((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Transients in First Order Circuits

Lecture 7 review: Inductors and capacitors Energy storage

Capacitors
Q = CV
where Q=charge

+Q -Q

V=voltage difference between 2 plates C= capacitance take derivative with respect to t on both sides

Today: (8.1) Step function input to RC first-order circuits R-L first-order circuits Close/open switch in first order circuits Rectangular pulse input to first order circuits

dQ/dt = C dV/dt = i i=CdV/dt (remember I-V diagram)

current = constant X time derivative of voltage Ohms law tells us about the relationship between V and I for a resistor. This equation describes the relationship between i and V for a capacitor.
 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Capacitors (continue)
The I-V relationship for a capacitor is:

Capacitor example
Find the current I1(t) that passes through the capacitor as shown. The voltage source is a sinusoid V0sint, where V0 and are given constants and t is time. Since the voltage source is sinusoidal (change with time), the current across the capacitor is nonzero. From circuit   From previous page

,   = & G 9   GW

Where C is the capacitance in Farad or F, mF, F, nF, pF Notice the current depends on the derivative. If the derivative is zero, then there is no current. The derivative is zero when the voltage remains constant and does not change with time. An example would be: dc circuit. No current goes through a capacitor in a dc circuit.


9 = 9 VLQ W

,   = & G 9 VLQ W  GW ,   = &9 FRV W

,   = & G 9   GW ,   = , = &9 FRV W

But i is from B to A direction:



((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Capacitor example


CAPACITORS IN SERIES
V1


V2

Find the vc(t) across the capacitor as shown. The current I0 through the current source is constant. Apply the I-V equation for capacitor from the previous page (when the current direction A->B, then Voltage is VAB)

Veq

|(
LW

|(
C2 Equivalent to
LW

|(
Ceq

C1

Equivalent capacitance defined by

L

,   = & G 9   GW

= &

G9  GW

= &

G9 GW

9HT

= 9 + 9

DQG L

= & HT

G9HT GW

= & HT

G9 

+ 9 

GW

In the circuit on the right, current I0 is entering cap.

6R

G9  GW

L &


G9 GW

=
=

L &


VR

G906 GW

= L

 &

 &

L & 06

,  = & G 9.  , GW = G9. 9. = G9. = , GW = , W + . GW & & &

The voltage is increasing proportional to time, cap. Is charged.


Clearly, &06 = 

 + & & 

&& & + & 

&$3$&,7256 ,1 6(5,(6


((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

LW

Inductors
Ideal inductor is a 2-terminal device.

C1

C2

L W 

= &

G9 GW

+ &

G9 GW

9  = / G ,   GW
Where L is a constant called inductance with unit in Henry or H, mH, H, nH. Notice similarity with capacitance equation

|(

Equivalent capacitance defined by

L

|(

= & HT

G9 GW

LW

Ceq

|(

9W

Clearly,

& 06

= & + & 

&$3$&,7256 ,1 3$5$//(/

,   = & G 9   GW
 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

Inductors (example)
$VVXPH WKHUH LV QR FXUUHQW JRLQJ WKUX DQ LQGXFWRU DW WLPH  D WLPH YDU\LQJ FXUUHQW LW LV DSSOLHG WKUX WKH LQGXFWRU WHUPLQDOV :KDW LV WKH YROWDJH DFURVV WKH LQGXFWRU WHUPLQDOV DV D IXQFWLRQ RI WLPH

Inductance (example)

& 7 &KRL

Write a loop equations for the loop current i(t) The voltage drop in the inductor is: / GW LW  The voltage drop in the resistor is: L W  5 So, the loop equation (KVL) is:

Apply the inductor equation in the previous page:

YW  = / G LW  GW
If a time varying voltage v(t) is applied across its terminals. What is the current thru the inductor as a function of time. Again, apply the inductor equation in the previous page:

/ G L W  + LW  5 =  GW

What if you have the same circuit in series with a capacitor C?

YW  = / G LW  GLW  =  YW GW L W  = GLW  = 9  YW GW GW / /


GW G   LW  = & YW  GYW  = LW GW YW  = L W GW GW & &  The voltage drop in the capacitor is: YW  = & LW GW So, the new loop equation (KVL) is: / G L W  + LW  5 +  L W GW =   GW &

Recall the I-V eq. for Capacitor: LW  = & G YW 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Parallel/Series Inductors
Inductor in series is similar to resistor (sum):
/VHULHV = / + /

Energy Storage
Element Resistor R Capacitor C Inductor L equation V=IR I=CdV/dt V=LdI/dt energy+ or -? dissipate energy stored stored energy eq. V2/R or I2R ??? ???

