RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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Reference: 1. Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS PublishersDistributors 2. Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Limited. 3.Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Beginners,(2nd.ed.),Singapore, Pearson Education. Step-by-Step Guide for

RESEARCH: a way of examining your practice

Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your professional work. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are implying that the process; 1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches); 2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability; 3. is designed to be unbiased and objective . Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in which you have been trained. Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy. Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something). Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called research. However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of research differs from one academic discipline to another.

The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements by examining some definitions of research. The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day- to-day generalisation and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH: Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical. -Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

-Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences. -Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. -Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others. -Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations. -Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics. TYPES OF RESEARCH Research can be classified from three perspectives: 1. application of research study 2. objectives in undertaking the research 3. inquiry mode employed Application: From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research: - pure research and - applied research. Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of

basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program. Objectives: From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as -descriptive -correlational -explanatory -exploratory Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study / pilot study). In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories. Inquiry Mode: From the process adopted to find answer to research questions the two approaches are: - Structured approach - Unstructured approach Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.

It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude? Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry. Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses. In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity. Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the culture and cuisine The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. For a research journey there are two important decisions to make1) What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to find answers to; 2) How to go about finding their answers. There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find answers to your research questions. The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology. At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives. This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role. Steps in Research Process: 1. Formulating the Research Problem 2. Extensive Literature Review 3. Developing the objectives 4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design 5. Collecting the Data 6. Analysis of Data 7. Generalisation and Interpretation 8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached.

Step1. Formulating the research problem: It is the first and most crucial step in the research process - Main function is to decide what you want to find out about. - The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows. Sources of research problems Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps: Peoplea group of individuals Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity. In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps.

Every research study has two aspects: 1. Study populationPeople: individuals, organizations, groups, communities ( they provide you with the information or you collect information about them) 2. Subject areaProblems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service providers, etc. Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions) You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order to identify anything that looks interesting.

Considerations in selecting a research problem: These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated. 1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation. 2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear. 3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study. 4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself. 5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study. 6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available. 7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage. Steps in formulation of a research problem : Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and adequately dissect a subject area. Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Dissect the broad area into sub areas. Select what is of most interest to you. Raise research questions. Formulate objectives. Assess your objectives. Double check.

So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study in social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the required information to find answers to your research questions is obtained. As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents. Step 2. Reviewing the literature: -Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. -Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step. -Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its functions are: a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem; b. Improve your methodology; c. Broaden your knowledge; d. Contextualise your findings. a.Bring clarity and focus to your research problem; The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area. b.Improve your methodology: A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your research questions. c.Broaden your knowledge base in your research area: It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge. d..Contextualise your findings: How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry. Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i) search for existing literature in your area of study; ii) review the literature selected; iii) develop a theoretical framework; iv) develop a conceptual framework. Search for existing literature: -To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for your search. -Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are: 1. books 2.journals BOOKS comprise a central part of any bibliography. Advantage-material published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge. Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the completion of a work and publication in the form of a book. Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading list. JOURNALS Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap of two to three years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal. As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done as follows: -locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study; - use the internet - look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles. Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.

Review the literature selected: After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated. If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book. Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects: Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt. Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them. Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge. Develop a theoretical framework: As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic. As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature. Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information: - universal; - more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program) In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing down to the specific.

Writing up the literature reviewed:

In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study: -List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature. -Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression. -Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues. In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources that were used while preparing the report. It is an alphabetical list as per the authors surname. 1. For a Book Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from titlepage-underlined or in italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if more than one, place of publication, publishers, date on title page or copyright date. e.g. Kothari, C.R., Research Methods-Methods and Techniques,1989,New Delhi :Wiley Eastern Limited,4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006. Step 3 The formulation of objectives: -Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. -They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. -It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically. Objectives should be listed under two headings: a) main objectives ( aims); b) sub-objectives. The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.

The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study. -They should be numerically listed. -Wording should clearly, completely and specifically Communicate to your readers your intention. -Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study. -Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

The objectives should start with words such as to determine, to find out, to ascertain, to measure, to explore etc. The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive, correlational and experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them. e.g. Descriptive studies: -To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in Mumbai. -To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five star hotels in Mumbai. Correlatinal studies: -To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention. -To compare the effectivenesss of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele. Hypothesis testing studies: -To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug/alchohol abuse. -To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTIVES Clear +Complete +Specific + Identify main + Identify the variables to direction of be correlated relationship IDescriptive StudiesI I..Correlational Studies (experimental and non-experimental).I IHypothesis testing studies...I

Identifying Variables: In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalised in measurable terms so that the extent of variations in respondents understanding is reduced if not eliminated. Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an important role in reducing this variability. Their knowledge, therefore is important in fine tuning your research problem. For example: -Jet Airways is a perfect example of quality cabin service. - Food in this restaurant is excellent. - The middle class in India is getting more prosperous. When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express that opinion. These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrants the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about variables plays an important role. The definition of a variable: An image, perception or concept that can be measured hence capable of taking on different values- is called a variable. The difference between a concept and a variable: Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies markedly from individual to individual. A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement. It is therefore important for the concept to be converted into variables .

Concept -Subjective impression -No uniformity as to its Understanding among Different people

Variable - Measurable though the degree of precision varies from scale to scale and variable to variable.

-As such cannot be measured. e.g. e.g. Excellent - gender (male/female) High achiever -age (x years y months) Rich -weight ( --kg) Satisfaction - height ( -- cms) Domestic violence - religion (Catholic, Hindu) -Income ( Rs ---per year)

Concepts, indicators and variables: If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its operationalisation- that is, how it will be measured. For this, you need to identify indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the conceptwhich can then be converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with researchers, but those selected must have a logical link with the concept. Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables _______________________________________________________ Concepts Indicators Variables Working definition _______________________________________________________ Rich 1. Income 2. Assets 1. Income 2.Total value of home,car, investments. 1.No.of guests served in Month/year 1.If>Rs100000 2.If>Rs250000

Effectiveness

1.No. of guests

diff. in before and after levels

2.Changes 2.No. of excellent - do in Ratings per 100 feedback a ) extent of b) pattern of ___________________________________________________________

Types of measurement scales: Measurement is central to any enquiry. The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a variable, the greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings. S.S.Stevens has classified the different types of into four categories: Nominal or classificatory scale Ordinal or ranking scale Interval scale Ratio scale

The nominal or classificatory scale: A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more subcategories depending upon the extent of variation. For example, water or tree have only one subgroup, whereas the variable gender can be classified into two sub-categories: male and female. Hotels can be classified into ---- sub-categories. The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship among subgroups. The ordinal or ranking scale: Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable. For example, income can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or qualitatively using subcategories above average, average and below average. The distance between these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement. Socioeconomic status and attitude are other variables that can be measured on ordinal scale. The interval scale: An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points. For example, Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F

Attitudinal scales: 10-20 21-30 31-40 etc The ratio scale: A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property:the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can be used for mathematical operations. The measurement of variables like income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 year old is twice as old as one who is 20 year old. Constructing hypotheses: As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to form the basis of certain assumption or guesses. You test these by collecting information that will enable you to conclude if your hunch was right. The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may prove to be: 1. right; 2. partially right; or 3. wrong. Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything about the validity of your assumption. Hence, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches hypotheses and they become the basis of an enquiry. In most studies the hypotheses will be based upon your own or someone elses observation. Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem, but are not essential for a study. You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing formal hypotheses. The functions of hypotheses: The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to investigate. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus to the study. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.