 2006. DOI: 10.1243/09544097JRRT99

Abstract: Concerns over future energy security, energy costs, and competitiveness with other modes have prompted the railway industry to search for cost-effective energy efcient traction solutions which will ensure continuing business feasibility. For non-electried routes, where the business case for electrication is unfavourable, traction is usually provided by diesel fuel combustion. Hybridization offers the potential to achieve a step change in energy efciency. This article presents an analysis of the potential benets of hybridization for rail vehicles. The performance requirements of the energy storage device in a hybrid rail vehicle which is storage device dominant are derived. A rail vehicle simulator has been developed in order to compute the drive train duty cycle in typical high-speed and commuter passenger services. The outputs from the simulator have been inputted into a series hybrid model, which has been optimized to preserve the state of charge of the energy storage device over a single typical rail journey. The analysis suggests the energy savings of up to 28 per cent for high-speed intercity vehicles and 35 per cent for commuter vehicles are achievable with practical system components. A sensitivity analysis exploring the effect of the inherent efciency of the regenerative braking capability and the energy storage device revealed that primary energy savings are only realized with in/out storage efciencies of greater than 40 per cent. Keywords: rail vehicle, hybrid propulsion, energy storage device

INTRODUCTION

Rail offers arguably the most efcient form of landbased transport. This is in part due to the lowrolling resistance afforded by the stiff contact between the wheel and rail which has a low hysteresis, and partly due to the aerodynamic advantages associated with the train convoy formation where trailing vehicles occupy the slipstream of the preceding vehicle [1]. Comparison with other modes is complex due to the different nature of the services that are offered, but recently an attempt to rank vehicles by transportation mode has been completed [2]. The installed power was divided by the maximum

Corresponding

author: Department of Electronic, Electrical, and

Computing Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK. email: s.hillmansen@bham.ac.uk

operating velocity and by the vehicle mass to derive parameter, which is representative of the specic resistance to motion. This parameter was computed for a number of vehicles and plotted against speed. This data conrmed the common perception that rail transport was fundamentally more energy efcient than other modes. Notwithstanding the inherent mechanical advantage of rail transport, there are also operational issues which must be accounted for when normalizing the use of energy by passenger kilometres or freight tonne kilometres. Moreover, rapid technological advances in other modes have reduced the efciency advantage that rail transport has been enjoying [3]. Also, due to the lengthy technological renewal period that the railway operates within, the import and adoption of advanced technologies often lags the automotive sector which is able to bring new technologies to the market, and achieve deep market penetration in a relatively short period of time.
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Rail services can be broadly split into freight, commuter, and high-speed intercity. These are provided by a variety of railway vehicles. Electried routes primary energy is dependent on the generation mix used by the local electricity suppliers, and therefore electried rail can offer improvements in gaseous CO2 emissions if the generation mix becomes increasingly decarbonized. On routes where electrication is not present, or not deemed cost effective, then diesel-powered traction is usually used. It is these routes where hybridization of the propulsion system could offer signicant energy savings. Hybridization of power trains is relatively advanced in the automotive sector with commercially available hybrid vehicles, which at the time of writing are being produced by Honda, Ford, and Toyota [4]. The worldwide rail market is several orders of magnitude smaller than that of the automotive sector and historically rail has often imported technology from other sectors, e.g. marine diesel engines, to avoid high-development costs. There are notable exceptions, including the Japanese Railway Company JR East who have implemented the rst hybrid diesel multiple unit which is about to enter revenue service [5]. Rail is potentially well suited to hybridization of its propulsion system. The vehicles used in rail applications are highly utilized and have a well-dened duty cycle which is a function of the timetable. Optimization of the system can capitalize on the highly restrictive service pattern which xes the required duty cycle of the vehicle. Plug-in recharging and system conguration can be scheduled for when a vehicle is out of service and in a depot. A number of authors have recently considered the use of alternative power in rail and similar large applications [510]. These articles allude to the potential savings that are possible with hybrid propulsion. Interestingly, the developments in which solid oxide fuel cells have been used to provide a constant mean power for the duty cycle in a battery dominated system may in fact represent an optimal solution for many rail applications [11]. Many of the difculties associated with the application of this technology to private road transport, for example, long stabling periods and variable duty cycles, are relatively straightforward to overcome in the rail environment. The analysis presented herewith uses typical passenger high-speed and commuter routes and vehicles and computes the journey energy consumption for a range of component efciency ratings. CO2 emissions are closely coupled to the energy consumption, but reductions in other gaseous emissions such as HC, CO, and NOx could be signicant due to the reduction in engine transients that would be achieved with a hybrid system. Freight haulage has been omitted from the current analysis because it
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has a relatively at load curve in long-distance operation. However, there could be considerable savings in energy made by optimizing the operations in lightly loaded situations or in freight loading terminals. An analysis of this complexity would require detailed understanding of the daily requirements of a freight vehicle. Of note, hybrid shunt locomotives have been developed in North America and have demonstrated clear energy savings in comparison with traditional diesel technology [12]. This is impart due to the intermittent duty cycle in which full power is required in short bursts followed by long-periods of idling. This is a duty cycle that is well suited to hybridization.

