{1a) Ihlph made offv,ith the pictot.ictl repre.terrtcttiofi o-f me.

(15) Ralph rnade ofl u'itlt the pictttre belorrgittpJ to nre. Thus- nobodv can deny the ambiguitv of these sentences once their various interpretations have been pointed out.

CHAPTER

TYPES OF SENTENCES
3.0. Classification of sentences

began:

In other sentences" what appears as the subject ofthe sentence on the surface level is not the subject on the deep level, or the Np r^,,hich appears as the direct object ofthe verb is not the deep-level direct object Eor example: aithough the surface subject ofthe follou.i'g senrence is ihe pronoun the !. deep-level subject ofthe verb began is the entire sentence minus the r,erb
(16)

well-known four types of sentences ha'e been established on the$asis -he ofthe overlapping betw-een the form ofthe sentences (the deep and surface structures and the phonological/graphic peculiarities) and the
communicative function of each formal type (pragmatic aspects such as the speaker's intention, pointing to the illocutionary force ofthe utterance). 1: deciarative sentences (statements used to convey information); 2. interrogative sentences (questions) used to request missing information, 3. imperative sentences (commands) used with the purpose of determining
somebody to do something,

hegan to vonder rhether oilyone v,os intere.ytetl in that. that is the subject is I to wonder w'hether anyone r.l'as interested in that.
Sinrilarl_v. in the sentence

(17) The general cxpec;l' the ne* enet??-t, nzacltine_gtrtt lo be u,iped out hS,,nighr./dll the NP the next enemy machine:gun is considered the surface direct objecr but not the deep directcbject ofexpects. The deep direct object ofexpect rs the whole stmcture follorving the verb. i e the nixt enemy machineun to be wiped out by nightfall
There are also cases in rvhicli certain constituents do not appear in surface structures as a result of ellipsis For example in the sentence: (18) 7he ilonl(r? put her pr-tckethook in the.fiottt.teLlr ctnd her E'oceries itt the hack selt. therugmaqJul has been elided after the conjunction and Therefo.e. ihe deep srrucrure of a senrence iinderrine, its surraee

4. exclamatory sentences used to express subjective relations. feelings etc.

f.f. DSgb@S-lentences make statements primariiy used to conve)' itrformation. They erpress the speaker's viewpoint. ln their tum, they can be
a-ffirmative and negative. In point of structure, they can be simple, compound and complex. From the grammatical point of I'iew, they always
have a subject which generaliy precedes the verb

structure, and pror.ides

i)eep stilctures

undeistancin{r a sei.}ignce,
the sentence.

ii

the fu'ctio'al inlbrmation

necessar\. in elso shc.,i's ihe irfop?i ccnsritirerri. sin:cta;,e of-

containing a sublect q'ith subject plus and alone ellipted subject w-ith aleclarative sentences operator ellipted'. Within the former tlpe the element eilipted can be: a) the 1" pers. pronoun^ usualiy I. There are

also erceptional statements not

i|)

Beg -v-our Pcrdrtn,

(2) Hope so.

i,3) T'Jd;:ou stt.

ar-e c,;ri.;eli.cc into surli<;c su-uctures bY the appiicalron svntacric operaliqn5. caiied r:-ansiorn:ations. Trar:sfcrn:atio1.!s co!1r.1en a iricraichicai iee:: ciijer ir.:lo a si.iiiace linear crder {lcnse,:u::-riij,,. rire sj nlacilc Compoi_iint ;i-ri'oiv,.=S ihe r-r-tiLrs \l nia ji gene!,ate ,jeep sirue iLjrrs (f ire liase compOnent,) ailli ihe rLiies wlitch aci .jrr ihes ,ieep siruct'rires I]lao0iirli them into suriace srrucrllres

oi

(4j Don't hrcv'vhat ta da. b) 2od pers. pfoliouti if a tag questi,:n is adderi. {5) Llnnt u tlrink, tk; 7,ut:i.) i6) Had a good tilie, diti i'oir?
c) 3-rd pers. pronouns: (.7) He She TheS'.) ('sl'! ;ee tut.v'rhitrg. (8) Doestt'i itxtk so hupp;'. d) it, in situational contexts: t9\ Doe.vft matter.
1

'f

st:bcategorjzatioi: iuies P:lR s-*ecifi. rhe possibie and i:ecessar,!, ,3cilsrituenis senience in the decp struct!-lie As a i.!.iaiiercf faci. all ti.rese cbservaiiocs ."rill be largei;i rieair .+.'ith in chapter 5

he base coflpon!^iit contalns phra:e structui rules {pSR) aiid

cia

Quirk R.. Greenbaum. S.. Leech. G. and Svanvik. -i.. A Gra;nmai

.

Conternporary tsnglish, Longman, Londorr. i9'l2,p.5a5-1

(10) I.<toks like raining. (lI) Sien,e,s you righr. 3.1'1. o't of context. some expressions may be interpreted as treine either anticipatory it eilipted ofpro-form it ellipted as in. (.12) Sounds.fite (to nte), (antictpatory it) (13) Won't he of a gr.eat use, (pro_,form it)

3.1.3. The declarative negat-ive sentencei include elther adverbs(beidiy.ss4regly,rarel]"never)orrvordsformedbyaddingnegatlve which

negatlve

1rq ' disaereerncnl!, disadvantage' etc) ;;;;;;'fit{&4d, a negatlve meanlng'

sive the sentence ="- "'1tr" udverbs h"ardly
and rarel,v mean nct often.

and scaicely mean almost...notino and seldom

?;iio*.ing the vsrb. Such ccns:n:ciicns usuaiii, lnciude

{1,4\

e) there: existential there ellipted, as distinct fiom the tme

Musr he something \t rong u,i th htm. {15}h{ul he ,ttne rriffee i{t, {i6) Wbn't be any ntilk le-ft for ton ot-t o\1,. withiii iiie iaiicr'i.vpe t-,iciiipiicai seniences. ihe i-st psrs.
?e.

subject

(26\ He has hardht any.friend-t here'

a modaj.

plus be is eilipteC:

,,ron.--.,Liii

{17) (Ami Sorw' I cannot cot i.'t9) iAn) Afi"uui itoi. In such sentencesi

i9)

{':r1s$ 76 see

4rb
.

is also ellioted:

Elliptical sentences with eilipted

operators other than be.

A type crf emptv it is exemplified in the ellipsis: (21) (lt's1 iv*at thcrt he is riiht.

i?0i,k

llciiLlcr ht i,; lule

,au:

{trst auxiliary I'erb predication. Operator isicortiing to F..Quirk, either tire as the verb in a have in BE) (especiaily oi be lil""t"pi"- verb phrase or lhe auxiilari'. any vr,ithcut in sentences ;t*i" r,erb phrase. ^"iiu*rrtr\"' af sentence aspect impoftant An is used ilo, periphrastic ;;;iii.ty co. simpie rhe to construction no aitenrative is there that ait is tfre acijuncir ".n"ti"" ffi;ii"r form wiren tha,t fbrm occrrrs in a sr.rbject or iniriai one listens to nie' (28) a\ Na b\ * Ary"s;rc doestt'i li:;!eti ltt' *re' a) -\'uiliiiig ;;iiii; t;f ii' a)*Anltthittg didn't cttme of ii'

it e

i')i)

it

negatlon

tTiL- rtsi ;eiuio;ii J'c/-i "oq]!

