Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 1

Chapter 10 Biaxial Stress Systems

Until now we have only considered structures with individual direct stress constant (axial
stress) or varying (e.g. bending stress) across the section and/or shear stresses. A biaxial stress
system has a stress state in two directions and a shear stress typically showing in Fig. 10.1:

xx

yy

yy

xx
x
y
x
y

xy

yx

Fig. 10.1 Element of a structure showing a biaxial stress system

The direct strain in any direction is the sum of all factors contributing to that strain:
a) Direct stresses in that direction
b) Poisson's ratio effects of stresses at right angles
c) Thermal strain
Recalling our discussion in Chapter 2, we can give the relationship between stress and strain as:
T
E
v
E
yy
xx
xx
+

=
T
E
v
E
xx
yy
yy
+

= (10.1)
G G
xy xy
yy

=

=
If these equations are rearranged to compute the stresses for a set of given the strains, we get:
( )
| |
1 1 2
1
yy xx xx
v
v
E
+

=
( )
| |
1 1 2
1
xx yy yy
v
v
E
+

= (10.2)
( )
xy xy xy
v
E
G
+
= =
1 2

where: T
xx xx
=
1
and T
yy yy
=
1
. When a Biaxial Stress state occurs in a thin
metal, all the stresses are in the plane of the material. Such a stress system is called PLANE
STRESS. We can see plane stress in pressure vessels, aircraft skins, car bodies, and many
other structures. Some of which we are able to analyze relatively easily.


10.1 THIN WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS (SI&4
th
: 409-415; 3
rd
Ed p.413-419)
Cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels are used in industry as tanks, boilers or containers.
When under pressure the material is subjected to loadings in all directions.
In general, thin wall refers to an inner radius to wall thickness ratio greater than 10, e.g.
r/t=20, in most cases it is actually r/t > 50. If the vessels wall is thin, the stress distribution
through the thickness can be assumed to be uniform.

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 2

10.1.1 CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS
This analysis will look at tubes with an internal pressure and closed ends. Let
xx
be the Axial
Stress due to the pressure on the end walls, and

be the Hoop Stress due to the pressure

acting on the curved surface.

xx
P
t Cut surface
r


Fig. 10.2 FBD of axial section of a cylindrical pressure vessel

Axial Stress
Look at a FBD of the axial section as shown in Fig. 10.2 and check for the axial equilibrium.
xx x
rt r P F + = =

2 0
2

ie: ( )
xx
rt r P = 2
2

which gives the equation for Axial Stress( or Longitudinal Stress):
t
Pr
xx
2
= (10.3)

Hoop Stress
Look now at a FBD of the circumferential section as shown in Fig. 10.3:
P

L
t


Fig. 10.3 FBD of circumferential section of the cylindrical pressure vessel

Equating the forces vertically gives:
( ) ( ) t L L r P F
y
+ = =

2 2 0 ( ) rLP Lt 2 2 =


which simplifies to give the equation for Hoop Stress (or Circumferential Stress):
t
Pr
=

(10.4)
By substituting into the above biaxial strain equations, we get:
| |
| | T
v
tE
Pr
T v
E
T v
tE
Pr
T v
E
xx
xx xx
+
(

= + =
+
(

= + =

2
1
1
2
1 1
(10.5)
If there is no temperature change, the T term disappears.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 3

Combined Load Conditions (SI&4
th
: 416-437; 3rd 420-440)
As well as these stresses, a pressure vessel can also have stresses created by the weight of the
pressurised fluid inside, its own weight, externally applied loads and by an applied torque. To
analyse this, each loading condition is considered individually and the stresses are then
combined along their respective axes by the superposition method. Lets look at a pressure
vessel with several possible loading conditions, such as, bending moment M, Torque T and
axially tensile force F, as shown in Fig. 10.4:
F
P
t
F
T
T
M M
E
r
=
d
/
2
L


Fig. 10.4 Pressure vessel with Axial force F, Bending moment M,
Torque T and internal pressure P

