Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

4/2/13
Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jawaharlal Nehru
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindustani: [darlal neru] ( listen); 14 November 1889 27 May 1964) was the first Prime Minister of India and a central figure in Indian politics for much of the 20th century. He emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian Independence Movement under the tutelage of Mahatma Gandhi and ruled India from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in office in 1964.[5] Nehru is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state; a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic.[6] He was the father of Indira Gandhi and the maternal grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi, who were to later serve as the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India, respectively. The son of a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman, Nehru was a graduate of Cambridge University and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court while taking an interest in national politics. Nehru's involvement in politics would gradually replace his legal practice. A committed nationalist since his teenage years, Nehru became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the preeminent leader of the left-wing factions of the Indian National Congress during the 1920s, and eventually of the entire Congress, with the tacit approval of his mentor, Gandhi. As Congress President, Nehru called for complete independence from Britain, and initiated a decisive shift towards the left in Indian politics. He was the principal author of the Indian Declaration of Independence (1929). Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved towards independence. His idea of a secular nation state was seemingly validated when the Congress under his leadership swept the provincial elections in 1937 while the separatist Muslim League failed to form a government in any of the Indian provinces. But, these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942 which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organisation. Nehru, who had reluctantly heeded Gandhi's call for immediate independence, for he had desired to support the Allied war effort during the World War II, came out of a lengthy prison term to a much altered political landscape. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1951 1st Prime Minister of India In office 15 August 1947 27 May 1964 Monarch President George VI (until 26 January 1950) Rajendra Prasad Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Governor General The Earl Mountbatten of Burma Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (until 26 January 1950) Deputy Preceded by Succeeded by Vallabhbhai Patel Position established Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting) Minister of Defence In office 31 October 1962 14 November 1962 Preceded by Succeeded by V. K. Krishna Menon Yashwantrao Chavan
In office 30 January 1957 17 April 1957 Preceded by Kailash Nath Katju

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bte noire, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had come to dominate Muslim politics in India. Negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947. Nehru was elected by the Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister although the question of leadership had been settled as far back in 1941, when Gandhi acknowledged Nehru as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, Nehru set out to realise his vision of India. The Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw India's transition from a monarchy to a republic, while nurturing a plural, multi-party democracy. In foreign policy, Nehru took a leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemon in South Asia. Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a catchall party, dominating national politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951, 1957, and 1962. He remained popular with the people of India in spite of political troubles in his final years as exemplified by the defeat in the Sino-Indian War. Guha writes, "[had] Nehru retired in 1958 he would be remembered as not just India's best prime minister, but as one of the great statesmen of the modern world."[7] Nehru, thus, left behind a disputed legacy, being "either adored or reviled for India's progress or lack of it."[8] What is not disputed, however, is his impact on India, with it being observed "that if Nehru had been a different kind of man, India would have been a different kind of country."[9]
Succeeded by
V. K. Krishna Menon In office
10 February 1953 10 January 1955 Preceded by Succeeded by N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar Kailash Nath Katju Minister of Finance In office 13 February 1958 13 March 1958 Preceded by Succeeded by Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachariar Morarji Desai
In office 24 July 1956 30 August 1956 Preceded by Succeeded by Chintaman Dwarakanath Deshmukh Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachariar
Minister of External Affairs In office 15 August 1947 27 May 1964 Preceded by Succeeded by Born Position established Gulzarilal Nanda Personal details 14 November 1889 Allahabad, North-Western Provinces, British India 27 May 1964 (aged 74) New Delhi, India Indian National Congress Kamala Kaul Indira Gandhi Trinity College, Cambridge Inns of Court Barrister Agnostic atheist[1][2][3][4]
Contents
1 Early life and career (18891912) 2 Struggle for Indian Independence (191247) 2.1 Home rule movement 2.2 Political apprenticeship 2.3 Non-cooperation 2.4 Internationalising the struggle 2.5 Republicanism 2.6 Declaration of Independence 2.7 Civil disobedience 2.8 Architect of India 2.9 Electoral politics
Died Political party Spouse(s) Children Alma mater Profession Religion Signature
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2.10 World War II and Quit India 3 Prime Minister of India (194764) 3.1 Economic policies 3.1.1 Land and agrarian reform 3.2 Domestic policies 3.2.1 States reorganisation 3.3 Education and social reform 3.4 National security and foreign policy 4 India China War 1962 5 Death 6 Religion 7 Personal life 8 Legacy 8.1 Commemoration 8.2 In popular culture 9 Writings 10 Awards 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External links
Early life and career (18891912)

Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861 1931), a wealthy barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community,[10] served twice as President of the Indian National Congress during the Independence Struggle. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu (18681938), who came from a wellknown Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore,[11] was Motilal's second wife, the first having died in child birth. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls.[10] The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly.[12] The youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother. Nehru described his childhood as a "sheltered and uneventful one." He grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a large palatial estate called the Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by private governesses and tutors.[13] Under the influence of a tutor, Ferdinand T. Brooks, Nehru became interested in science and theosophy.[14] Nehru was subsequently initiated into the Theosophical Society at age thirteen by family friend Annie Beasant. However, his interest in theosophy did not prove to be enduring and he left the society shortly afterwards Brooks departed as his tutor.[15] Nehru wrote: "for nearly three years [Brooks] was with me and in many ways he influenced me greatly."[14] Although Nehru was disdainful of religion, his theosophical interests had induced him to the study of the Buddhist and Hindu scriptures.[16] According to B.R. Nanda, these scriptures were Nehru's "first introduction to the religious and cultural heritage of [India]....[they] provided Nehru the initial impulse for [his] long intellectual quest which
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culminated...in the Discovery of India."[16] Nehru became an ardent nationalist during his youth. The Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War intensified his feelings. About the latter he wrote, "[The] Japanese victories [had] stirred up my enthusiasm... Nationalistic ideas filled my mind... I mused of Indian freedom and Asiatic freedom from the thraldom of Europe."[14] Later when Nehru had begun his institutional schooling in 1905 at Harrow, a leading school in England, he was greatly influenced by G.M. Trevelyan's Garibaldi books, which he had received as prizes for academic merit.[17] Nehru viewed Garibaldi as a revolutionary hero. He wrote: "Visions of similar deeds in India came before, of [my] gallant fight for [Indian] freedom and in my mind India and Italy got strangely mixed together."[14] Nehru went to Trinity College, Cambridge in October 1907 and graduated with an honours degree in natural science in 1910.[18] During this period, Nehru also studied politics, economics, history and literature desultorily. Writings of Bernard Shaw, H.G Wells, J.M. Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Lowes Dickinson and Meredith Townsend moulded much of his political and economic thinking.[14] After completing his degree in 1910, Nehru went to London and stayed there for two years for law studies at the Inns of Court School of Law (Inner Temple).[19] During this time, he continued to study the scholars of the Fabian Society including Beatrice Webb.[14] Nehru passed his bar examinations in 1912 and was admitted to the English bar.[19] After returning to India in August 1912, Nehru enrolled himself as an advocate of the Allahabad High Court and tried to settle down as a barrister. But, unlike his father, he had only a desultory interest in his profession and did not relish either the practice of law or the company of lawyers. Nehru wrote: "Decidedly the atmosphere was not intellectually stimulating and a sense of the utter insipidity of life grew upon me.[14] His involvement in nationalist politics would gradually replace his legal practice in the coming years.[14]
The Nehru family ca. 1890s
Struggle for Indian Independence (191247)

Nehru had developed an interest in Indian politics during his time in Britain.[20] Within months of his return to India in 1912 he had attended an annual session of the Indian National Congress in Patna.[21] Nehru was Nehru at the Allahabad High disconcerted with what he saw as a "very Court Nehru dressed in cadet much an English-knowing upper class uniform at Harrow School in affair."[22] The Congress in 1912 had been the England party of moderates and elites.[21] Nehru harboured doubts regarding the ineffectualness of the Congress but agreed to work for the party in support of the Indian civil rights movement in South Africa.[23] He collected funds for the civil rights campaigners led by Mohandas Gandhi in 1913.[21] Later, he campaigned against the indentured labour and other such discriminations
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faced by Indians in the British colonies.[24] When the First World War broke out in August 1914, sympathy in India was divided. Although educated Indians "by and large took a vicarious pleasure" in seeing the British rulers humbled, the ruling upper classes sided with the Allies. Nehru confessed that he viewed the war with mixed feelings. Frank Moraes wrote: "If [Nehru's] sympathy was with any country it was with France, whose culture he greatly admired."[25] During the war, Nehru volunteered for the St John Ambulance and worked as one of the provincial secretaries of the organisation in Allahabad.[21] Nehru also spoke out against the censorship acts passed by the British government in India.[26] Nehru emerged from the war years as a leader whose political views were considered radical. Although the political discourse had been dominated at this time by Gopal Krishna Gokhale,[23] a moderate who said that it was "madness to think of independence",[21] Nehru had spoken "openly of the politics of non-cooperation, of the need of resigning from honorary positions under the government and of not continuing the futile politics of representation."[27] Nehru ridiculed the Indian Civil Service (ICS) for its support of British policies. He noted that someone had once defined the Indian Civil Service, "with which we are unfortunately still afflicted in this country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service."[28] Motilal Nehru, a prominent moderate leader, acknowledged the limits of constitutional agitation, but counseled his son that there was no other "practical alternative" to it. Nehru, however, was not satisfied with the pace of the national movement. He became involved with aggressive nationalists leaders who were demanding Home Rule for Indians.[29] The influence of the moderates on Congress politics began to wane after Gokhale died in 1915.[21] Anti-moderate leaders such as Annie Beasant and Lokmanya Tilak took the opportunity to call for a national movement for Home Rule. But, in 1915, the proposal was rejected due to the reluctance of the moderates to commit to such a radical course of action. Besant nevertheless formed a league for advocating Home Rule in 1916; and Tilak, on his release from a prison term, had in April 1916 formed his own league.[21] Nehru joined both leagues but worked especially for the former.[30] He remarked later: "[Besant] had a very powerful influence on me in my childhood... even later when I entered political life her influence continued."[30] Another development which brought about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal of Hindu-Muslim unity with the Lucknow pact at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916. The pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad at a meeting of the All-India Congress Committee which was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan. Nehru welcomed and encouraged the rapprochement between the two Indian communities.[30]