tiitr;'

li

inserted between

the operatcr and the

I or rve ,:ccui

.vith eripsis cf

(23) (W'e\'e) Got to go nov,. The common elliplical phrases (I've) _eot to and G,m) going to have acquired semi-in stit utionali zed spel I in,es, goni and ga!!a. Gotta go. Goma go. fhere is also ellipsis of2nd person pronoun here: (24) (You) Better ftV- agqm. cornes from the ellipsis of the pronouns and of had in had better, this being specific to spoken English

Q2) 6'lA

See 1.,su

1671.r.

lione of trs v'ere read1" b)*'4nj' cf us v"er'en'f reacf;'' tc Quirk et ai', negative subjecis can also be Accorciing 3.1.4. combinations not all, formed with the *ord iot as a predeterminer. in the
not $ary etc 4el-qvJry, not everyone, not much, (29) Not all ec<ttrcnisl'l sg'ee xtth ):ott' Negative adjuncts are specific to formal or literary style:

(30) Never will I.forget that'

landscctpe's. i:t1 Nov'here hat'e v'e seeil xrch heauti.ful and subject of inversion the examples In such

operator

ls

compulsory. '

scarcely, F$ll, (25) I hat e

3.1.2. The word order in declarative sentences is that specific to affirmative sentences syoA Direct objects usualry foiiow indirect oblects. except for the indirect objects erpressed by a to -Dative which foiloiv the direct objects The common sV order changes in speciar situations w-hich wili be dealt w'ith in another chapter. one oithe situations we can ,"nt,on here is the inversion in sentences beginning with a restrictiu" uar,r.u'qn"u".,
undQr r_ro qircumstances, oily bv chance etc ) neyer seen the like of t ___ NiiTr natii t seen th; hke oJ it. He rca.ell; takes atry rereilge. Rarely ,i,ru t* nk, n ,"i,r,,gr.
1,

Th; normai order in such sentences is a case ofunacceptability:

consider that there are various wavs of giving to a negative. For example: ne-eative determiners anci emotive intensification by at all' whatever: given emphasis pronouns are at all. hrcv'nothing He Gi

(32) * llever I v'ill f<trgef that' (i3) * No*here Y'e hut'e seett "

Quirk et.

al

vhaterer il'hqtsoel'er' "The combinutiont not on. and not a (single) are emphatic aiternatives to nQ_as a countable determiner. other familiar and emotively
(35) )'arr hm'e no excttse
coloured expressions ofnegation are exernplified by: (36) I didn't ,sleeP atirrk.

ciause):

(37Y didn'l care a dantn y.,hether he should win or lose.j 3,1.5. As far as sentence negation is concerned, one of the charactpristics ofEnglish is the presence ofonly one negation in a senrence (e.g. even in positive subordinate clauses following a nigative in the rnain

3,2,1. a) Yes-no quesrions are tliose that expect the ans*-er y-es or

[a

subsrandard Engiish: (.44) a. No one never soid nothirrg. which in standard English is: b. No ane evey said qnything.

This is the case of a different kind of "muitiple negatio'', specific to

(38) I hat,e never fi.cn,elled anyuhere b): ship .yet. (39) No one has eyer said aq)rhing to eithei of us. (10) Nobod1., has promi.sed that anJ: of y.ou tuill be released y4. According to the same au.thors quoted above, occasioiJlv rwo negatir,:es occur in the same clause. (47) I ccut't not ohey. (I have to obey) {42) Not mun), people hcne nov,here to lit,e. (Most people have sorleq'here to live) These sentences are somewhat rike the "doubre negative" of rogic, in that each negator has its separate value and it is possible tJ nno paraphrases, Iike those gi'en above which cancel out each negative, leaving an entirely positive sentence 3.1.6. There are also sentences in which more that one negative form rs used, but the meaning rs that of a single negative. g3) He didn't gwe me a thittg"

The subject- operator inversion is specific to these questions ln interrogative sentences containing a present tense or a past tense verb withor-rt an operator- the do-periphrasis is used Bv placing the nuclear stress in a particular part of a yes-no question, the interrogation is focussed on a particular item of infbrmation. Thus, the focus falls in different places in the following questions' (47 ) Il'ere |hey.fi1191191; in their \nuth /
knew each other- but were they friends then?) they.lriends in thelr youilt ? (I knorn'the1' were friends-but w-as it then or later?)
the-v

(l know
(48)

W'ere

Yes- no question have a positive and a negative orientation. A

question has a positive orientatiol.t if it uses assertive forms in preference to non -assertive ones. (49) Did sorneone cull la.vl night / (It is true that someone called) (50) .Did he v'ctit somev'here neilt" the nruseum ? (I guess he did)

It means that the speaker expects an afftrmative answer and he merely asks for confirmation. Such questions are frequently used with
offers;
(5 l) lIlould 1'ou like some cof;fee apples? Othenvise yes-no questions, some-an)' suppletion transformation is active:

in common

(52)

I can do sonzethingJitr yotr-('sn

rr

vou do cotl'thingfor
neqalir
e

anli suppletion transfcrrmation is active. By suppletioi the use of phonetically unrelated roots and affixes is meant, e.g.
5:0

The difference is due to the fact that in standard English the some-

you'me? Yes-no questions

tbrm.

ith a

neqatir

e orientatiolt contain a
thal 5ou

-a4ybadi, The some--------no suppretion transformation

t.4 5

lnebody-_

someo!e-------anjione.

somegne-=,-----no one! soiaeihiiig______!gt!ugg. one__-__none, sorrr____to.

\,\i am
e h

rr-q*fiactive
sr,

somethirG---arggr* i iriit
i t t g.

some_an)..

(53) Can'r you v,sit here'.) (ls it reall.v true {54) lstt't lhe raCio-set tarkiitg'.)
(i-5)
D<tes nobociy

can't

aFecting

ottl'

sm i, so m

e t h i i?

g:,_ _ Np

bad!

(46i i arc u*t

3t7..r,J.a..

sL.r .ri?i

rhirii i aft trcne.

",

question are inclr'ded here.

s.z".hter".oeative snt*"c.' or questions are used to re(luest informatron, shouring that the speaker expefis an answer. The foilor,r,ing tipes cf

knov' v'here he irves! No cttc. 3.2.1.1. Negative orientaiion ma,v include an element of surpnse oi' iiisbelief aiiciing impiiia.:ici':s oilositive m;anins. Here is a comi;ii'ing i'ia posiiive and a negatii e attitude, whicir ci're rriav disiiii-quislt as iirc tiiti assumption (positive) and new assumption (negative). Because the old r'.ssunptica tends ic be idel:ified ';ith tire spcakcr's hopcs ci ';ishcs. ilegativc oriented quesiicns clien express disappclntnen: or annc','anci: t,55) ()cm't 1'tru eiri'e strarght / (I'i have rncught vou'd be abie ro. bul

a*qaraa+i..''^" qPPor vrtrr-y

t ,i]uirk, F-., Greenl-'aur:r, S , L.eech Ci ang *(r;.34r-,i[ Corrlerriptrrary Engjish. i ongsra,;, i.ondon . tr98;q. p 378.

.i.. A. {-i!-.?n]mnj-

Cl

alipears you're not).