Look at a small element E from the vessel with dimensions ddx, the stresses are given in Fig. 10.5:
A
F
I
My
t
Pr
xx
+ =
2
t
Pr
=

J
Tr
x
=

Combined Axial Stresses
Hoop Stress
Torsional
Shear Stresses
E

Fig. 10.5 Element of pressure vessel with various possible stresses from various applied loads


9.1.2 SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS
They are commonly in use to store liquid gases as they provide the greatest storage volume
for the least volume of material. The FBD of hemisphere is shown in Fig. 10.6.
P
r
t


Fig. 10.6 Diagram of spherical pressure vessel with internal pressure P

Equating the forces vertically:
+ = =

rt r P F
y
2 0
2

which simplifies to:
t
Pr
2
= (10.6)
Note that the value for the stress is not dependent on the orientation of our FBD, so this stress
acts on both surfaces of the element simultaneously.
And the strain is given by: | | T v
E
+

= 1 (10.7)
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 4


Example 10.1: A cylindrical steel gas bottle L=2m long with a diameter of d = 250mm and a t
= 3mm wall thickness is pressurized to P = 3MPa as shown in Fig. 10.4. Determine the
stresses and the strains, Youngs modulus E = 210 GPa and Poissons ratio v = 0.3.
( ) ( )
( )
MPa .
.
.
t
Pr
xx
5 62
003 0 2
125 0 10 3
2
6
=

= =
( ) ( )
( )
MPa
.
.
t
Pr
130
003 0
125 0 10 3
6
=

= =

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
s ms .
.
.
T v
tE
Pr
xx
= = +
(

= +
(

=

119 10 119 0 3 0
2
1
10 210 003 0
125 0 10 3
2
1
6
9
6

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
s ms
.
.
.
T
v
tE
Pr
= = +
(

= +
(

505 10 505 0
2
3 0
1
10 210 003 0
125 0 10 3
2
1
6
9
6

Note: Other shaped thin walled pressure vessels can be analyzed by similarly taking
appropriate Free Body Diagrams and using the equilibrium equations.


10.2 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
(SI&4
th
:439-473; 3
rd
441-475)
Having determined both the axial stresses and the shear stresses in a biaxial stress system, this
does not guarantee that these are the maximum stresses experienced by the actual structure.
Just like when you have two or more forces, it is the resultant force the maximum experience,
so to with a stress system. What is now necessary is to find a stress transformation of
determining what these normal and shear maximum stresses are.

Sign Convention
Before the transformation equations are derived, it is necessary for us to review the sign
convention for the normal and shear stress components. As shown in Fig. 10.7, the sign
convention can be remembered by simply noting that positive normal stress acts outwards
from all faces and positive shear stress acts upward on the right-hand face of the element.

+
xx
+
yy

xx
x
y
+
xy
+
yx
Upward in the
right hand face
Tensile or
outward direction

-
xx
-
yy

xx
x
y
-
xy
-
yx
Downward in the
right hand face
Compressive or
inward direction


Fig. 10.7 Sign convention of stress components

To understand how a structure fails in Plane Stress status it is necessary to resolve stresses in
any direction (similar to resolving force vectors). Plane stress lies in the plane of thin
material such as the pressure vessels above. Consider a small element of sheet metal of
thickness t and under plane stress in a biaxial stress system as shown in Fig. 10.1.
Cut a triangular section, leaving the left and bottom sides and a third side inclined at an angle
from the vertical. Two of its surfaces have the normals in the x and y directions, the third
has a normal at an angle from the x axis, as shown in Fig. 10.8.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 5

xx

yy

yy

xx
x
y

xy

yx
A
c
o
s

Asin

sn

xy

yy

xx

nn
x
y

n
s
A


Fig. 10. 8 FBD of triangular element with all normal and shear stresses

It is now necessary to apply the equilibrium equations about the Normal n & Tangent s axes.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = =

cos sin A sin cos A cos cos A sin sin A A F

xy xy xx yy nn n
0
which simplifies to give:
+ + = sin cos sin cos
xy yy xx nn
2
2 2
(10.8)
Using the following trigonometric functions:
( ) + = 2 1
2
1
2
cos cos ( ) = 2 1
2
1
2
cos sin = sin cos sin 2 2
we can obtain:
( ) ( )
+