Nehru in 1918 with wife Kamala and daughter Indira
Home rule movement

Several nationalist leaders banded together in 1916 under the leadership of Annie Besant to voice a demand for self-government, and to obtain the status of a Dominion within the British Empire as enjoyed by Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland at the time. Nehru joined the movement and rose to become secretary of Besant's All India Home Rule League.[30][31] In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned by the
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British government. The Congress and various other Indian organisation threatened to launch protests if she were not set free. The British government was subsequently forced to release Besant and make significant concessions after a period of intense protests.
Political apprenticeship
Nehru returned to India in 1912, where he worked as a barrister in Allahabad while moving up the ranks of the Congress during World War I. His close association with the Congress dates from 1919, in the immediate aftermath of World War I. Nehru first met Gandhi in 1916, at the Lucknow session of the Congress. It was to be the beginning of a lifelong partnership between the two, which lasted until the Gandhi's death. Nehru quickly rose to prominence under the mentorship of Gandhi. By late 1921, he had already become one of the most prominent leaders of the Congress. When the British colonial administration outlawed the Congress party, Nehru went to prison for the first time. Over the next 24 years he was to serve another eight periods of detention. In all, he would spend more than nine years in jail. Nehru's political apprenticeship under Gandhi lasted from 1919 to 1929. He was elected general secretary of the Congress party for two terms in the 1920s. His first term began with the Kakinada session of the Congress in 1923. Along with Subhas Chandra Bose, Nehru was considered a radical within the party during his tenure as general secretary due to his rejection of dominion status for India in favour of complete independence. Nehru co-operated with Dr. N.S. Hardiker in founding the Hindustani Seva Dal in 1923. Nehru was elected chairman of the Allahabad Municipal Board in 1923. Nehru's second term as general secretary began with the Madras session of the Congress in 1927.
Non-cooperation
The first big national involvement of Nehru came at the onset of the non-cooperation movement in 1920. He led the movement in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Nehru was arrested on charges of anti-governmental activities in 1921, and was released a few months later. In the rift that formed within the Congress following the sudden closure of the non-cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, Nehru remained loyal to Gandhi and did not join the Swaraj Party formed by his father Motilal Nehru and CR Das.
Internationalising the struggle

Nehru played a leading role in the development of the internationalist outlook of the Indian freedom struggle. He sought foreign allies for India and forged links with movements for freedom and democracy all over the world. In 1927, his efforts paid off and the Congress was invited to attend the congress of oppressed nationalities in Brussels in Belgium. The meeting was called to coordinate and plan a common struggle against imperialism. Nehru represented India and was elected to the Executive Council of the League against Imperialism that was born at this meeting.[32]
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During the mid-1930s, Nehru was much concerned with developments in Europe, which seemed to be drifting toward another world war. He was in Europe early in 1936, visiting his ailing wife, shortly before she died in a sanitarium in Switzerland. Even at this time, he emphasised that, in the event of war, Indias place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted that India could only fight in support of Great Britain and France as a free country. Nehru closely worked with Subhash Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries all over the world. However, the two split in the late 1930s, when Bose agreed to seek the help of fascists in driving the British out of India. At the same time, Nehru had supported the people of Spain who were fighting to defend themselves against Franco. People of many countries volunteered to fight the fascist forces in Spain and formed the International Brigade. Nehru along with his aide V.K. Krishna Menon went to Spain and extended the support of the Indian people to the people of Spain. Nehru refused to meet Mussolini, the dictator of Italy when the latter expressed his desire to meet him. Thus, Nehru came to be seen as a champion of freedom and democracy all over the world.[33][34]
Republicanism
Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferings of the people in the states ruled by Indian Princes. He suffered imprisonment in Nabha, a princely state, when he went there to see the struggle that was being waged by the Sikhs against the corrupt Mahants. The nationalist movement had been confined to the territories under direct British rule. Nehru helped to make the struggle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist movement for freedom. The All India states people's conference was formed in 1927. Nehru who had been supporting the cause of the people of the princely states for many years was made the President of the conference in 1935. He opened up its ranks to membership from across the political spectrum. The body would play an important role during the political integration of India, helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and V.K. Krishna Menon (to whom Nehru had delegated the task of integrating the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of princes. In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.[35] In January 1947, Nehru said that independent India would not accept the Divine Right of Kings,[36] and in May 1947, he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state. During the drafting of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except Nehru) of that time were in favour of allowing each Princely state or Covenanting State to be independent as a federal state along the lines suggested originally by the Government of India act (1935). But as the drafting of the constitution progressed and the idea of forming a republic took concrete shape (due to the efforts of Nehru), it was decided that all the Princely states/Covenanting States would merge with the Indian republic. Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, de-recognized all the rulers by a presidential order in 1969. But this was struck down by the Supreme Court of India. Eventually, the government by the 26th Amendment to the constitution was successful in abolishing the Princely states of India. The process began by Nehru was finally completed by his daughter by the end of 1971.