(57\ iren'l 7'otr ctshamyci r-tf -vmr:elj,) (i'ou ought to be. bui ii

-)/

^^-1.\ V ws v4rr

(58) llasrr't the l>ocrt ieft 1'et7 (i'd hr-.peri bul .ir scrln: :i:er ii :lrsn:.

it rvoulcl nav'e leil

.bv

nt-"'r'

such questions are similar to tag questions, or to statements showing disbelief (e.g surely someone called last night) Declarative questions are identical in form with a statement, excepr for the final rising question intonation. (59) Yott'te brought the stt]ffi {60) You reqlize }lthai the ri.sks' ure,t i61't He didn't drlnk yp rhe milk? -3.2.2' b) {'/h-c7uesti,n.s are trrose questions ibrmed with one r:f'the rnierrogaiive woi-cis. who, whose. whom, what, ,ryhich, q,hen, where, ho.,,r, why . tl" Q *o.d may, occu!- in a prepositional phrase: the prepo"riticn is placed bef,:re it ir foriiial Eirgiish and ai tiie enci of the senience in colloquia! English. There are scme rvavs of intensifling the emoti,,,e effect cf a wn-quesrion.

(75)
(76) (77)

Whal haPPetted there? I|heui doe.s he.lhit*?

Who said thatT(S)

Thus, the Q- element operates in various clause fi"rnctionsl

(tS) Mehpp;teAdid y'otr 'sentl her'? (DO) (objective ilVj tto"'n iat ditl they make the ltookcdse',) {C.)
{?i:';
t':r-htt,.l'i!! h': bri:tg

compl )

ii i:':cl?

('e^

iiir:e)

i52) IIVv utt eurth

(.53)
il'h_v.

s.triti thui?

Allen'puts it, "ever here has exactly the same rneanlng as cn earth... In ol im_petuous speech, stronger expressions ur. ur"d. 1n-cy OC_OrEt.^, tle de'il, the blazes." Thus he includes ever amons emphatic colioqural interroqations. There is stress on both the woro and on ei.er For e\arnnrc e (66) llho on earth is the l,oung wan tn.erthere?

on ecrtit are they stcnding there? t61) tri'hr, tit<: /pll (u's .tr,ri : (65) When.for god,s saLe djd he go titere? In question tbrni, to emphasize trre speaker's surprise, consiernation, or annoyance. gJer is commonly used in spoken English

(81,\ Where does he 1n'e? (A Piace) {.82} I[rxv n*ch doe's she care'l {,A intensification) (8-1 .\ Hoti' long hss lte beeti l+orking here'l i}+i ilp":iiict!'ii-,es slie sai' ;1rr,,r' iA tcq','iencv) \V.Stannard Alien ccnsiders the auiomatic-11g9E1p-n-rq$p9-11l! tc siatements which fall into two main grouPs. T),pe i. wirci.e iiie ageiri or prepositionai pan crf tl:e coii-rnianci is missing]lnA the respcnse asks for fiirther ciarification Fr-.r er:ampie:
(35) Go

tliiicl':!1'

['lrhere

li]'

As w.sta.nnard

il --*---*-----rlltttl t+'itlt'? i9t; a failing tone The preposilion iakes end position anci with uttered They are the emphasis falls on it as the active agent' Type 2: Respcnses cf stlrprise. consternaticn or mere ,irundffiu*Jing of the complete sense. The whole idea is questioned and Thev are repeated with thJ accelt on the Q word rvhich takes final position For example uttered with a rising tone (81) Open the bottle vith this pit1.
Cpett

(67) (6S;

This cannot be rnislaken for:

'W;ho ,ever can he be'/ 'w*hal ,ever are )lou doing?

(69) (70)

(71) Were fi"t)nt,) (72) Whar for., Colioquial speech is abundaut in questions containing only the A Q -element cannot be an indirect object, the eiquivalent e_word irepositionat construction
being used instead:

has the nuclear stress) are very common:

Abbreviated questions consisting of e-word and fr'ar preposition (rvhich

Whateyer he cloes. lte cloes v,e!|. Whqlever he nny do, it is too lctte.

(88) Withv'hnt'/ 3.2.3. c) Alternative questions show that the speaker expects all answer to one of the two Or more alternatives mentioned in the question. (89) Would yrn iike coffee or tia? Such questions raise the idea ofchoice There are two types of alternative questions one type resembles a yesno question like the one above, and another type resembles a rvh-question (90) If/hich nould .vou like: coffee, vhiskt', or v'ine'? The difference between a yes/no question and an alternative question is that the former has a final rising tone, whereas the latter contains a sepafate nucleus for each alternative (a rise on each itein but a falling tone on the last showing that the enumeration is complete).

Predication of a sentence is questioned by r.vhat:

(73) Wo(w) did.vou .;end tJte parcel to? (741 7'o n.hon clid l.ott .sentl rhi parcel !

(91)

Yes-no: Shcrll I bring you son?e v'hisb or tvine'/ No, I should like sonte socla. aitemative: (gZ) Shqil I bt'irrg you sttme tt'kisk7 ( '-) r-tr v'irrc i -----.*.r ''
Wine, pleuse.

'

Starurard" A.W.,

Livins

En_elish Structure, Longman,

London.

1977,

p.l9g

usuaiii; favoured.

littlle and I'ew a posirile meaninc). {10-1) ,.i:ii 7,tui;le .,'rititt*iitct!. iit, illet.i ii}i'\ AJb''t' t:eople Atntr he it r ighi ,Jltii ti,ter;'; {10rj) He h*d * little rest in the tiorri,g 4;,trtrp,., The adverb cniv ean take bcth positiv* u*a t,*!oti'r-.- tug,*, the pc,titive berr:g

the subject of the tag is taken from the that-clause. but the absence ol. negation from the tag is explained *,ith refeFnce to the negative panicie of the independent clause, which applies semanticaily to the trr*a1-crau-se 3-2'4'1, \Arhen the staieineni c'snrains a negati.u.e a<iverb suci:i as h4rdiy. scarcei]'. seldom, rareiy, never, the tag questlon is affrrmative. (iOi),4-e has nei'er rakeri oTfence nt tioi, jia.i he? {102) H? ls jatr,J!! * gcr.:,j dcctor. jl: !ze) iLAS) Thry ctnild,:.;?!tk;ti; gt; t;.:i!.fir. citigit! !i?t:y,,' l'he deiernainers iittle and fulv arqused *iti, 'uS:.5;i!t:;, p"uiti.,." tug*, ,Fii. a iittie and 4 {ew are lblio+ved bv nesati*./e cnes {ihe inceiin;te anici! determir.,e,r a gives

tag question is appended to.a statement: a positive statement is follow-ed by a negative tag, and a negative statement is fo110u,ed by an affirmative rag, both parts of the sentence being uttered *,ith a fa[ing tone. The statemenr expresses an assumption and the tag question expresses an expectation. In case oftransferred negation, such as. (100') I don't sttppose he is .seriou.s. is he?

( -- ) ot, hos ir troltped i -*l l d) Tag questions, or disjunctir,e questions, or tail questrons . ,3.2.4. show that the speaker expecrs a confirmation of the truth of his statilent. a
(99) Is it rttrnitry

penpnrasls is used. (97) Ls he sleeprng or (is he) totching I-I,.lt (98) 1s he .sleeping or u,crtching II-? where there is no repeated structure, no ellipsis is possible, the second question appearing in its full fonn.

In such a question as (94) Did Dcm ar Rrsb coarc flte secrntd? the ellipted elements are. (.95) Did Dan (come the seconcl) or (ctrd) Btb conte the secorr{':) A wh-question can be used as the subject ofa complex sentence: (96) Lvho stole ilutr big piece of rnecft is vhst tve rtave rc.fird ,ut. when the questioned rvord is the subjLct and the e-erement is who, no do-

alternative question by adding or not? or a matching negative clause. (93) yes -no: Are you ctmritg tsr nol? Are "y,otr conitryl or nrett't 1.otr ?