+
+
= 2 2
2 2
sin cos
xy
yy xx yy xx
nn
(10.9)
And in a similar way, by applying equilibrium about 's' axis and using the trigonometric
functions we can get:
( )
+

= 2 2
2
cos sin
xy
xx yy
sn
(10.10)
These equations can be used to transform the stresses from one coordinate axis to another.
However there is an easier method of determining the stresses in any axis, this requires Eqs
(10.9) and (10.10) to be squared and then added them together to give,
( )
2
2
2
2
2 2
xy
yy xx
sn
yy xx
nn
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
(

+
(10.11)

Mohr Circle
In fact, Eq. (10.11) has the same format as the equation for a circle of radius R and centre at x = c.
( )
2 2 2
R y c x = + (10.12)
From Eq. (10.11), the radius and centre of the circle can be represented as:
( )
2
yy xx
c
+
= (10.13)
2
2
2
xy
yy xx
R +
|
|
.
|

\
|
= (10.14)
Equation (10.12) represents a circle of stress, known as MOHR CIRCLE, where
nn
is the
horizontal axis positive to the right and
sn
is the vertical axis positive downwards.
The Mohr Circle for Stress looks like the left part of Fig. 10.9:
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 6

sn

nn

yy

xx

xy

xy

max

11

22

max
2=2
p1
2
( )
2
yy xx
+
2
2
2
xy
yy xx
R +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
p2
180

11

22

p1
=

p2
=
p2
+90

max

max
Orientation of the Principal Stresses
Orientation of the Maximum Shear Stress

xx
= c

yy
= c

Fig. 10.9 Mohr Circle for plane stress status

Principal Stresses
There are two points in this circle where the shear stress is zero,
xy
= 0. These are points of
the Maximum
11
and Minimum
22
normal stresses and are called PRINCIPAL STRESSES.
Thus the principle stresses can be computed as:
( )
2
2
22 11
2 2
xy
yy xx yy xx
, +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
= (10.15)
Note that
22 11
. As shown in Fig. 10.9, these principle stresses occur at angles of
p1
=
and
p2
=+/2. The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at
the point. When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses, no shear stress will
act on the element.

Orientations of Principal Stresses
When equation (10.10) is set to equal zero, it gives the orientation of principal stresses:
( )
+

= = 2 2
2
0 cos sin
xy
xx yy
sn

( )
yy xx
xy
tan


=
2
2 (10.16)
The solution of Eq. (10.16) has two roots, specifically
p1
and
p2
will be 90 apart as shown in the
infinitesimal element, and 2
p1
and 2
p2
will be 180 apart as shown in Mohr circle in Fig. 10.9.
To find the orientation of the principal stresses the line representing the current state of
stresses is rotated until it reaches the horizontal axis. In the real structure, the element is
then rotated in the same direction as in the Mohr Circle but by half that angle.

Maximum Shear Stress
2 2
22 11 2
2

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
xy
yy xx
max
(10.17)
The orientation of the maximum shear in infinitesimal element can be identified by rotating
the element by as in Fig. 10.9. Note that at the maximum shear stress, the normal stress may
not be zero (
xx
=
yy
=c).

Remarks: Principal stress
11,

22
are the two points in Mohr circle that cross the
horizontal axis, in which the shear stresses are zero.
The maximum shear stress
max
is the point in Mohr circle that intersect a vertical line
drawn through the centre of the circle.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 7

Example 10.2 Find
1
,
2
,
max
and their orientations for the following stress system:
xx
=
40 MPa,
yy
= -20 MPa,
xy
= 30 MPa.