Declaration of Independence
Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. He introduced a resolution demanding "complete national independence" in 1927, which was rejected because of Gandhi's opposition.[37]
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In 1928, Gandhi agreed to Nehru's demands and proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. If the British failed to meet the deadline, the Congress would call upon all Indians to fight for complete independence. Nehru was one of the leaders who objected to the time given to the British he pressed Gandhi to demand immediate actions from the British. Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one. Nehru agreed to vote for the new resolution. Demands for dominion status was rejected by the British in 1929. Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for complete independence. Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated: "We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence." [38] At midnight on New Year's Eve 1929, Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony was asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. 172 Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Independence Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public. Plans for a mass civil disobedience were also underway. After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi stepped back into a more spiritual role. Although Gandhi did not officially designate Nehru his political heir until 1942, the country as early as the mid-1930s saw in Nehru the natural successor to Gandhi.
Civil disobedience
Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were initially ambivalent about Gandhi's plan to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. After the protest gathered steam, they realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released.[39] Nehru was arrested on 14 April 1930 while entraining from Allahabad for Raipur. He had earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a vast procession, ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt. He was charged with breach of the salt law, tried summarily behind prison walls and sentenced to six months of imprisonment. Nehru nominated Gandhi to succeed him as Congress President during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru then nominated his father as his successor. With Nehru's arrest the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and lathi charges grew to be ordinary occurrences.
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The Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of the claims by the Congress party for independence. Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi,[40] and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians: "Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses....Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance....They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole....It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it."[41]
Architect of India
Nehru elaborated the policies of the Congress and a future Indian nation under his leadership in 1929. He declared that the aims of the congress were freedom of religion, right to form associations, freedom of expression of thought, equality before law for every individual without distinction of caste, colour, creed or religion, protection to regional languages and cultures, safeguarding the interests of the peasants and labour, abolition of untouchability, introduction of adult franchise, imposition of prohibition, nationalisation of industries, socialism, and establishment of a secular India. All these aims formed the core of the "Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy" resolution drafted by Nehru in 192931 and were ratified by the All India Congress Committee under Gandhi's leadership.[42] However, some Congress leaders objected to the resolution and decided to oppose Nehru. The espousal of socialism as the Congress goal was most difficult to achieve. Nehru was opposed in this by the right-wing Congressmen Sardar Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. Nehru had the support of the left-wing Congressmen Maulana Azad and Subash Chandra Bose. The trio combined to oust Dr. Prasad as Congress President in 1936. Nehru was elected in his place and held the presidency for two years (193637).[43] Nehru was then succeeded by his socialist colleagues Bose (193839) and Azad (194046). After the fall of Bose from the mainstream of Indian politics (due to his support of violence in driving the British out of India), the power struggle between the socialists and conservatives balanced out. However, Sardar Patel died in 1950, leaving Nehru as the sole remaining iconic national leader, and soon the situation became such that Nehru was able to implement many of his basic policies without hindrance. The conservative right-wing of the Congress (composed of India's upper class elites) would continue opposing the socialists until the great schism in 1969. Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was able to fulfill her father's dream by the 42nd amendment (1976) of the Indian constitution by which India officially became "socialist" and "secular".[44] During Nehru's second term as general secretary of the Congress, he proposed certain resolutions concerning the foreign policy of India.[45] From that time onwards, he was given carte blanche in framing the foreign policy of any future Indian nation. Nehru developed good relations with governments all over the world. He firmly placed India on the side of democracy and freedom during a time when the world was under the threat of fascism.[34] Nehru was also given the responsibility of planning the economy of a future India. He appointed the National Planning Commission in 1938 to help in framing such policies.[46] However, many of the plans framed by Nehru and his colleagues would come undone with the unexpected partition of India in 1947.