DUTY-CYCLE SIMULATION

The key inputs to the current analysis include the kinematic vehicle model and route description. The output of the duty-cycle analysis is the mechanical power that is delivered at the wheels to achieve the desired vehicle service. This mechanical power is then analysed using a hybrid vehicle model in which propulsion energy is derived from a generating set operating at a xed output to provide the mean power, and an energy storage device. The storage device is used to track the varying part of the duty cycle, as well as providing a receptacle for the captured braking energy. The energy savings of such a conguration come from the benets of operating the prime mover at its most optimum efciency, coupled with the immediate savings associated with capturing and redeploying braking energy. Additionally, the size of the generating set can signicantly be downsized in comparison to a non-hybrid prime mover.

2.1 Vehicle models The vehicle models used in the analysis have resistance characteristics based on the Davis equation [13, 14] and a traction curve with a friction limited region, which is dependent on the maximum creep force between the driving wheels and rail, and a region which is dependent on the performance of the traction motor. The characteristics assumed in the current analysis are illustrated in Fig. 1 for the high-speed and commuter vehicles with key parameters being provided in Table 1. These characteristics are representative of generic high-speed and commuter vehicles and are used here to simplify the analysis. For the purposes of modelling the braking performance, it was assumed that the braking was provided by the traction motors. Additional complexity could be introduced by optimizing the driving style
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Fig. 1 Traction and resistance characteristics for the high-speed vehicle and the commuter vehicle, with available acceleration indicated, derived from reference [14]. The maximum traction force is computed by assuming a co-efcient of friction of 0.3 of the driven wheels. The proportion of mass on the driven wheels for both vehicles is indicated in Table 1

to include coasting and blended braking, but has not been included in the current analysis.

rail vehicle is governed by the equation = x 1 ) NT B (x ) NB M g sin((x )) R (x )] [F (x M (1)

2.2

Route information

Route information was provided by Network Rail. On each route, a number of station stops were incorporated into the running diagram. A typical gradient prole was also incorporated into the route information. The route descriptions used are illustrated in Fig. 2. These routes were chosen to represent typical journeys, but a full analysis of the intended routes to be operated would be required to advance the concept design for the hybrid rail vehicle further.

is the vehicle acceleration, M the effective where x vehicle gross mass (to include the effect of the rotating ) the tractive force, B (x ) the braking components), F (x force, g the acceleration due to gravity, (x ) the slope, positive for a vehicle travelling uphill, NT and NB the driver inputs for traction and braking, respectively ) the resistance to motion (0 NT , NB 1), and R (x described by the Davis equation ) = Ax 2 + Bx +C R (x (2)