Step 1: Draw the state of stresses

xx
=40MPa

yy

yy
= -20MPa

xx
x
y

xy
=30MPa

yx


Step 2: Draw the Mohr Circle It is necessary to first establish and axis. Since
xx
,
yy
,
and
xy
are known, the center of the circle can then be plotted at C(10,0). To obtain the radius,
one can either plot point A (40,30) as shown above or compute the value as follows.
Radius of Mohr Circle:
( )
( ) MPa . R
xy
yy xx
43 42 30
2
20 40
2
2
2
2
2
= + |
.
|

\
|
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Center of Mohr Circle:
( )
( )
MPa c
yy xx
10
2
20 40
2
=
+
=
+
=


Step 3: Determine the orientation of the
principle stress:
( ) ( )
0 1
20 40
30 2
2
2 . tan
yy xx
xy
=

=


=


( )
= = 5 22
2
0 1
1
.
. arctan
p
and
= + = 5 112 90
1 2
.
p p

Step 4: Compute the principle stresses and the maximum shear stress
( )
MPa .
MPa .
. R c
xy
yy xx yy xx
43 32
43 52
43 42 10
2 2
2
2
22
11

= = = +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

( )
( ) MPa . R
xy
yy xx
max
43 42 30
2
20 40
2
2
2
2
2
= + |
.
|

\
|
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

Step 5: Draw infinitesimal elements indicating magnitude and orientations of both the Principal
Stresses (the left hand of the figure) and the Maximum Shear Stress (the right hand of the figure).
From the Mohr circle,
11
rotates from the bold line by 2
p1
anticlockwise. So we rotate the oriented
element showing the principal stress by =
p1
in the same direction as given on the left below.
Similarly, in the Mohr circle,
max
rotates by 2 clockwise; hence the oriented element showing the
maximum shear stress should be rotated by clockwise as given on the right figure below

11
=52.43MPa

22
= -32.43MPa
= 22.5
o
Orientation of Principal Stresses

10MPa
10MPa
= 22.5
o

max
=42.43MPa
Orientation of Maximum Shear Stresses

yy
=-20

xx
=40
R=42.43
C(10,0)
The first point drawn
0
( )
MPa c
yy xx
10
2
=
+
=

xx
=40

xy
=30
A

yy
=-20

xx
=40

xy
=30

max
=42.43MPa

11
=52.43MPa

22
=-32.43MPa

max
2
p1
=45
2 R=42.43MPa
c = 10MPa
0
2
p2
=225
A
C
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 8

Example 10.3 When the torque of T=10kN/m is applied to a torsional shaft as shown, it produces
a state of pure shear stress in the material. Determine the detailed stress status at element A for: a)
the maximum shear stress and the principal stresses; b) the orientation of principal stresses.
T=10kNm
L=15m

D=75mm
T
Distribution of
shear stress
Cross-section
A
A
T

xy
R


Step 1: Compute the shear stress in the cross section
( )
4 6
4 4
10 106 3
32
075 0
32
m .
. D
J

=

=
( )
MPa .
.
.
J
D T
J
TR
7 120
10 106 3
0375 0 10 10 2
6
3
=

= = =


MPa .
xy
7 120 = = ; No normal stress at A, so we have 0 = =
yy xx


Step 2: Compute the maximum shear stress
( ) MPa . .
xy
yy xx
max
7 120 7 120
2
0 0
2
2
2
2
2
= + |
.
|

\
|
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
As expected, the maximum shear stress corresponds to a pure shear status. Through
experiment, it has been found that ductile will fail due to shear stress.

Step 3: Compute the principal stresses and their orientation
( )
( )
( )
MPa .
MPa .
.
xy
yy xx yy xx
7 120
7 120
7 120
2
0 0
2
0 0
2 2
2
2
2
2
22
11

= + |
.
|

\
|

+
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

Orientation of principle stress:
( )
( )
=

=
0 0
7 120 2
2
.
tan
( )
=

= 45
2
1
arctan
p

11
=120.7
22
=-120.7MPa

max
2=2
p1
R=120.7
C = 0

xy
= -120.7MPa

p1
= - 45

22
= -120.7MPa

11
= 120.7MPa
A
Orientation of Principal Stresses

Thus the first principal stress
1
=
xy
acts at
p1
=45 and the second principal stress
2
=|
xy
| acts
at
p2
=90+
p1
=45. Brittle material fails due to normal stress. That is why when a brittle material
such as cast iron and chalk, is subjected to torsion (because usually its allowable tensile stress is
much smaller than its allowable compressive stress) it will fail in tension at a 45inclination.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 9