Electoral politics
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Nehru visit to Europe in 1936 proved to be the watershed in his political and economic thinking. Nehrus real interest in Marxism and his socialist pattern of thought stem from that tour. His subsequent sojourns in prison enabled him to study Marxism in more depth. Interested in its ideas but repelled by some of its methods, he could never bring himself to accept Karl Marxs writings as revealed scripture. Yet from then on, the yardstick of his economic thinking remained Marxist, adjusted, where necessary, to Indian conditions. When the Congress party under Nehru chose to contest elections and accept power under the Federation scheme, Gandhi resigned from party membership. Gandhi did not disagree with Nehru's move, but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership. When the elections following the introduction of provincial autonomy (under the government of India act 1935) brought the Congress party to power in a majority of the provinces, Nehru's popularity and power was unmatched. The Muslim League under Mohammed Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared badly at the polls. Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were the British Raj and Congress. Jinnah statements that the Muslim League was the third and "equal partner" within Indian politics was widely rejected. Nehru had hoped to elevate Maulana Azad as the pre-eminent leaders of Indian Muslims, but in this, he was undermined by Gandhi, who continued to treat Jinnah as the voice of Indian Muslims.
World War II and Quit India

When World war II started, Viceroy Linlithgow had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of the Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conflict between democracy and Fascism, our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democracy...... I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the struggle for a new order. After much deliberation the Congress under Nehru informed the government that it would cooperate with the British but on certain conditions. First, Britain must give an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a constituent assembly to frame a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed forces would remain under the British Commander-in-Chief, Indians must be included immediately in the central government and given a chance to share power and responsibility. When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow with the demands, he chose not to take them seriously. A deadlock was reached. The same old game is played again, Nehru wrote bitterly to Gandhi, the background is the same, the various epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must be the same. On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the Viceroys attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest. Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and the Muslim League to join the protest but the latter declined. In March 1940 Jinnah passed what would come to be known as the Pakistan Resolution, declaring Muslims are a nation according to any definition of a nation, and they must have their homelands, their territory and their State. This state was to be known as Pakistan, meaning Land of the Pure. Nehru angrily declared that all the old problems...pale into insignificance before the latest stand taken by the Muslim League leader in Lahore. Linlithgow made Nehru an offer on 8 October 1940. It stated that Dominion status for India was the objective of the British government. However, it referred neither to a date nor method of accomplishment. Only Jinnah got something more precise. "The British would not contemplate transferring power to a Congress-dominated national government the authority of which was denied by large and powerful elements in Indias national life.
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In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one by one. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years imprisonment. After spending a little more than a year in jail, he was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. When the Japanese carried their attack through Burma (now Myanmar) to the borders of India in the spring of 1942, the British government, faced by this new military threat, decided to make some overtures to India, as Nehru had originally desired. Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the war Cabinet who was known to be politically close to Nehru and also knew Jinnah, with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional problem. As soon as he arrived he discovered that India was more deeply divided than he had imagined. Nehru, eager for a compromise, was hopeful. Gandhi was not. Jinnah had continued opposing the Congress. Pakistan is our only demand, declared the Muslim League newspaper Dawn and by God we will have it. Crippss mission failed as Gandhi would accept nothing less than independence. Relations between Nehru and Gandhi cooled over the latters refusal to cooperate with Cripps but the two later reconcilled. On 15 January 1941 Gandhi had stated: "Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor."[47] Gandhi called on the British to leave India; Nehru, though reluctant to embarrass the allied war effort, had no alternative but to join Gandhi. Following the Quit India resolution passed by the Congress party in Bombay (now Mumbai) on 8 August 1942, the entire Congress working committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned. Nehru emerged from thishis ninth and last detentiononly on 15 June 1945. During the period where all of the Congress leadership were in jail, the Muslim League under Jinnah grew in power. In April 1943, the League captured the governments of Bengal and, a month later, that of the North West Frontier Province. In none of these provinces had the League previously had a majority only the arrest of Congress members made it possible. With all the Muslim dominated provinces except the Punjab under Jinnahs control, the artificial concept of a separate Muslim State was turning into a reality. However by 1944, Jinnahs power and prestige were on the wane. A general sympathy towards the jailed Congress leaders was developing among Muslims, and much of the blame for the disastrous Bengal famine of 19434 during which two million died, had been laid on the shoulders of the provinces Muslim League government. The numbers at Jinnahs meetings, once counted in thousands soon numbered only a few hundreds. In despair, Jinnah left the political scene for a stay in Kashmir. His prestige was restored unwittingly by Gandhi, who had been released from prison on medical grounds in May 1944 and had met Jinnah in Bombay in September. There he offered the Muslim leader a plebiscite in the Muslim areas after the war to see whether they wanted to separate from the rest of India. Essentially, it was an acceptance of the principle of Pakistan but not in so many words. Jinnah demanded that the exact words be said; Gandhi refused and the talks broke down. Jinnah however had greatly strengthened his own position and that of the League. The most influential member of Congress had been seen to negotiate with him on equal terms. Other Muslim league leaders, opposed both to Jinnah and to the partition of India, lost strength.