2.3

Kinematic simulation of the vehicle motion

The motion of the rail vehicle in the longitudinal direction is governed by: the traction power, the braking power, the resistance to motion, gradients, and rail curvature. In this simulation, the increased resistance that is experienced while a rail vehicle is cornering has been excluded from the analysis because it is only signicant on routes with many small radius curves. The simulation developed here has adopted a similar strategy to models previously described in the literatures [1518]. The motion of the
Table 1

where A, B , and C are vehicle specic coefcients which are obtained experimentally [14]. In general, the maximum available tractive force and braking force are dependent on the velocity, and the driver operates the vehicle within these constraints to achieve the required journey. In this simulation, the driver input was not modelled, instead the vehicle was operated at maximum permissible tractive forces and braking forces to complete the journey in the minimum time. Driving behaviour can have a signicant effect on the energy required to complete

Key parameters for high-speed and commuter vehicles

Effective mass (tonne) 416 142 Mass on driving axles (%) 34 25 Davis coefcients Power (MW) 2.64 1 A (kN/(m/s)2 ) 0.0078 0.0094 B (kN/(m/s)) 0.11 0.03 C (kN) 3.2 1.1

Vehicle High-speed Commuter

Seats 600 289

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Fig. 2

Route descriptions for high-speed and commuter vehicles, showing the vehicle acceleration due to the gradients, and the velocity operating envelope. Station stops occur when the velocity limit tends towards zero. Both journeys have three stops between the start and end station

a given journey and relates directly to journey time. This has not been simulated in the current analysis. As the route is described by discrete data, no analytical solutions exist to describe the motion of the vehicle under real route conditions. Therefore, the solution is obtained numerically. The solution algorithm used in the current analysis divides the track into uniform elements. In each element, the acceleration, velocity, and time are computed to satisfy the constraints. A forward projection computation is used to compute the acceleration, and a reverse projection is used to compute the deceleration under braking. Maximum tractive forces are limited at low speed and are simply described by an inverse law at higher speed in this analysis. (Conventional traction induction motors would exhibit limited toque and power at high speed due to machine slip.) This is expressed in the algorithm as: If P > Fmax x ) = Fmax F (x else P ) = F (x x end

which utilizes the current value of acceleration and the previous value of velocity [n] = x [n] x [n 1]2 + 2x x (4)

where x is the length of the track element (10 m in the current analysis), and n is the timestep indicator. A similar procedure is used for computing the braking curve, but importantly, the computation is reversed and a backwards projection procedure is used. The two projections are then superimposed and the lowest velocity in each element is recorded. This process is illustrated in Fig. 3(a). The total time is computed by integrating the incremental time calculated in each element t (x ) =
x 0

x (x ) x

(5)

Energy is computed by integrating the power demand E (x ) =

x 0

P (x )

t (x )

(6)

(3)

where P is the tractive power, and Fmax is the maximum tractive force limited by the driven wheel slip. The acceleration is computed using equation (1). The velocity is computed using a difference equation
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The algorithm was compared with an analytical solution obtained by computing the velocity for an accelerating mass, which is being propelled using a constant power. Under these boundary conditions, the numerical solution becomes increasingly inaccurate at low velocities, and therefore the solution was compared with the analytical case with an initial velocity of 1 m/s. The comparison is illustrated in Fig. 3(b) for the high-speed vehicle simulated
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Fig. 3

(a) Forward and backward velocity projections and (b) analytical solution comparison

with no resistive forces. The simulation results have a negligible error, which does not grow during the computation, thus indicating that the algorithm is stable. The inaccuracies at low velocities are minimal in realistic simulations since the maximum acceleration is friction limited. The high-speed and commuter journeys were simulated and the results are illustrated in Fig. 4. The key output from the simulation is the mechanical energy that is expended and absorbed at the wheelrail interface. This will be used as an input in the following propulsion system analysis.