Example 10.4 A single horizontal force P=900N is applied to end D of lever ABD. Knowing
that portion AB of lever has a diameter of 36mm. Determine a) the normal and shear stress
status at element at point H; b) the principal planes and principal stresses at H.
P=900N
5
4
0
m
m
120mm
300mm
A
B
D
H
x
y
z
T=486Nm
H
V=P=900N
M
x
=270Nm
A
FBD at Section H
x
z

xx
=0

yy
=58.9

xx
x
y

xy
=53.1

yx
H

Step 1: Internal loads at the section H
Shear force: V = P = 900N
Torque: T = 9000.540 = 486Nm
Bending moment: M
x
= 9000.300 = 270Nm
Step 2: Compute normal bending stress at H
( )
( )
MPa .
/ .
.
I
MR
9 58
4 018 0
018 0 270
4
=


= = , MPa .
yy
9 58 = =
Step 3: Compute combined shear stress at H
Shear stress consists of torsional shear component T and transverse shear component due to V.
However, transverse shear
V
is zero at H from Table 7.1 and Example 7.2. We have
( )
MPa .
/ .
.
It
VQ
J
TR
V T
1 53 0
2 018 0
018 0 486
4
= +


= + = + = MPa .
xy
1 53 = =
Step 4: Determine stress status as shown in the right hand side of the top figure.
Step 5: Compute principal stress and their orientation
( )
( )
( )
MPa .
MPa .
.
. .
xy
yy xx yy xx
3 32
2 90
1 53
2
9 58 0
2
9 58 0
2 2
2
2
2
2
22
11

= + |
.
|

\
|

+
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

Orientation of principle stress: 8 1
9 58 0
1 53 2
2 .
.
.
tan =

=

( )
=

= = 5 30
2
8 1
2
.
. arctan
p
( ) = + = 5 59 5 30 90
1
. .
p

Step 6: Draw Mohr Circle

xy
=53.1

max
=60.7

11
=90.2
22
=-32.3

max
2=2
p2
2
C = 29.45
R=60.7

xx
=0
yy
=58.9
Rotate to
22
2
p1

11
=90.2
H

p2
= = -30.5

22
= -32.3

p1
= +90 =59.5
Orientation of Principal Stresses

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 10

10.3 STRAIN IN ANY DIRECTION (SI&4
th
:489-502; 3
rd
491-506)
In a similar way to stress, strain can be transformed to determine the maximum direct and shear
strains experienced by the structure. And like stress, a MOHR CIRCLE of strain can be drawn.
Although the derivation of the equations for strain transformation is an interesting
mathematical exercise, you can read section 10.2 to see how this is done. What we are more
interested in however, is the application of the derived equations. What you find when you
do the analysis is that the equations for strain transformation are very similar to the
equations for stress transformation.
Define the terms
' xy ' yy ' xx
, , as the strains of an element of size dx by dy at an angle with
respect to the horizontal axis, like this:

x
y
y
x
d
x
d
y
y
x
x

Deformed Element
Original Element

Fig. 10. 10 Element of size dxdy at angle before and after the application of biaxial strains

Then the equation which defines these strains will be:
+ + = sin cos sin cos
xy yy xx ' xx
2 2
(10.18)

A similar equation to stress transformation can be derived to give the equation for the Mohr
Circle of strain:
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
(

+

xy yy xx ' xy yy xx
' xx
(10.19)

This is similar to the Mohr circle of stress except that the vertically downward positive Shear
Strain Axis is
xy'
/2.

nn

11

22
2
2

xx

yy
2
max

2
y x

2 2
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
xy yy xx
R
( )
2
yy xx
c
+
=
2
xy

Fig. 10. 11 Mohr Circle for strain
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 11


10.3.1 STRAIN GAUGE ROSETTES (SI&4
th
: 508-519; 3
rd
513-525)
Using Eq. (10.18), the strain at any angle can be determined. Inversely, if the strain at any
angle has been measured, Eq. (10.18) can then be used to determine the direct and shear
strains in the structure about the x and y axes. One of typical approaches is that these
measurements are done using a Strain Gauge Rosette. A normal arrangement is to have three
strain gauges oriented at three different angles w.r.t the horizontal axis of the structure as in
Fig. 10.12. From experiment, we can acquire three sets of data as
1
,
2
,
3
.