Prime Minister of India (194764)

Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power.
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Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled "A Tryst With Destiny" "Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step residence as Prime Minister, now a out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul museum in his memory. of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity."[48] On 30 January 1948, Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi was shot while he was walking to a platform from which he was to address a prayer meeting. The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by insisting upon a payment to Pakistan. Nehru addressed the nation through radio:[49] "Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country." Jawaharlal Nehru's address to Gandhi[50] Yasmin Khan argued that Gandhi's death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state under Nehru and Patel. The Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week periodthe funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr's ashesas millions participated and hundreds of millions watched. The goal was to assert the power of the government, legitimise the Congress party's control and suppress all religious para-military groups. Nehru and Patel suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests. Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and made more understand the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.[51] In later years there emerged a revisionist school of history which sought to blame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India.[52][53] Such views has been promoted by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which favours a decentralised central government in India.[54] In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels
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across India and the world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff.
Economic policies
Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy. Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the government's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan. launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural production. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the "new temples of India"), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy. For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production. Nehru's industrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries,[55] yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth at 2.5% per annum (mocked by leftist economist Raj Krishna as a "Hindu rate of growth"), chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population. D. D. Kosambi, a well-known Marxist historian, criticised Nehru in his article for the bourgeoisie class exploitation of Nehru's socialist ideology. Nehru was accused of promoting capitalism in the guise of democratic socialism among other things.[56] Land and agrarian reform Under Nehrus leadership, the government attempted to develop India quickly by embarking on agrarian reform and rapid industrialisation. A successful land reform was introduced that abolished giant landholdings, but efforts to redistribute land by placing limits on landownership failed. Attempts to introduce large-scale cooperative farming were frustrated by landowning rural elites, who formed the core of the powerful right-wing of the Congress and had considerable political support in opposing the efforts of Nehru. Agricultural production expanded until the early 1960s, as additional land was brought under cultivation and some irrigation projects began to have an effect. The establishment of agricultural universities, modelled after land-grant colleges in the United States, contributed to the development of the economy. These universities worked with high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice, initially developed in Mexico and the Philippines, that in the 1960s began the Green Revolution, an effort to diversify and increase crop production. At the same time a series of failed monsoons would cause serious food shortages despite the steady progress and increase in agricultural production.[55]
Domestic policies
States reorganisation
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See also: States Reorganisation Act The British Indian Empire, which included present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, was divided into two types of territories: the Provinces of British India, which were governed directly by British officials responsible to the Governor-General of India; and princely states, under the rule of local hereditary rulers who recognised British suzerainty in return for local autonomy, in most cases as established by treaty. Between 1947 and about 1950, the territories of the princely states were politically integrated into the Indian Union under Nehru and Sardar Patel. Most were merged into existing provinces; others were organised into new provinces, such as Rajputana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Vindhya Pradesh, made up of multiple princely states; a few, including Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Bilaspur, became separate provinces. The Government of India Act 1935 remained the constitutional law of India pending adoption of a new Constitution. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, made India a sovereign democratic republic. Nehru declared the new republic to be a "Union of States". The constitution of 1950 distinguished between three main types of states: Part A states, which were the former governors' provinces of British India, were ruled by an elected governor and state legislature. The Part B states were former princely states or groups of princely states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state, and an elected legislature. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India. The Part C states included both the former chief commissioners' provinces and some princely states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The sole Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. In December 1953, Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission to prepare for the creation of states on linguistic lines. This was headed by Justice Fazal Ali and the commission itself was also known as the Fazal Ali Commission. The efforts of this commission were overseen by Govind Ballabh Pant, who served as Nehru's Home Minister from December 1954. The commission created a report in 1955 recommending the reorganisation of India's states. Under the Seventh Amendment, the existing distinction between Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished. The distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known simply as "states". A new type of entity, the union territory, replaced the classification as a Part C or Part D state. Nehru stressed commonality among Indians and promoted pan-Indianism. He refused to reorganise states on either religious or ethnic lines. Western scholars have mostly praised Nehru for the integration of the states into a modern republic but the act was not accepted universally in India.