BASE CASE DIESEL EFFICIENCY SIMULATIONS AND PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION ESTIMATES

In order to assess the benets of the hybrid simulation, it is necessary to perform a base case analysis of a conventional diesel engine for comparative purposes. Diesel engines have varying efciency and at any given engine speed can produce a wide range of

output torques, each with a unique system efciency. Typically, these data are expressed in the form of an efciency map which describes the efciency in all possible engine states. Data were extracted from an existing efciency map to produce a single dimension relationship between efciency and engine power demand [19]. This particular engine map is from a modern high speed 720 kW unit whose target application is in a hybrid 40 ton goods vehicle. This is illustrated in normalized form in Fig. 5(a) and the diesel engine operating efciency for the high-speed journey is illustrated in Fig. 5(b). Figure 5(b) illustrates one of the principal disadvantages of using a diesel engine for providing propulsion, which is the signicant time in which the engine is operating outside its optimum efciency. This base case assumes no onboard energy storage and the transient requirements are met by operating the diesel engine over a range of output powers. This contrasts with the hybrid case in which the diesel engine operates at a constant power output with high efciency. The function was used to postprocess the mechanical power requirements and to determine in the base case the quantity of

Fig. 4

High-speed and commuter journey simulation results. Dashed line velocity limit, solid line computed vehicle velocity

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Fig. 5
Table 2

(a) Normalized diesel efciency and (b) efciency operating point for the high-speed journey

Diesel base case fuel consumption (assuming 10 kWh(diesel) /l)

Diesel fuel consumption kWh(diesel) / (seat-km) 0.086 0.093

Vehicle High-speed Commuter

l/journey 919 46.7

l/km 5.14 2.68

l/(ton km) 0.0127 0.0176

diesel fuel used in each of the journeys. This is shown in Table 2 and is normalized against vehicle seating capacity and mass for comparative purposes. 4 SERIES HYBRIDIZATION MODELLING

The principal differences between the hybrid congured system and the existing propulsion systems are relatively minor, given that many rail vehicles currently use an electric transmission system. The addition of an energy storage device to the existing system is the major component which would need to be incorporated into the propulsion system. Considerable experience in electrical energy management for propulsion exists in the railway sector, for this reason it is likely that hybrid technologies will be adopted in a timely manner. The system was modelled by using a generic generator set to provide the mean power across the whole duty cycle. This technique has recently been adopted in a road vehicle simulation by Brett et al. [11]. It was assumed in the current analysis that the device was operating at a high efciency and could convert energy from the liquid fuel carrier to the electrical energy used by the hybrid system at an efciency rate of 0.35. This input variable could be higher depending on the nature of the generator set. Fuel cells for rail applications [6, 7] could feasibly operate at higher efciencies. The variable load would be provided by an energy storage device which would
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expend energy when the vehicle is accelerating, consume braking energy, and consume energy from the generating set when the vehicle demands a light load. The energy storage device was assumed to have an in/out efciency in the analysis. Real energy storage devices, for example, batteries, have complex efciency maps which depend on numerous variables including the state of charge, rate of discharge, age, and temperature. Optimizing specic energy storage devices has not been included within the scope of this article, but it is worthy of detailed consideration in future work. The proportion of the available braking energy to be recovered was also used as a variable. For each analysis, varying the size of the generating set in order to preserve the state of charge in the energy storage device at the end of the duty cycle was used to optimize the system. In Fig. 6, the power analysis is presented for both the high-speed cycle and the commuter cycle. The varying mechanical traction load is achieved by summing the output from the constant power provided by the generating set and the varying power output/input from the storage device. These simulations assume an efciency of the storage device cycle of 0.64 (equivalent to an input efciency of 0.8 and an output efciency of 0.8) and the regenerative braking captured of 0.5. The power requirements of the energy storage device are signicant and in practise would be realized by multiple energy storage devices which were distributed along the length of the train. For the commuter case, the mean power produced by the generating set is considerably lower than the peak required power. This would translate into an effective downsize of the power unit for these types of vehicles. The state of charge of the energy storage devices is illustrated in Fig. 7 for both cycles. Four regimes of storage device operation are evidenced in Fig. 7. First is discharging during periods of acceleration, second is charging/recharging during cruise periods (dependent on cruise speed), third is recharging during braking, and fourth is recharging at stations. As
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Fig. 6

Power analysis for both the high-speed cycle and the commuter cycle

Fig. 7

State of charge of the energy storage device

no storage device sizing has been completed in the current analysis, the initial state of charge for the storage device was chosen to be zero for convenience purposes.Varying the size of the generator set enabled the state of charge to be equal to zero at the end of the journey. A larger generating set than this optimum would result in a positive residual charge in the storage device at the end of the cycle, and vice versa. The potential savings that such an optimized system could achieve are explored in the subsequent section. 5 EFFICIENCY SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