3
x
y
1
2
3

Fig. 10.12 Strain Gauge rosettes

Based on these three sets of data, we want to determine the normal and shear strains about the
x and y axes. Because we have three unknown terms and we want to find,
xx
,
yy

xy
, we can
use Eq. (10.18) three times, once for each angle. Then simultaneously solve for the three
unknown strain terms,
xx
,
yy

xy
. The procedure is as follows.

Step 1: simultaneously solve for the three unknown strains,
xx
,
yy,

xy
.

+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

3 3 3
2
3
2
3
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
sin cos sin cos
sin cos sin cos
sin cos sin cos
xy yy xx
xy yy xx
xy yy xx
(10.20)
Step 2: Compute stress components,
xx
,
yy,

xy

Once we find the strains
xx
,
yy

xy
, then use the relationships between stress and strain to find
the stress components:
( )
| |
( )
| |
( )

+
= =
+

=
+

=
xy xy xy
xx yy yy
yy xx xx
v
E
G
v
v
E
v
v
E
1 2
1
1
2
2
(10.21)
Step 3: Determine principal stresses, maximum shear stress and their orientations as well as Mohr
circle when necessary
( )
2
2
22 11
2 2
xy
yy xx yy xx
, +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
= ,
( )
yy xx
xy
tan


=
2
2
2
2
2
xy
yy xx
max
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 10 12

10.4 THEORIES OF FAILURE (SI&4
th
: 524-532; 3
rd
530-538)
The curve in Fig. 10.13 shows the typical stress-strain response of a ductile material such as
mild steel. Such a stress-strain curve is obtained from a uniaxial tensile test, and elements in
the material experience normal stress in one direction and has no shear stress. The material
yields at yield stress
Y
as shown.

F

Y
F

11
=
Y

max
=
Y
/2
2=90
-
max

22
= 0

Y
u
Elastic Yielding Hardening Necking

P

Fig. 10. 13 Tensile testing of ductile material

However, if a material is subjected to a combination of normal and shear stresses, some
combination of stresses will cause the material to yield. The combination of stresses that
produces yielding is known as a yield criterion. It is assumed that the material is ductile,
isotropic and the same behavior in tension and compression.

10.4.1 Trescas Yield Criterion (Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory)
Yielding can be considered a shear phenomenon, in which layers of crystals or atoms slip
relative to each other in shear. Hence Trescas criterion is based on the maximum shear stress
reaching a critical level. From Eq. (10. 17), we have
2 2 2
22 11 2
2
Y
xy
yy xx
max

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
= (10.22)
But yield stress
Y
is in fact found via the uniaxial tensile test as illustrated in Fig. 10.13. The
maximum shear stress
max
corresponds to
Y
/2 at yielding. Therefore the failure criterion
should be formulated as
{ }
Y Tresca
, , max =
22 11 22 11
(10.23)

10.4.2 von Mises Yield Criterion (Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory)
It is possible to formulate a failure criterion based on the distortions caused by strain energy.
As known in Chapter 3, the strain energy density can be computed as u=/2. Apply Hookes
law, we can derive von Mises criterion as (refer to the textbook).

Y xy yy yy xx xx vm
+ + = + =
2 2 2 2
22 22 11
2
11
3 (10.24)

Note that
Tresca
and
vm
are usually called Tresca stress and von Mises stress respectively
for convenience.
Brittle material such as gray cast iron, tends to fail suddenly by fracture with no apparent
yielding. The Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory can be applied, in which brittle material will
fail when the maximum principal stress reaches a limiting value that is equal to the ultimate
normal stress the material can sustain under simple tension.