Education and social reform

Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress. His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of Management and the National Institutes of Technology. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrolment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition. Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas. Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalise caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women.[57][58][59][60] A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony,
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increasing the representation of minorities in government. Nehru specifically wrote Article 44 of the Indian constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy which states : 'The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.' The article has formed the basis of secularism in India.[61] However, Nehru has been criticised for the inconsistent application of the law. Most notably, Nehru allowed Muslims to keep their personal law in matters relating to marriage and inheritance. Also in the small state of Goa, a civil code based on the old Portuguese Family Laws was allowed to continue, and Muslim Personal law was prohibited by Nehru. This was the result of the annexation of Goa in 1961 by India, when Nehru promised the people that their laws would be left intact. This has led to accusations of selective secularism.
While Nehru exempted Muslim law from legislation and they remained un-reformed, he did pass the Special Marriage Act in 1954. The idea behind this act was to give everyone in India the ability to marry outside the personal law under a civil marriage. As usual the law applied to all of India, except Jammu and Kashmir (again leading to accusations of selective secularism). In many respects, the act was almost identical to the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, which gives some idea as to how secularised the law regarding Hindus had become. The Special Marriage Act allowed Muslims to marry under it and thereby retain the protections, generally beneficial to Muslim women, that could not be found in the personal law. Under the act polygamy was illegal, and inheritance and succession would be governed by the Indian Succession Act, rather than the respective Muslim Personal Law. Divorce also would be governed by the secular law, and maintenance of a divorced wife would be along the lines set down in the civil law. Nehru led the faction of the Congress party which promoted Hindi as the ligua-franca of the Indian nation. After an exhaustive and divisive debate with the non-Hindi speakers, Hindi was adopted as the official language of India in 1950 with English continuing as an associate official language for a period of fifteen years, after which Hindi would become the sole official language. Efforts by the Indian Government to make Hindi the sole official language after 1965 were not acceptable to many non-Hindi Indian states, who wanted the continued use of English. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a descendant of Dravidar Kazhagam, led the opposition to Hindi. To allay their fears, Nehru enacted the Official Languages Act in 1963 to ensure the continuing use of English beyond 1965. The text of the Act did not satisfy the DMK and increased their scepticism that his assurances might not be honoured by future administrations. The issue was resolved during the premiership of Lal Bahadur Shastri, who under great pressure from Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was made to give assurances that English would continue to be used as the official language as long the non-Hindi speaking states wanted. The Official Languages Act was eventually amended in 1967 by the Congress Government headed by Indira Gandhi to guarantee the indefinite use of Hindi and English as official languages. This effectively ensured the current "virtual indefinite policy of bilingualism" of the Indian Republic.
Nehru with schoolchildren at the Durgapur Steel Plant. Durgapur along with Rourkela and Bhilai were the three integrated steel plants set up under India's Second Five-Year Plan in the late 1950s.
National security and foreign policy

See also: Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War. Nehru also maintained good relations with the British Empire. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it
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became a republic in January 1950, it would join the Commonwealth of Nations and accept the British monarch as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised India's continuing membership of the association. The reaction back home was favourable; only the far-left and the far-right criticised Nehru's decision. On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of nonalignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the US and the USSR. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea.[62] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc.
Nehru with Otto Grotewohl, the Prime Minister of East Germany
Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the UN. Kashmir was a disputed territory between India and Pakistan, the two having gone to war with each other over the state in 1948. However, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the UN, he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. His policies on Kashmir and the integeration of the state into India was frequently defended in front of the United Nations by his aide, Krishna Menon, a brilliant diplomat who earned a reputation in India for his passionate speeches. Nehru, while a pacifist, was not blind to the political and geo-strategic reality of India in 1947. While laying the foundation stone of the National Defence Academy (India) in 1949, he stated: "We, who for generations had talked about and attempted in everything a peaceful way and practiced non-violence, should now be, in a sense, glorifying our army, navy and air force. It means a lot. Though it is odd, yet it simply reflects the oddness of life. Though life is logical, we have to face all contingencies, and unless we are prepared to face them, we will go under. There was no greater prince of peace and apostle of non-violence than Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, whom we have lost, but yet, he said it was better to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away. We cannot live carefree assuming that we are safe. Human nature is such. We cannot take the risks and risk our hard-won freedom. We have to be prepared with all modern defence methods and a well-equipped army, navy and air force."[63][64] Nehru envisioned the developing of nuclear weapons and established the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) in 1948.[65] Nehru also called Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, a nuclear physicist, who was entrusted with complete authority over all nuclear related affairs and programs and answered only to Nehru himself.[65] Indian nuclear policy was set by unwritten personal understanding between Nehru and Bhabha.[65] Nehru famously said to Bhabha, "Professor Bhabha take care of Physics, leave international relation to me".[65] From the outset in 1948, Nehru had high ambition to develop this program to stand against the industrialized states and the basis of this program was to establish an Indian nuclear weapons capability as part of India's regional superiority to other SouthAsian states, most particularly Pakistan.[65] Nehru also told Bhabha, later it was told by Bhabha to Raja Rammanna that,
"We must have the capability. We should first prove ourselves and then talk of Gandhi,
16/27
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"We must have the capability. We should first prove ourselves and then talk of Gandhi, non-violence and a world without nuclear weapons.[65] "
Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons after the Korean war (19501953).[66] He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called "these frightful engines of destruction." He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fearing that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own.[67] Nehru ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah in 1953, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him.