The performance of the hybrid system under varying storage efciencies and regeneration capture has been assessed for both duty cycles. The results are shown in Fig. 8. This gure indicates the potential primary energy savings in comparison with the diesel base case. A performance of zero therefore would indicate equal performance, and positive value indicates an improving performance. The important features of the plots illustrated in Fig. 8 are twofold. First, it is possible to increase primary energy
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consumption in comparison with the base case if the storage device has a poor operating efciency. Second, that signicant savings are only made with high-efciency storage devices, these are only augmented by any captured energy from the braking cycle. In summary, the benets of the hybrid system fundamentally originate from the use of a generating set operating at a high efciency and the use of a storage device with a high efciency. Captured braking energy improves the energy consumption further. On the basis of the assumptions used in this analysis, a hybrid conguration could offer considerable primary energy savings for passenger rail, both in commuting and high-speed services. Table 3 indicates the potential savings with a storage efciency of 0.64 and braking capture efciency of 0.5. These gures have been used to represent practicable devices that are available now or are near to market. Under highspeed operation, the primary energy consumption will be reduced by 28 per cent and commuter operation by 35 per cent reecting the increased amount of braking in the commuter cycle. This translates into signicant economic savings, which need to be assessed against increased capital costs in a whole life-cost model.
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Fig. 8
Table 3

Sensitivity analysis of the storage device efciency and braking capture rate

Hybrid vehicle fuel consumption

kWh(diesel) /seat/km Hybrid (0.5 regen efciency, 0.8 storage efciency) 0.061 0.060

Vehicle High-speed Commuter

Diesel base case 0.086 0.093

Improvement (%) 28 35

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

Railway transport has enjoyed a reputation for environmental travel for a number of years, but is facing increasing pressure to improve its environmental performance further. As part of this commitment, energy reduction measures will form a crucial component of the improvements. This paper has assessed the potential of a series hybrid conguration to provide propulsion to rail vehicles. Hybrid systems allow generating sets to operate at an optimum efciency while the varying load is followed with an energy storage device which has a high and at efciency characteristic. Some diesel powered rail vehicles are currently propelled using electric transmission and expertise existing in the area of power electronics and control
Table 4

suggests that the move to hybrid systems could be readily facilitated for rail vehicles. The requirements for the storage devices have been derived in this paper, but no attempt has been made to match these requirements with the specication of existing storage technology or to model these devices explicitly. There are numerous storage technologies and many articles reviewing the merits of each technology. Many technologies are targeted at either the automotive sector, or at load levelling at electricity substations, and therefore, would need some further development for use in the rail environment. However, on surveying a number of articles, a nickel sodium chloride battery could offer a solution for rail where the operating characteristics of the battery are more suited to rail than road [11]. This article has explored the use of hybrid propulsion systems for rail applications, and from a kinematic point of view there is the potential for energy savings in an optimally congured propulsion system. Table 4 provides some information regarding the current performance of a number of chemical batteries. In order to design a suitably congured system, which satises the constraints of the vehicle, a full optimization procedure must be developed taking into account life cycle costing and reliability, availability, maintainability, and sustainability.

Characteristics of batteries for use in electric vehicles [20]

Pb-PbO2 Ni-Cd 050 236 4055 6090 120150 1.35 Ni-MH 4050 300 5060 100150 140200 1.35 Zn-Br2 2040 430 5070 6070 80100 1.79 Na-NiCl 300350 794 80100 110120 150200 2.58 Na-S 300350 795 90120 120130 150200 2.08 Li-Ion 4060 275 90140 150200 350400 3.6

Working temperature ( C) Specic energy (Wh/kg) Specic energy (2 h discharge) Energy density (Wh/l) Specic power (W/kg) Cell voltage (V)

045 161 2030 6080 75100 2.1

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author would like to acknowledge the communications with the Future Rail Research Centre in Imperial College London regarding the vehicle simulation. REFERENCES
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