MATH 211 Winter 2013

Lecture Notes
(Adapted by permission of K. Seyarth)
Appendix A
Appendix A Page 1/1
Appendix A Complex Numbers
Appendix A Page 2/1
Why complex numbers?
Counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . but also 1, 2, 3 . . ..
To solve 3x + 2 = 0, integers arent enough, so we have rational
numbers (fractions), i.e.,
If 3x + 2 = 0, then x =
2
3
.
We still cant solve x
2
2 = 0 because there are no rational numbers
x with the property that x
2
2 = 0, so we have irrational numbers,
i.e.,
If x
2
2 = 0, then x =

2.
The set of real numbers, R, consists of all rational and irrational
numbers (note that integers are rational numbers). However, we still
cant solve
x
2
+ 1 = 0
because this requires x
2
= 1, but any real number x has the
property that x
2
0.
Appendix A Page 3/1
Denitions
The imaginary unit, denoted i , is dened to be a number with the
property that i
2
= 1.
A pure imaginary number has the form bi where b R, b = 0, and i
is the imaginary unit.
A complex number is any number z of the form
z = a + bi
where a, b R and i is the imaginary unit.

a is called the real part of z.

b is called the imaginary part of z.

If b = 0, then z is a real number.

Appendix A Page 4/1
Operations with Complex Numbers
Denitions
Let z = a + bi and w = c + di be complex numbers.
Equality. z = w if and a = c and b = d.
Addition and Subtraction.
z + w = (a + bi ) + (c + di ) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
z w = (a + bi ) (c + di ) = (a c) + (b d)i
Multiplication.
zw = (a + bi )(c + di ) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
Appendix A Page 5/1
Examples
(3 + 6i ) + (5 i ) = (2 + 5i )
(4 7i ) (6 2i ) = 2 5i .
(2 3i )(3 + 4i ) = 6 + 8i + 9i + 12 = 6 + 17i .
Appendix A Page 6/1
Example
Find all complex number z so that z
2
= 3 + 4i .
Let z = a + bi . Then
z
2
= (a + bi )
2
= (a
2
b
2
) + 2abi = 3 + 4i ,
so
a
2
b
2
= 3 and 2ab = 4.
Since 2ab = 4, a =
2
b
. Substituting this into the rst equation gives us
a
2
b
2
= 3
_
2
b
_
2
b
2
= 3
4
b
2
b
2
= 3
4 b
4
= 3b
2
b
4
3b
2
4 = 0.
Appendix A Page 7/1
Example (continued)
Now, b
4
3b
2
4 = 0 can be factored into
(b
2
4)(b
2
+ 1) = 0
(b 2)(b + 2)(b
2
+ 1) = 0.
Since b R, and b
2
+ 1 has no real roots, b = 2 or b = 2.
Since a =
2
b
, it follows that
when b = 2, a = 1, and z = a + bi = 1 + 2i ;
when b = 2, a = 1, and z = a + bi = 1 2i .
Therefore, if z
2
= 3 + 4i , then z = 1 + 2i or z = 1 2i .
Appendix A Page 8/1
Denitions
Let z = a + bi and w = c + di be complex numbers.
The conjugate of z is the complex number
z = a bi .
Division. Suppose that c, d are not both zero. Then
a + bi
c + di
=
a + bi
c + di

c di
c di
=
(ac + bd) + (bc ad)i
c
2
+ d
2
=
ac + bd
c
2
+ d
2
+
bc ad
c
2
+ d
2
i .
Appendix A Page 9/1
Examples
1
i
=
1
i

i
i
=
i
i
2
= i .
1
3 + 4i
=
1
3 + 4i

3 4i
3 4i
=
3 4i
3
3
+ 4
2
=
3
25

4
25
i .
1 2i
2 + 5i
=
1 2i
2 + 5i

2 5i
2 5i
=
(2 10) + (4 5)i
2
2
+ 5
2
=
12
29

1
29
i .
Appendix A Page 10/1
Denition
The absolute value or modulus of a complex number z = a + bi is
|z| =
_
a
2
+ b
2
.
Note that this is consistent with the denition of the absolute value of a
real number.
Examples
| 3 + 4i | =