Inductor in parallel is similar to resistor (product over sum):

/ SDUDOOHO = / / / + /

Assume the capacitor is uncharged, at t=0, a voltage v(t) is applied. The instantaneous power enter the capacitor is: p(t)=v(t)i(t) The energy enter the capacitor (from time=0 to t)is: W W ( = SW GW = YW L W GW





((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

Energy Storage (continue)

( = SW GW = YW LW GW
9 9

Energy Storage (continue)

& 7 &KRL

Once energy is stored in capacitor, is there way we can regain the energy? Consider the circuit on the right. Suppose the capacitor is initially charged to voltage V, is to discharge to an external circuit. The energy recovered from the capacitor (entered the external circuit) after an infinite length of time:

Recall the I-V eq. for Capacitor: LW  = & G YW 

( =  YLGW =  Y& GY GW =  &G Y   GW  ( =  & [YW ]  & [Y]

9 9 9

GW

If the Capacitor is initially uncharged:

( = & [YW ]
 

( =  SW GW =  Y W L W GW  GY YW GY = & G  Y  ( =  YW  & GW = &  GW   ( =  & [Y  Y  ]

 

Minus sign is due to the reference direction

The voltage is fully discharged (V=0) when t=



Energy store in a capacitor is: 1/2 CV2



( =  & [Y  ]

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Energy storage for inductors

GL  ( = YW L W GW = / LGW = /G L   GW 
9 9 9

Practical Capacitors and inductors

Practical capacitor = ideal capacitor in series with a resistor The resistor part dissipates energy, thus, practical capacitor can never retain energy definitely, e.g. every DRAM cell need to be refreshed periodically to retain its value. Capacitors use below 1GHz: mica, ceramic, and tantalum (see Figure a). Capacitors are specified by their capacitance value, maximum voltage applied across terminals, their tolerance.
 

( = /[L W ] /[L ]
    

( = /, 


Where I is the final current at time t, assumed the current through the inductor is zero.

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Practical Capacitors and inductors (cont)

a practical inductor can be replaced by an ideal inductor in series with a resistor and then in parallel with a capacitor Again, practical inductor can dissipate energy because of the present of the resistor.

Transients in First Order Circuits

'HILQLWLRQ

WUDQVLHQW WUDQVLWLRQDO FKDQJH VWHDG\ VWDWH

)LUVW RUGHU FLUFXLWV"

&LUFXLWV ZKLFK FDQ EH FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ ILUVW RUGHU GLIIHUHQWLDO HTXDWLRQV HJ 5& FNW 5/ FNW :KDW DERXW 5/& FNW"





((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Several Rules with Circuits

Rule 1 The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously i = C dv/dt Rule 2 The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously v = L di/dt Rule 3 In the dc steady state the current through a capacitor is zero. Rule 4 In the dc steady state the voltage across an inductor is zero.

Transient of first order circuits (FOC)

Step response of R-L or R-C circuits? General form of the response:

Vout(t)= A + Be-t/
for t>0 where A and B are some constants, is the time constant depends on the value of R-L or R-C.


In summary:

L
current voltage


Quantity that cannot be discontinuous voltage Quantity that is zero in the dc steady state current

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

RC circuits
Find the transient (step) response of the RC circuit as shown Substitute v1(t) = 0 for t<0 = V for t >0 Write nodal equation (KCL) at the + terminal:
Y   4:9  

RC Circuits (continue)
YRXW W  = $ + %H
GY 4:9 GW

into becomes

9 ; #

9  GY 4:9
GW

=
GY 4:9 GW

Which can be rewritten as:

#

;4:9 9  =

#

; 9 

(1)

$ %  H = 9 (let v1(t)=V, for t>0) + 5& 5& 5& 9 % % W $ H = + Can be rewritten as: 5& 5& 5& % % W 9 $ = =  and 5& H Which can be satisfied if: 5& 5&

#
+

;4:9 9  =

#

; 9 

% 9 

9

Recall the solution will have the form: Y4:9 W  = $ + %H

(2)

 ='

= #

B=?
=

Use YRXW W  = $ + %H B=-A

Recall rule 1(voltage can not change instantaneously):



Can substitute (2) into (1) and determine A and B and

YRXW + = $ + %H

$ + % = YRXW  = 



((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

RC Circuits (continue)
L

THE BASIC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

/ Y; 9 5 W YW

W YRXW W  = 9 9H 5& 9 ;4:9 9  = '  0 # 

YLW

W 

Notice the second term starts from V and exponentially decay to 0. It will never reach 0, but approach to 0 asymptotically. As a result, vout starts from 0 and asymptotically approach to V.