3.2-3.1. Any positive -ves-no question can be converted lnto

an

the g1lapeople v:ith afltt', v'eren't the)''l aux and the pronoun coreferential with the sub.lect the Thetag consists of property w-hich establishes the relation between is a semantic Coreference on a basis of equivalence. fhe frcin the two sentences phrases noun the question: in the tag is maintained there introductory (109') There is :tmtetltittg t vong v'rlh lilnt, iv{t there / The fact must also be added that the negative tag am I not, considered too formal is replaced in tags by aren't I? There is a less common type of tag question in which both statement

(108)

They

t'ere

and question are positive, the tag always having

(cf. Quirk):
Such tags may involve sarcasm. suspicion, irony. (111) S"o these sre hi.sv'ays, are they?

a rising nucleus

{110} You\,e had highfever, (112)

she

have )''au?

,Scr

i,s

your closestfriend,

i'E

she?

are used when the speaker wants 3.3. Impifallyg-$gntences, or ry5!;, to determine somebody to do something. Thus, they express commands. requests" or advice. Such sentences have an imperative finite verb, unmarked for number or tense. Formally speaking, thel' can be classified into imperative sentences/commands/ without a subject and contmands r.vith a subject. As a matter of fact, the irnperative sentences without a subject are those commands in which the subject is the pronoun yQu in the deep structure, it being deleted in the surface structure. An argument for this mav be the fact that the pronoun you is mentioned in the surface siructure in Imperative + Question forms as rvell as the reflexive pronoun (ll3) Cail me up toftight, v'on't 7'rtrr? (114) Belxne t:otn'.telf l (115) Be qieri

(116J Behm'e yourselr{ v'ott'l

y'sp1'/

{Il1}

Be qwiet, v,'ill 3'ou?

This is iiiarie ciear'ei

il

','uu givc 'Llie piu'asc riiaikcl

ui iiic

sirnpic

{718\

Behave ttourself i

i707) th,:.,,.yeye tha c::!-,. :ea:!e

..;,:!h

:: i!u,. ji,9il:, ihe,:,i!

S
I

(-tlAT t |-t(
i NP
I

\,tP

,/\ .// \
\r
I

triiviEDiATE

Oh{STiTUEr\T

AF{ALY Si S

Kelrexl\

t\
Picn
R.eilexi-"'s

4.1. Introducing the concent. In IC analysis, sentences are divided rnto iheir plncipai iarts cr irimedrair cLln5tiiueiir.s':eih ci ti)L-se ccn:tiiuuirr5. i! then dir,'icjed anri suhiiivicecj rintii the riitimatc constiiuents of the sentencc
are rtaclicd
,+1--,-.i.^.1"+ i: .=-'-== .l:=':ll.-'.=,-,''n::i,r Tr-:rrr.g f Ilr'r'-..-l-.,ri 3!LV: +ili$ r,-' !!! J'!3rjit! !!l iluL:rr , A ru: LriLr .-.'+" uuii i:ii*!:i t t:: U! t i!it
r11: ii16

Behave

Yr;u1s.-if

piurai morpiremes, the iniiectionai- ed, the sufi-ix-l-v etc. Reiationsi:ips holding bet'ween the iCs ma'/ be anaij.zed and identified a{ier each cut is mad. in the irst syarnpie. the frrst cur .,iei,is structures that F;nctrcn as subiect and rredicate
i ttc U(*tr'5
^L-.1-. r^_-^L^r SiiYlV LULlliiLi
r1-

and crder ofthe constituents The basic ilatterns ar. S1";. Rea,j

Cutririia;r{,'is,l sssllrbie siaieulclis iu tirat iirev, sircw tite s?rme siruciriic

_..- -. ^ _. ij tqj LrLi ! rt) !

In pcint passive is rare: (I19) Be .seated. (12Q) Be preTtared. For emphasis, commands usually have the subjecr you {121) You conrc herel (122) Ycru be quiet.t
(123)
You stop talkiu.ql

3-r'A. ir-i:* i,:els. SVC: Be reasonable. SVOA. Lay ir on the sheii Usually there ls no tense or aspect distrncticn

sf

',.cice.

ti::i'i:rt E.;rctinrrc The secorid cut --vie1,3s strictuies tliai fai:icticii as verbal elerneiit aiid .;orrrpiement (cr ob;eci) .xithirt 'rhe p,eri.iea'';e. The boys shyly touched the puppv Verb phrase Noun phrase Struct'.rres: Verbal element lComplementiobject)/ Functions. The final cuts yields. The boys shyly touched the puppy
Structures;

Sti.;ctures. i'ioi;nplras:

Determiner Noun
Functions:

Adverb Verb

Determiner lioun

Thev often express strong irritation.

Modifier Head \,{odifier Head Modrfier Head 4.1.1. This type of analysis gives rise to the practice of referring to noun-headed structures and yelb+qadd_jlructuryl when speaking of clusters or phrases where the construction is one of modification. The adjectives and adverbs shor.r' similarities in syntactic function The
relationships holding between the determiners and nouns above are the same as that holding between the adveib and verb. In the following erample. the first cut yields stnlctures that function as
subject and predicate.

Smallptppies
' Herndon,

are

fat and

frisfu,'.

J.,

Structural Analysis of English Sy$ani, in A Sur-r'ey of

Modern Grammars, Hoit, Rinehart and Winston,

USA.

1976.

Functions:
Smctll

Structures:

Nounphrase
Subject
LTre

\rerb phrase Predicate

The second cut yields:

the successive immediate constituents can be analysed. Old or father * (adjective or noun) alone could be substituted for old f-ather (adjective
noun); for old f'ather Thames could be substituted a singie lloun water, John, o, an article + noun group iike the river (itself an erpansion of single "Tt, noun constituent); for keeps roiling aiong could be substituted keeps rolling, (single verbs) and for keeps rolling could be substituted flqwl runs, etc of sentences may be large numbers to patterns common ltre a.Z.l. is the simpiest structure syntactic A basic t]'pes sentence called favourite longer innumerable u'hich from type, sentence favourite any of form structural at various of expansions series up by be built can sentences
olaces.

puppie^t

fat cod.frisrr\.

Structures: Verb Compound Adiective Functions: \'erbalelement Complement The fi'al cut yields one structure composed of head and modifier. and another composed of two coordinates joined by the conjunction and
serving as a connector

sentence- the meaning or the stylistic effect is different. For eramole. (1') The bo1'played nrarbles on his hrce.s.

Small puppies Ne fat and fiisky, Structures: Adj r'rloun Verb Adj Conj Adj Functions: Modifier Head \zerbal coordinate connector coordinate If a prepositional phrase is placed in a different position in the
(2)
T'he bo1, <tn

his knees plcrl,ed marhles.

(3) On his hrces the boy played marhles. These sentences are stylistically different. In the first, the prepositional phrase modifies the verb phrase, in the second, it modifies the noun phrase, in the third, it modifies all the rest of the sentence Immediate constituents. Basic svntactic structu{es 4.2"1. sentences are not merery strings of words in an acceptable order and making sense; they are structured into successirre componenrs. consisting of groups of words. contiguous or discontinuous and of singre u'ords, as R.H. Robins' defines them. T'hese groups and single words are called constituents; rvhen thev are considered ar part of tie successi'e ur-rr-avelling cf a sentence, they are calied irnnrediate icnstituenis. Immcdiatc constltuents analysis is basic to syntax, and is one of the means whereb-v= riati'ic speakers forrn anri unciersianci ionger seniences. Longer sentences are srn-rcTr-rred jn the same \.vay as the irreduciblr'shcn sentences. called basic !elta!89-iv!es. 'ihe q'avs in ti:e lcnger senien+es i:r:i!t are ui: irom 'vr:ich and analysed into siron basic sentence patlerns nray'be calleo expansion:. 4.2.2, 'the basic patterns of sentence structures musi be krrown as weii as the reqular means by which these Datterns are exoandeci. In longer sentences like: {4\ Old -fttther TAqmes keeps rolling alone
.1.2.