3
2
+ 4
2
=

25 = 5.
|3 2i | =

3
2
+ 2
2
=

13.
|i | =

1
2
= 1.
Appendix A Page 11/1
Properties of the Conjugate and Absolute Value (p. 507)
Let z and w be complex numbers.
C1. z w = z w.
C2. (zw) = z w.
C3.
_
z
w
_
=
z
w
.
C4. (z) = z.
C5. z is real if and only if z = z.
C6. z z = |z|
2
.
C7.
1
z
=
z
|z|
2
.
C8. |z| 0 for all complex numbers z
C9. |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.
C10. |zw| = |z| |w|.
C11.

z
w

=
|z|
|w|
.
C12. Triangle Inequality |z + w| |z| +|w|.
Appendix A Page 12/1
The Complex Plane
Represent z = a + bi as a point (a, b) in the plane, where the x-axis is the
real axis and the y-axis is the imaginary axis.
0 x
y
(a, b)
a
b
Real numbers: a + 0i lie on the x-axis.
Pure imaginary numbers: 0 + bi (b = 0) lie on
the y-axis.
|z| =

a
2
+ b
2
is the distance from z to the origin.
z is the reection of z in the x-axis.
Appendix A Page 13/1
If z = a + bi and w = c + di , then |z w| =
_
(a c)
2
+ (b d)
2
.
0 x
y
z = a + bi
w = c + di
b
d
b d
c a
a c
This is used to derive the triangle inequality: |z + w| |z| +|w|.
Appendix A Page 14/1
Triangle Inequality
0 x
y
z + w
z
|z + w|
|w|
|z|
|z + w| |z| +|w|.
Appendix A Page 15/1
Addition
If z = a + bi and w = c + di , then z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i .
Geometrically, we have:
0 x
y
z
w
z + w
c a a + c
b
d
b + d
0, z, w, and z + w are the vertices of a parallelogram.
Appendix A Page 16/1
Representing Complex Numbers in Polar Form
Suppose z = a + bi , and let r = |z| =

a
2
+ b
2
. Then r is the distance
from z to the origin. Denote by the angle that the line through 0 and z
makes with the positive x-axis.
0 x
y
z = a + bi
a
b
r

Then is an angle dened by cos =

a
r
and sin =
b
r
, so
z = r cos + r sin i = r (cos + i sin ).
is called the argument of z, and is denoted arg z.
Appendix A Page 17/1
Denitions
The principal argument of z = r (cos + i sin ) is the angle such
that
<
( is measured in radians).
If z is a complex number with |z| = r and arg z = , then we write
z = re
i
= r (cos + i sin ).
Note that since arg z is not unique, re
i
is a polar form of z, not the polar
form of z.
Appendix A Page 18/1
Examples
Convert each of the following complex numbers to polar form.
1
3i
2
1 i
3

3 i
4

3 + 3i
Solutions.
1
3e
(/2)i
2

2e
(3/4)i
=

2e
(5/4)i
3
2e
(/6)i
4
2

3e
(/3)i
Appendix A Page 19/1
Problems involving multiplication of complex numbers can often be
simplied by using polar forms of the complex numbers.
Theorem (Appendix A, Theorem 1 Multiplication Rule)
If z
1
= r
1
e
i
1
and z
2
= r
2
e
i
2
are complex numbers, then
z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
e
i (
1
+
2
)
.
Theorem (Appendix A, Theorem 2 De Moivres Theorem)
If is any angle, then
(e
i
)
n
= e
in
for all integers n.
(This is an obvious consequence of Theorem 1 when n 0, but also holds
when n < 0.)
Appendix A Page 20/1
Example
Express (1 i )
6
(

3 + i )
3
in the form a + bi .
Solution.
Let z = 1 i =

2e
(/4)i
and w =

3 + i = 2e
(/6)i
. Then we want to
compute z
6
w
3
.
z
6
w
3
= (

2e
(/4)i
)
6
(2e
(/6)i
)
3
= (2
3
e
(6/4)i
)(2
3
e
(3/6)i
)
= (8e
(3/2)i
)(8e
(/2)i
)
= 64e
i
= 64e
i
= 64(cos + i sin )
= 64.
Appendix A Page 21/1
Example
Express
_
1
2