KVL:
YL L

YL

= /L
GW

GL GW

+L 5

%XW 62/1

Y; IRU W

=L5 >
JLYHQ L

/ G Y; 5

+ Y; =
9  5

=
= 9  H
W
/5

L 9  5

 H

Y
/5


9 

Y;

/ 5

/ 5

W


((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

RC Circuits (continue)
Steps to find the step-input response of a first order circuit: Write a node equation or loop equation W Substitute the general solution YRXW W  = $ + %H into the node/loop equation to obtain the A/B/ unknowns. Use the initial condition of circuit (and rule 1/2) to obtain the third equation. Thus, you have 3 equations and 3 unknowns

Open/Close switch in FOC

Typically these switches are not mechanical switch as shown, but electronic switch (e.g. transistor).

In the circuit above, the switch is closed for all time t<0 (left) and open t > 0 (right circuit). What is vout(t) at t < 0 and t > 0? t<0, (steady state)from rule 4, vout(t) =0 iL=V0/R1 (why?) From rule 2 (current can not change inst.): iL(0-)=iL(0+) = V0/R1 When t>0, the voltage source is dropped (see ckt in the right)
 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Open/Close switch in FOC (continue)

When t>0, the voltage source is dropped GL YRXW W  = / / From L circuit equation: GW From KVL: YRXW = L / (@)

Open/Close switch in FOC (continue)

YRXW W  = %H W

/ 5

and
 

iL=V0/R1


and

vout(0+) = - iLR2

(-ve because current thru the resistor is opposite of iL.) substitute the second eq. to the first.

YRXW W  =

5 9 W H 5
 

/5

GYRXW YRXW + = GW /  5


The plot on the right show the output Vout.

substitute the general first order solution YRXW W  =

$ + %H

into this eq.

YRXW W  = %H

W  /  5

iL=V0/R1 (from the previous page)



B can be found by setting vout(0+) = - iLR2 (from eq. @) = - V0R2/R1

Notice, it is possible to raise R2 to be very large, thus, vout could be very large proportionally. In automobile spark plug, 12v from the battery can be raised to thousand of volt using this technique.



((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Response to a rectangular pulse

We learn to analyze first order circuit response to step input. What about rectangular pulse? (digital signal is more like rectangular pulse than step function!)

Response to a rectangular pulse (continue)

It is possible to break the rectangular pulse into 2 step functions as below:

The rectangular function = step function (v1) + delayed step function (v2) with a negative coeff.
 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

Response to a rectangular pulse (continue)

The circuit on the right was excited by a rectangular function Vin(t). The Vout is shown in the plot below. Vout,1 is response to V1(previous slide) Vout,2 is response to V2

Response to a rectangular pulse (continue)

3 regions: t<0, 0<t<T, T<t, where T is the delay between v1 and v2.

Effect of (RC), the time constant? Notice in LR circuit, is R/L

 

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

& 7 &KRL

((&6  6SULQJ 

/HFWXUH 

9=

DIGITAL CIRCUIT EXAMPLE (Memory cell is read like this in DRAM)

Summary

& 7 &KRL

' 


= 9
9  

initially uncharged Find V (t), i(t), energy C

For simplicity, let CC = CB. If VC = V0, t < 0. dissipated in R.

= 5

&& &

9  
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0

 

+ &

5 & 

LI & 

= &

FRQVHUYDWLRQ RI 4 IRU & 

current (fraction of Vo/R) 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

= & 

Transient response is the behavior of a circuit in response to a change in input. The transient response dies away in time. What is left after the transient has died away is steady state response. Voltage across a capacitor can NOT change suddenly. The current thru an inductor can not change suddenly. In dc steady state, the current thru a capacitor and the voltage across a inductor must be zero. For first order circuits, transient voltages and currents are of the form A + B e -t/, is the time constant. A and t are found by substituting the A + B e -t/ into the circuit equation (node/loop equations). The B is found from the initial condition. The response to a rectangular pulse is the sum of response to positive and negative going step inputs. The form of the output pulse depends on whether the duration of the input pulse (T) is long or short compared with the time constant .


VC/ V0

W

W

5