Sentences are. horvever, found in all languages, that do not conform to and are not reducible to on of the basic syntactic structures. Some such very fbw sentences may be frequent in utterances, but as types they underlie may be sort of this Sentences sentences. longer expanded siructures or into lall They sentences. or--mln!Irtll!3[19l! non-favourite. reierred to as lclassifies them. R.H.Robins as two main classes

1) Those which may be a part of a ionger sentence which are structurally independent of a previous sentence and which ma-v initiate a
discourse or conversation. Such sentences are often exciamatory: (5). John! (6) Hello! (7) Dratl

(8\ Gracious! Some ofthem can be expanded in certain directions: (9) Poor old ,Johrrl '1rA) Hello there!

(| l) Drat thal

natse i

(12) Good gracious nte.t Others may be gnomic such as: (13i Easi' cGiiie, c..t.i: go. (14'l The sooner, tirc lleiti. They are lexically restricted, and littie or no variation of the words in them is non'naily permitted.
Sentences thai are referabie io longer sentences contaitdng tite sarne $iord or sequerlce 3f r.r.,s1'Js. The;,' r:suaiiy collsiitule :3sponsss lc) a previous utterunce, particularly a question (l5j Ollhere do you lire?) In ,4shlorC.

2)

' P-cbins. R. H., Trai*_fuin'ie:i+na! A;a!';sri, Loi:gman, London, 1 968.

in Cenerai

Lingaisiics,

rRobins, R.H., op.cit.

But sentencslike here! . hcinds iip.t . qil i.ight!, f'i.itcen ui! (in tennis scoring's,.Jotl-t' vtell done! can all be understood irrespective of the prev.ious l!tterancp in nn annronriete qifrrctiorr Ther ciff-er frcrn the fbrmer in rhat the.r-rna', be:-epreced bi e lcngcr and mcre explicit sentence {of a fa'"'ourite t;.pe) of .*hich thei mav be a part. (16) We liw in Ashfbr.d.
(.17\ The
sgl>1"g

CHAPTF'R

CATEGORIAL COF{STITTIENT STRIICTURE OF

SEN-i'EN(]ES.
5.1. 'l'he Categoriai Constitueni Structure Q{ Sentences

ic fift.,sn stt
yt'e!! dotre.

i 18)
'i'i-^

that w,rs1z!b,
^^-.^-_--

{19} Poor.iohri rtat *tcii. :nade i.ii; ,,.i it.rc s.,'nta.ctic e unsiiiurtiir Pc,ci -'icha anc ran a=v!ay, each of thesc ccrrstit"r.renis is it;eif ccrni;csed clii.;,; ecnsiitucnis pc.gf ar.J;c,hn on ine .jlie i-.and, anii i-Gn G.i-rd.iii,i-i:_ n11 titu Citi,:,. Pccr -I+!* is a ccii:titueEt of the sa1:re c3tegcry, called i'{p {:icun phr:rsc}. a:;

i:

'ui hi-q int''ritions' abr:gr thc speaker's synractie c+rnpetence is reflected --+.;!!-fsrmedness iderivci tcr: nis ,.r,t-n." grarnrnaticali$, l.c 3l*'ltaciic jr-idgrinents) on ihe c,ne lian,i. and aboi-ii the sy,'ntartic
in
acceptabii"ity siniciii:. of staiences. oii the cihei'

iij-

l-,iie preli':u::!rap:er' ii.:

i'je= *':s i'':i"re'j

iilli til'

iohn, mr' irtq4{ ihe emperor's i'hvourue so!, sne. il}9_iunrLlliql_r!_lcg rhe '*oli- eti. Simiiai-ii- rair a1r.,a:\'is a consiiiiitlli of iir. sa:r1tr.:)^!cgL\j...,,,;?riec
VP {veih ohrase). as*cA-i!!e, sleot.

we-nt_tcr p,a-fis. iiit the lroy etc l\Ps airi -.,.?s in:..v i]e siinpie iccnsisiing <;i a ;iri-je i'^--. -_:-.-^: ^- ^^-mi;;;nai ioiniioi loitii;icx iio;tiic,i of ;rioti uuits.iiirrciilsi \ 4.2.4. There is an infinite numher of :_r.niacticaiiv and mcrpiroiogicaliy weii iormeci Nps anci V?s in l:nglish: ind the qralnmar uiiisi eeileiai* eaeh cf tl]ese witlr it: lcrr'eci pliia:.e stiucir-lic a:ial1.:is iir terms oi the grouping of the iorms within N? or rhe vp and the categorization ofthe groups and subgroups. In order to represent the phrase structure or constitueut structure oi'

Eacir

ci

tl-r.r:;e

Frorn rhe [ornraiiziug iingui:tic kn.-,\viecise DL1ini of rriew- tiie syiitactic COiitilot.icili tnij5i pro'nidc rurie; aDOui -Ui'atriiiraiiCality ciiid '!'rngrarni::raticalii-rr over ai.i ilifi-,-,iie i3i:r$ oi se nillces' ii ii''*si also -^iovine if the enougir syntactic inforrnation a'bout a Sentence to make it ciear In addit:ca -'l

aid senant:c c+r:ipcns$s ilnci:.c:: ccirectl.,. iei,rg s,"'r:la*icail',' -'''e!i-i:, l::d, :!'rrltrit's =u:i ai:'; It :;i::a::ii;ail';' ss and inter"pretabie, and phonoiogicaii,v pronounceabie ivith the stre uctLiles sti is the ii Sei'riei-rces. Englisii norrriai intonatroii contours of
phcnclogical
phonological components'

pro.,,ided by the s\,,ntactic,ntles.lhich ar-e the inputs to the sernantic and

'

sentences, tree diagrams are commonly used.

forms" cf
qrrivecl.

The validity of the notion of phrase struoure is accepted by most linguists. One reason for that is, as J. Lyons puts it that ,'many sentences oi English and other languages are interpreted ctifferently according to whether one phrase structure analysis rather than another is assigned tolhe string of

constituents. These structural units. or s,vntactic units, i.e particular sets ofconstituents belong to categories ofvarious types. Let us consider the status
ofthese constituents and categories in relation to a sentence such as. (1) This remqrk ruoy see'fi1 lerribl.l" unnol ing to thqr ho.)" In the sentence above this modifies remark, so that the sequence of the sentence. in [this remark] forms a single structural unit, a constituent much the same way, that modifies boy so that the sequence fthat boy] is also a constituent of the sentence. To goes r'vith the phrase [that bo-v], scl that [to that boy] is also a constituent of the sentence Since the phrase rvhole [terribly onnoyittgl and fto that boy] both modifv seem" then the .4i1 a constituent is also i"qu"ni" [seem teiribly annoying to that boy] be can sentence the of structure thii information about the constituent as: such form tree-diagram ofa represented in the

{.t.2. Wo}ds clo not pattem directlf into sentences The-o.- are structured I grouped into successil'ely larger structural units called