3
2
i
_
17
in the form a + bi .
Solution.
Let z =
1
2

3
2
i = e
(/3)i
.
Then
z
17
=
_
e
(/3)i
_
17
= e
(17/3)i
= e
(/3)i
= cos

3
+ i sin

3
=
1
2
+

3
2
i .
Appendix A Page 22/1
Roots of Unity
Example
Find all complex number z so that z
3
= 1, i.e., nd the cube roots of
unity. Express each root in the form a + bi .
Solution.
Let z = re
i
. Since 1 = 1e
i 0
in polar form, we want to solve
_
re
i
_
3
= 1e
i 0
,
i.e.,
r
3
e
i 3
= 1e
i 0
.
Thus r
3
= 1 and 3 = 0 + 2k = 2k for k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Since r
3
= 1 and r is real, r = 1.
Appendix A Page 23/1
Example (continued)
Now 3 = 2k for k = 0, 1, 2, . . ., so =
2
3
k for k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
k e
i
3 2 e
2i
= e
0i
= 1
2
4
3
e
(4/3)i
= e
(2/3)i
1
2
3
e
(2/3)i
= e
(4/3)i
0 0 e
0i
= 1
1
2
3
e
(2/3)i
2
4
3
e
(4/3)i
3 2 e
2i
= e
0i
= 1
The three cube roots of unity are
e
0i
= 1
e
(2/3)i
= cos
2
3
+ i sin
2
3
=
1
2
+

3
2
i
e
(4/3)i
= cos
4
3
+ i sin
4
3
=
1
2

3
2
i
Appendix A Page 24/1
Theorem (Appendix A, Theorem 3 n
th
Roots of Unity)
For n 1, the (complex) solutions to z
n
= 1 are
z = e
(2k/n)i
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Example
The sixth roots of unity, i.e., the solutions to z
6
= 1, are
z = e
(2k/6)i
= e
(k/3)i
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
k z
0 z = e
0i
= 1
1 z = e
(/3)i
=
1
2
+

3
2
i
2 z = e
(2/3)i
=
1
2
+

3
2
i
3 z = e
i
= 1
4 z = e
(4/3)i
=
1
2

3
2
i
5 z = e
(5/3)i
=
1
2

3
2
i
Appendix A Page 25/1
Example
Find all complex numbers z such that z
4
= 2(

3i 1), and express each

in the form a + bi .
Solution. First, convert 2(

3i 1) = 2 + 2

3i to polar form:
|z
4
| =
_
(2)
2
+ (2

3)
2
=

16 = 4.
If = arg(z
4
), then
cos =
2
4
=
1
2
sin =
2

3
4
=

3
2
Thus, =
2
3
, and
z
4
= 4e
(2/3)i
.
Appendix A Page 26/1
Example (continued)
. . . z
4
= 4e
(2/3)i
.
Let z = re
i
. Then z
4
= r
4
e
i 4
, so r
4
= 4 and 4 =
2
3
+ 2k,
k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Since r
4
= 4, r
2
= 2. But r is real, and so r
2
= 2, implying r =

2.
However r 0, and therefore r =

2.
Since 4 =
2
3
+ 2k, k = 0, 1, 2, 3,
=
2
12
+
2k
4
=

6
+
k
2
=
(3k + 1)
6
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Appendix A Page 27/1
Example (continued)
r =

2 and =
_
3k+1
6
_
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
k = 0 : z =

2e
(/6)i
=

2(
(

3
2
+
1
2
i ) =

6
2
+

2
2
i
k = 1 : z =

2e
(2/3)i
=

2(
1
2
+

3
2
i ) =

2
2
+

6
2
i
k = 2 : z =

2e
(7/6)i
=

2(

3
2

1
2
i ) =

6
2

2
2
i
k = 3 : z =

2e
(5/3)i
=

2(
1
2

3
2
i ) =

2
2

6
2
i
Therefore, the fourth roots of 2(

3i 1) are:

6
2
+

2
2
i ,

2
2
+

6
2
i ,

6
2

2
2
i ,

2
2

6
2
i .
Appendix A Page 28/1
Two additional examples are posted on Blackboard under
Supplementary Notes Roots of Complex Numbers
Appendix A Page 29/1
Real Quadratics
Denition
A real quadratic is an expression of the form ax
2
+ bx + c where
a, b, c R and a = 0.
To nd the roots of a real quadratic, we can either factor by inspection, or
use the quadratic formula:
x =
b

b
2
4ac
2a
.
The expression b
2
4ac in the quadratic formula is called the
discriminant, and
if b
2
4ac 0, then the roots of the quadratic are real;
if b
2
4ac < 0, then the quadratic has no real roots.
Appendix A Page 30/1
Real Quadratics
In the case b
2
4ac < 0, the quadratic is called irreducible, and
_
b
2
4ac =
_
(1)(4ac b
2
) = i
_
4ac b
2
.
Therefore, the roots of an irreducible quadratic are
b i

4ac b
2
2a
=
_

b
2a
+

4acb
2
2a
i

b
2a

4acb
2
2a
i
The two roots are complex conjugates of each other, and are denoted
u =
b
2a
+

4ac b
2
2a
i
and
u =
b
2a

4ac b
2
2a
i
Appendix A Page 31/1
Example
The quadratic x
2
14x + 58 has roots
x =
14

196 4 58
2
=
14

196 232
2
=
14

36
2
=
14 6i
2
= 7 3i ,
so the roots are 7 + 3i and 7 3i .
Appendix A Page 32/1
Conversely, given u = a + bi with b = 0, there is an irreducible quadratic
having roots u and u.
Example
Find an irreducible quadratic with u = 5 2i as a root. What is the other
root?
Solution.
(x u)(x u) = (x (5 2i ))(x (5 + 2i ))
= x
2
(5 2i )x (5 + 2i )x + (5 2i )(5 + 2i )
= x
2
10x + 29.
Therefore, x
2
10x + 29 is an irreducible quadratic with roots 5 2i and
5 + 2i .
Notice that 10 = (u + u) and 29 = uu = |u|
2
.
Appendix A Page 33/1
Example
Find an irreducible quadratic with root u = 3 + 4i , and nd the other
root.
Solution.
(x u)(x u) = (x (3 + 4i ))(x (3 4i ))
= x
2
+ 6x + 25.
Thus x
2
+ 6x + 25 has roots 3 + 4i and 3 4i .
Appendix A Page 34/1
Quadratics with Complex Coecients
Example
Find the roots of the quadratic x
2
(3 2i )x + (5 i ) = 0.
Solution. Using the quadratic formula
x =
3 2i
_
((3 2i ))
2
4(5 i )
2
Now,
((3 2i ))
2
4(5 i ) = 5 12i 20 + 4i = 15 8i ,
so
x =
3 2i

15 8i
2
To nd

15 8i , solve z
2
= 15 8i for z.
Appendix A Page 35/1
Example (continued)
Let z = a + bi and z
2
= 15 8i . Then
(a
2
b
2
) + 2abi = 15 8i ,
so a
2
b
2
= 15 and 2ab = 8.
Solving for a and b gives us z = 1 4i , 1 + 4i , i.e., z = (1 4i ).
Therefore,
x =
3 2i (1 4i )
2
and
32i +(14i )
2
=
46i
2
= 2 3i ,
32i (14i )
2
=
2+2i
2
= 1 + i .
Thus the roots of x
2
(3 2i )x + (5 i ) are 2 3i and 1 + i .
Appendix A Page 36/1
Problem
Find the roots of x
2
3ix + (3 + i ) = 0.
Solution. 1 + i , 1 + 2i .
Appendix A Page 37/1
Example
Verify that u
1
= (4 i ) is a root of
x
2
(2 3i )x (10 + 6i )
and nd the other root, u
2
.
Solution. First,
u
2
1
(2 3i )u
1
(10 + 6i ) = (4 i )
2
(2 3i )(4 i ) (10 + 6i )
= (15 8i ) (5 14i ) (10 + 6i )
= 0,
so u
1
= (4 i ) is a root.
Recall that if u
1
and u
2
are the roots of the quadratic, then
u
1
+ u
2
= (2 3i ) and u
1
u
2
= (10 + 6i ).
Solve for u
2
using either one of these equations.
Appendix A Page 38/1
Example (continued)
Since u
1
= 4 i and u
1
+ u
2
= 2 3i ,
u
2
= 2 3i u
1
= 2 3i (4 i ) = 2 2i .
Therefore, the other root is u
2
= 2 2i .
You can easily verify your answer by computing u
1
u
2
:
u
1
u
2
= (4 i )(2 2i ) = 10 6i = (10 + 6i ).
Appendix A Page 39/1