(20) He ttrrived late

bs

night

vs lt

ncts lare last

nigltt thet

he

meanrng

i\ith either arrived or-.last-ruibt would normally be clear 1iom the intonation and stress. The fact must be underlined heie that differences of phrase structure should correlate, at least partlv, lvith differences oi
larc

(21)'Iom or Dick and Httrry v'i/r go (either Tom *'ill go or Dick anci I{arry will go VS either Tom or Dick wilt go and Harry will!o). Further, he explains that the ufterance He a,.it,ecr iare last nighr .. would not normally be arnbiguous in spoken English. since the grouping ot

Smith. N.V. and Wilson. D , N'todern Linguistics. London, 1979

(21

5.2. Phrase-Markers. Labelled Bracketine aiready - 5.2.1 . Phrases are equivalent to the word groupings we havephrases, pattern into words units. So the larger to clauses and to, referred okases into clauses and clauses into sentences. In much the same waY as r.vords belong to different categories, so do

This remark may seem terribly annol,in-e; to that boy Each point in the tree is called a node, and each node represenrs a constituent, i e. a syntactic unit. As the tree diagram show.s us- the words of this sentence are not only the syntactic units, i.e. the constituents oi. the sentence" but also the phrases [this remark], [te*ibly annoying], [that boyl, [to that boy] and fseem terribty annoying-ro thaiboy] 5 I 3. The fact must be mentioned here that a tree-diag.am pror,'ides

ohrases.

i.e the key ohrases of the same kind, and in both of them the head,

For erample, the phrases [this remark] and [that boy] seem to

be

are called

This is the same kind of worci as that, the, a, etc. The traditional way of dealing with the sinrilarities and dissimilarities between constituents is that of including them within categories of various types. For e*ampre, words like boy. remark are traditionally included r.vithin the caiegory of nouns, whereas words iike this, that are traditionally considered toietone to !19 category of Deferminers. The word seem is considered by thi traditional grammar as being the same kind of word as goo feel appear called main, or lexical, cr full-rneanins Vert But the word may is the sanie kincj of must, might, can, will, would, shall, shculd. i.e. Modal(Auxiliary) Verb To is rhe same kind cf ccnstiiuent as at, in, for, with, from etc. i e. a Piepcsitlon. The v','oids ierriiiiy is iike extreraei-r-. awfiliip-, rrighr-v,:rc. traditicnaii',; caiied as ad'erb {interrsifieri" a'd annoying is the sarrie kinci as boring, exciting, etc, traditionally labelled as Aciiectlve. A-s it hes zlrezci'been menlioned, r.rcrds do iiot paiiern diieciiy iiilo sentences, that is there are sonle inten'ening levels of organization b*tr"een rvords anci sentences. These inter.,.ening units betr.veen Ju,ord anc sentecce
.

is the same kind of words as a boy, with the difference that boy:'has personal reference lvhile remark has non-personal reference.

i.e of the basic does not provide any information about which constituents are constituents of the same type. Thus, r.ve cannot consider remark and this in sentence (1) as constituents of the same type. Remark
syntactic units, but

a representation of the constituent structure of a sentence,

annlyingl is a constitue't of the same type as [highly exciting], fver-v handiome] etc. that is a phrase whose head is an adjective [annoying. handsome, excitingl, so it mav be called Adjectival phrase The phrase [to that boyl is of the same type as [with her sister], [from that man], ffor

ionstituent of the phrase is a Noun. Therefore, these tw'o constituents can be assigned the categorial status of Noun Phrases. The phrase [terribly

it

John], whose head is a preposition, so it is called a Prepositional Phrase . The phrase [seem terribty annoying to that boy] is of the same type as [behave rather rudely to his wife]' [send a parcel to John], [go UacL to school], that is a constituent whose head is a Verb, so it is considered a Verb Phrase. Finally, the u'hole sequence [This remark ma,v seem terribly annoying to that boy] is a special t}pe of constituent traditionally labelled as Clause or Sentence' The explanations given so far and the tree-diagram ofsentence (i) given in (2) prove that none of this important categorical information is iontained in this type of tree-diagram. The relevant categorial information can be conveyed by such a diagram if an appropriate category label is attached to each ofthe nodes in the tree, a labelled tree-diagram being the result obtained. Consequently. the categorial constituent structure of sentence (1) can be represented in terms ofa labelled tree-diagram in thrs
form:

(3)
DN

,,\

-.--t iiF

_--l i ---\in'i

'v?

l'=il--=--\*A!AD\T A

YF

r.\ i-\ P
I,J\ i!\

-httP
n\i ii L\

phr*se

arrd c!:luse

This

remark

iltoY

secl:l ierriLrli annovinq io

.i tirat

ii

irov

The symbols repiesent S=clause/sentence. lrlp=Ncun phrase. N:iioun, VP:"v'erb Fhrase. !'-\'erb. AF:A<ij ectivai pkase, .A:Aoi ective. ADV:Ad'erb, PP-Frepcsitionai Phrase. p:preposition, N4=l\iocial.
D-Determiner.
labeiied rrec diagiarr giveli in (-l) is relerreii rc *s ri Phrase-marker {P-ruarker) because il marks lhe hierarchicai srounins of rhe',^-crCs:ric pirases. &no pr11pg59t:ni. lenience:: ii sh.ltys the-ccnsiltl;nt Tl're iype
IJ
I

-\.?

\iD -,nN
i
I

1r
I I

nn rr

ci

I
I

Ii: t

ullli;

.._..- ^: .. i Ci lia!l I I

l' l/-:

t\i
f\ jj

i' /\
\i

-.

cisenrencs l il. and hc'; each cf ihe phrases rs _rin[iuie,i out of iis ci),1!pr!'trnr r.''orcis. ihe P-r:rarxer i,i) represents the superiiciai isui-i'acei syrllactic sir-'r{iure io| S-structure; as Chcn:ski,caiis it, cisentence ii i. -5.:: ,i P-iirarkei is a sranh consisiing oi'a. set oi puiitrs caiie,j nories (rei;iesenieci r-5y iarqe rjcrts), corinected bv irranches (relresented n.,, salid !ines). The ncdes at the bcttcm enc of a iree-dia-gram are terminal ncdes, the cihei aoriis aie licii-te:.ii:iriai. Fach n.:de carries a ielrri r.jon_ terininai r"odes haue tate'i,'t-i ir.beis {i r liP, ii. Vp, y, A}V ltti. rhe ier;r:irai n(i'Jel are iabeiled r'vilir a:r apprspj-iatc lexieni iiem i:,,,,"a,ii. ,.,._l:r, pair of ncoes',r;itnin the same p-marker is rslatec ?ither b'i dcminance or b+ precedence. Thc S no<ic ccminates ali tiie otiier ii,:,ies iii iiis r,rcc. i., immediately dominates only the constituent structures of the sentence. For e.iampie- rn a senience iike (4) ffis utrcle till rernqin qt the airport. the s nocie immediately dominates only the Np, ll{ and vp nodes irnmediately beneath it. Further on. the \i node dominates the D and l, nodes, the terminal nodes labelled his and uncle; the \,? node dominates the node labelled V, the terminal node labelled remain, erc.
'r)nras-es

ii

iiie
i..xo irnpcrtant tr-aditicna!

arrl:ot i

ihe ierns dcrninance alcl inornediale dornina:lce are used rrr define 1ei!)1-c- i e. ccnstituent. and immeriiate corrstitueiit: "A sei i:f iiodes fol'il a .:qrtlstitiient iof- sonie Seilterlie sirictuic)i iithcl- arc crhau:;tivci;; doinii:aisd D-y'a conii:i.-)il nitde ii.c. if tn,:.i ali brarcir cut of a singie r,ode and iiij:ere re nc othsr lcde; bianci';ng ci;l 'iirrl is ii' :ai li i: :i u,ll:s'rjtueni .ri'r' !i iif Airii of thc Sar-;i* Si:rgii :iO,-ie":
ani,,,

'o-v Y" and "X is aii tiiii.irediatc coiistitue-iit ci Y it )i b," Y"' dorninated is immeciiatei.v Besides the method of representing s,vntactic structure by the use of iabelled tree-diagram iP=markers), there is aiso the methoi cf using iabeiiec bracketing. By this method we rvould represent the categorial status of eacli of the words in sentence ( I )

i0 X is dcrniiratt,C

(6) tD Thisl

[]i

remarkl

[M mav] [V

seem] |ADV terribll''l [A'

one node precedes a'other

In the sentence above, the M node precedes the Vp, V. pp, Np. D and N nodes to its right- as well as the w'ords labelling them There is a ctear distinction between precedence and immediate precedence. For example. the NP and N nodes immediatery precede the M node. and the r.vord wilr. not the \tP and v nodes are the word remain. In the same way, the N{ node immediately precedes the Vp and v nodes a'd the word .ernain, but it does not immediately precede, although it precedes, the pp and p nodes. or ttre r.vord in. etc.

if it occurs on the leil of another node.

annoyingl [P to.l [D that] [ N bo1'i. Within the system of labelleci bracketing, fthis remark] and fthat boyl are NPs (Noun Plrases), ito that boyl is a PP (Prepositional Phrase). fterribly annoying] is an AP (Adjecti.ralPhrase). [seem terribly annof ing to that boy] is u yp (V-erb Phrase) and [This rernark may seem terrihl-t'' annoying to that boyl is an S (Clause).

(7) tstl.lPtD thisl [N remark] [M may] [\rPlV seem] [APIADV teniblyl [A annoyingl [PP[P to] tNPiD thatl [N boy']llll
The same information is conveyed by the use of diagrams

(i)

and (7)

but tree-diagrams are easier to read, because the infbrmation inciuded in

them is less condensed. Partial tree-diagrams. or partial labelied bracketin5 may be used to represent the major phrases within a sentence, without references to the internai structure of those phrases. Thus sentence (l) consists of three major constituents. the NP [this remark]. a Modal
2 1,2 Radford, A., op.cit., p. 111

Auxiliary Verb may, and a VP fseem terribly nnnoying to that boyl. In this case, the partiai P-marker (8) is prefened instead of the fu1l treediagram (3); (8)
(1

Rule 10 (a) generates the partial tree structure

0 NP

--t

DN
S

(l l)

l)

\.D
I

NP
I

IU
(10 b)

VP

may

1"*

terri

n n or, i n

frJii-iib-uy-

If we aPPIY rule
structure (12):

to

expand the

\?

rn

(11) we denve the

In partial P-markers like the one above, a friangle is commonly usecl represent constituents with a complex internal structure rve are not interested to represent. By the use of partial bracketin_e, we can represent sentence (1) as

(t2)
S

to

foliows:

-/--l.--'-"PP AP

that boyll.

(9) ISINP this remarkl [M may] [VP seem terribty annoying to

into (13)

We can conclude that sentences have a hierarchical constituent structure in w'hich sounds are grouped together into words, words into phrases and phrases into sentences. Each constituent (word or phrase) in a
sentence belongs to a specific syntactic categorr. Thereiore sentences have a categorial constituent structure which can be represented in the form of

Applying rule (10 c) and (10 d) to structure (12), we expand (12)

P-marker (:labelled tree-diagram), or labelled bracketing. But in case of an untrained informant, constituents and categories have oniy the status of theoretical constructs, because his intuitions about the syntactic structure are uncertain and unreiiable.
a

5.3.

Phtagestuctqre Rules (:PS Rules)

appiying ruie ( I tj e) io structure
in+n /'l d\
(13

component mal' be reibrrculated as being that of generafi*g {i.e cf speciff ing hor'-, ro fonn) ail the grammatical sentence siructures in a iarrguage For exampie. sfuctures such as (3) can be generated by a set cf
Phrase Structure Ruies.

5,3 1. Tliere is a systern of syntactic rules which inust specity whicii of words form grammatical sentences and render the internal syntactic struciure of such sentences. Thus, the goai of the syntactic
sequences

), this structure

"r'iii

be expa.nded

(14)

Let us consider the tbilowing set of pS ruies. which are Categorial

Rules, because they speci$ =which cate-qoi1 words or phrases belong tc{10 a) S --+}dP M \'?

NP

_'-..--=-_ \iP M --'t\ V

---l I t\

-\PP

b) c)

A?-+.AD\?

\?--i VAp

pp

AD\,?
AN\I dt.-a \
i

,'/t\ z\/\

-4P
,4.

i\

l\?

ci).{DVP--+,+ijV e.t PP --+ P NP

Appl;ring rule
(

foliowing structure will be generated:

(i0 $ to expand both

S

Noun Phrases

in (2). rhe

(i8)
S

l5)

NPM\?

h?

\,r
v
i

\-r
---ll\-

i rg)
PF

\' /

Applyin,e (17 b) to structure (18). structure (19) is senerated:

s

,+r

AD\,? A P
I

.,/

\P
N.I'

j
----l't\--_ \,'

1._P

,i rai /
i

l\-r-P

.4.!

J\,

Applying i-ule il7 c; tc both l.l,:s in i i9i S-structure of sontciiccs iihc ( 15 a):

i"iii

;"ieid ilC,;, ivhrch is iht

under each category.

Ti:esu ruies are saiied caieqoriai Ruies because b_v appivi'g ihem, ;4irjuoris! aie expaldeci in:o other- caiegories. Finaiiv. accorcins tc. iiie Lexicalisation Prineiple- anv rvord iari. iexicai iiem; listed" 1., t[* dicticrar;l as beionging ro a given -rvoid * category can be inserted uncer any coresponding (terminal) categorv node in any p_marker By apolying the i.exicalisation Principle, (15) will look as (3) with each woid inserrec

\?a)
}JP
I

\
]\4

----\:D
VpP

----^----

another:

fact must be also be added that any set of Categoriar Rules used to generate sentences must alrow potentialli inf ite recursion of panicular structures. For example, one clause can be embedded insirie
(16)

5.i.2 The

i
I

But now let us apply ruie (17 a) to generate the subtree (18) above.
skip overthe former option in rule (17 b), i.e IVP --4' \r'NP] instead of going for the latter option I V --> \r S] If lve apply this secoud part of tire rule to VP in (18), (21) is generated:
and let us see how we could expand the

\?

node in (18). This time rve couid

answer to rhat letterlll

a) [S Jack rvill not ans\\,er that letter] b) [S Bob may know [S Jack will not answer to thar letter]l c) lS Dan must realize [S Bob ma1, know. [S Jack ,"iil

not

d) [S Andrew-might guess [S Dan must realize [S Bob mav know [S Jack will not answer to that lefterj]l ln this case we can consider the following system of pS rules: (17) a) S --+ NrP M \?
b) vP

(2r)
S

-+ v\^

7NP
b

NP

'-----__=_/f_=____ s"I

\A

By applying rute (17 a). the following structr-rre is _generated

ciP ---r {D) N

o."------Applying rule (17 a) again to expand the embedderi (=lou'er) S in

(21) into its immediate constituents I NP

M V"], (22) is generated:

(16 c) Dan must realize Bob mav know Jack will not answer that
N?

M\? V.S ----{----tw x.,1 \?

If we further expand the embedded (:lower) imnrediate constituents lV Ntr] by ru1e (i7 b), u,e derive:
i-Jl
q

\?

in (22) into

its

It is obvious that by reapplying the same set of rules (17) more and more and more cornplex sentences can be generated. Therefbre, times. more the ru1e-system (i7) can generate an infinite set of abstract sentence structures, i.e. this system includes a finite set of rules which can generate an infinite set of sentence structures. In other lvords, its relevant property is that of recursion, i.e. the propensity of allowing reapplication indefinitell' many times For the rule-system ( I7), the recursion consists in fact that rule (17 b) generates as part of its output the categorl symbol S, which in its turn can serve as input to rule (i5 a). whose output includes a symbol (\?) which can serye as input to ru1e (17 b): so (i7 a) and b) form a recursive
subsystem.

letter.

NP

:-"*t*

]i{ VS

\?

5.3.3. We can conclude that the syntactic structure of any sentence can be represented in the form of a Phrase-marker (i.e. a labelled tree-

-/' NPM

---t-l

\?
l\fD

If we then further expand all the lrps in (23) into Nbv rule (17 c) omitting the optional Determiner in each case, w obtain: (24)
S

diagram). The speaker's syntactic competence is reflected in his knowledge of a set of sentence-formation rules which show horv sentences are structured out into phrases, and hor'" phrases are built up of words. The fact is clear that there is potentially no limit on the number of times these mles can be reapplied, just as there is no limit on the number of sentences that can be generated. Thus, the syntactic cotnponent of a grammar must include a finite recursive set of Categorial Rules (Phrase Structure Rules, or Constituent Structure Rules) which generate an infinite set of sentence
structures.

NP

--*---ts

ti4

/\

\,TD

Exercises
Exercise

,----i-.tlip ta iip A
VNP
I

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

rt\

fr
tvhat rve Lrav gerrerate,j here is the caiesoriai ccnstituerlt stmcrrre of a sentence iike ( 16 b) (Bob rnal' know Jack ivill not ansu,er io that lerterj Another \\.a). of generaring a scnicnce ma.; be that ,rf expandiriE VF

Explain what P-marker is and give examples of vour own. Explain what labelled bracketing is Gir,.'e examples of your ov,'n. Expiain whai paniai ire..'-diaqierr: ai:d paniai iabeiieii braciietirrg are. Give exampies of your oivn What are PS Rules ? Trv and provide a ferv exampl*r 6f r,'cr.r" D,.r^. 4PPiJrrr5 Dc a J r\ur!r. ^.,,- 1-,,.**1,,i-What do you rneaii b.v iecursicn of PS Rules ? Hcw are FS Ruies applieC to emlreCded ciauses , Provide a 1b*
^,,^**i^^ 9AOrrryl!$.

'n i22i il-rio [\' S] b1' ruie (17 b.). Thus, assurning subsequenr reappiication of iuies 17 a). bi anrl c), rvq qeili{ der:..'e a seltence 1i!:e

Exercise
il

ii
rhe

CHAPTER

set of'PS Rules in {1)

(
I

Buikl up i0 rvell-formed seniences wltich caii be generated irv

--+ t.lp t\i Vi-. w ---+ 1' 1{p tl l+ -+ D {.q})}{

a) S b)

DEEP STRUCTURE. SURFACE STRUCTURE.

SE

NIAI{TIC iI{TERPRETATION

d),{p-+{AD\?),\
lji Atlvti ___+.iijV. Gj.":6 exataoies of iji-il:rrrnerl sentenceq anC explail in,,vl-1at.,,.,.rljrr!i . ihe.,' are iii-lbrnreci

theon of g e.l. Chomskv'sj^^-j^

i_iil rL^ Llig uLlcul

iiuiiii.'J-, ",^---iiaaa

+^ tu

iiiii r -'L''

.4^ iii!

-:..-j^.:^-^ ruuirusi:vrrJ

^i \ii

.-^-^-^...,^ <!!t!rr.:r!

-ri.ra'rL;'

iii

sramrnar wefe laid and a comnicx tecl-rnical ibrmalism rl'as deveicped. iii his book Aspects af'tire Theur,v of Sy*tax, publisirerl in i955, l{. Ciroinsi-;'" pfesented the then c',irreiit -qtale cithe art The formal machinery prcpcseC a1 'oc kno'wn as ihc 'jiandard iilecr;; ,:i iiati:ribt'niaiiolai the time carnc iatcr io
geiiera'ri.,'e gramrnar.

se!^rteilceS.

(rive ihe iateiiec brackeling zad thc:iee-diaeiai,.r ;:f ti,re t,:1lcr^riiig

r:t'ovidine as r:rr-rch infcr"rnalion ;ls vcu iinit,,r,,: Thc gc-;einrleitf itti3lli ry.ie.i rircii iieiiianiii {.icr iiusbanei rna-!, get lrer\,ous

i"idel'.' heic irrai ilie .,3i';sus ccrnp.inet-.i: .-.i a stanciarci-theory granlnar anci iheir interreiaiions mav be represenied as iu

!i ;:

ii,t beiow:

I 2 I His beliar.,io.rir riould cliarrge e:;irerneli. suCdeni_; 4 fhat cassette must seem incredibly to slch kids "*iiting 5 His rvife shoi;ld bu,,. a pi,eselii Rli li;r Darcnr:. 6. Such tunes must sound very sweet. 7 The tourists -,1'alked along the ri/all 8 The oid ladr,got her pet () The postman wilianriouibout give the bo1,a parcel. l0 The president ri.ill srar ar a horel.'
Exercise IV the bracketed structures beror.r, the lefthand nrember of each pa* of brackets has aiready been labelled First, label the riehthand member ot each pair of brackets, and then convert the bracketed siructure into a iree

fi)

t/v
I i'..t.,,.iic I |

Titebase:(ii Plij:;i* ri-iri:r,;;'l:l;i -l iiiii,exicc:: ,,t

i

5.:i.r:;l:ri.-

---t' 5c;::a;rire

Deap siruci,Llre:
I

Component
__-j

I \Triirlsfornraiiort:ri nric:
(tnrr'fi)rac Strucnrres

icri.rpouc-rri l'l
i

t-+
i
I

lrrielpreii]UiJlr:

-___-i
This graphic reprsentation shows a GTG fgenerativetransformational grammar) consists of a system of rules rvhich mav be $ouped according to their role/function and foru into foru sub-svstems: (a) Base rules. specifling w-hat deep structures are possible in the respective L (language); (b) Transformational rules" converting deep strucrurcs into corresponding surface structures; (c) Semantic interpretation rules, mapping deep structures into corresponding semantic representations of S . (d) Phonological rules, specifying the phonetic representation of S As sub-systems (a) and (b) have to do w-ith syntarrtic configuration, which they either generate (Base rules), cr transform (T rules). they may be collapsed into one component, the syntactic componenr. This GTG appears to be a three-fbld grammar, the syntactic component being taken to be interpretative of syntactic structures. Phrase stnrcture rirles, which form a part of the Base component of syntax in diagram (1), are simply a formal device tbr representing the

In

diagra.m,

I PP to her grandmother]lll

provided in the bracketed structure: I [S[NP Her dau-ghter ] [M must]

pro'iding as much (or as little) informatio' in

_vour tree as rs

[\?

behave

[Ap extremely -"'-"J rudelv ^ '

2 IStl\? His niece [NI will [\,?

reject [Np that proposal]11

distribution of pkases within sentences.