Jawaharlal Nehru (right) with Muhammad Ali Bogra, Prime Minister of Pakistan (left), during his 1953 visit to Karachi
In 1954 Nehru signed with China the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, known in India as the Panchsheel (from the Sanskrit words, panch: five, sheel: virtues), a set of principles to govern relations between the two states. Their first formal codification in treaty form was in an agreement between China and India in 1954. They were enunciated in the preamble to the "Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India", which was signed at Peking on 29 April 1954. Negotiations took place in Delhi from December 1953 to April 1954 between the Delegation of the PRC Government and the Delegation of the Indian Government on the relations between the two countries with respect to the disputed territories of Aksai Chin and South Tibet. The treaty was disregared in the 1960s, but in the 1970s, the Five Principles again came to be seen as important in Sino-Indian relations, and more generally as norms of relations between states. They became widely recognised and accepted throughout the region during the premiership of Indira Gandhi and the 3-year rule of the Janata Party (19771980).[68] In 1956 Nehru had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. The role of Nehru, both as Indian Prime Minister and a leader of the Non Aligned Movement was significant; he tried to be even-handed between the two sides, while denouncing Eden and co-sponsors of the aggression vigorously. Nehru had a powerful ally in the US president Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent of using Americas clout in the IMF to make Britain and France back down. The episode greatly raised the prestige of Nehru and India amongst the third world nations. During the Suez crisis, Nehru's right hand man, Menon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant Gamal Nasser to compromise with the West, and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser might prove willing to compromise. In 1957, Menon was instructed to deliver an unprecedented eight-hour speech defending Indias stand on Kashmir; to date, the speech is the longest ever delivered in the United Nations Security Council, covering five hours of the 762nd meeting on 23 January, and two hours and forty-eight minutes on the 24th, reportedly concluding with Menon's collapse on the Security Council floor. During the filibuster, Nehru moved swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in Kashmir (then under great unrest). Menon's passionate defence of Indian sovereignty in Kashmir enlarged his base of support in India, and led to the Indian press temporarily dubbing him the 'Hero of Kashmir'. Nehru was then at the peak of his popularity in India; the only (minor) criticism came from the farright.[69][70]
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The USA had hoped to court Nehru after its intervention in favour of Nasser during the Suez crisis. However, Cold War suspicions and the American distrust of Nehruvian socialism cooled relations between India and the US, which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Nehru maintained good relations with Britain even after the Suez Crisis. Nehru accepted the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, signing the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region. Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suffered through increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant political asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorised the Indian Army to liberate Goa in 1961 from Portuguese occupation, and then he formally annexed it to India. It increased his popularity in India, but he was criticised by the communist opposition in India for the use of military force. The use of military force against Portugal earned him goodwill amongst the right-wing and far-right groups. However, this goodwill was to be lost with India's tactical defeat in the 1962 war with China.
India China War 1962

From 1959, in a process that accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the "Forward Policy" of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India.[71] China attacked some of these outposts, and thus the Sino-Indian War began, which India lost, and China withdrew to prewar lines in eastern zone at Tawang but retained Aksai Chin which was within British India and was handed over to India after independence. Later, Pakistan handed over some portion of Kashmir near Siachen controlled by Pakistan since 1948 to China. The war exposed the unpreparedness of India's military which could send only 14 thousand troops to the war zone in opposition to many times larger Chinese army, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked the defence minister Krishna Menon and sought US military aid. Nehru's improved relations with USA under John F. Kennedy proved useful during the war, as in 1962, President of Pakistan (then closely aligned with the Americans) Ayub Khan was made to guarantee his neutrality in regards to India, who was threatened by "communist aggression from Red China."[72] The Indian relationship with the Soviet Union, criticised by right-wing groups supporting free-market policies was also seemingly validated. Nehru would continue to maintain his commitment to the non-aligned movement despite calls from some to settle down on one permanent ally.
Krishna Menon, routinely referred to by western publications as "Nehru's Evil Genius." He was described as the second most powerful man in India by Time magazine and others.
The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future, and placed pressure on Nehru, who was seen as responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese attack on India. Under American advice (by American envoy John Kenneth Galbraith who made and ran American policy on the war as all other top policy makers in USA were absorbed in coincident Cuban Missile Crisis) Nehru refrained, not according to the best choices available, from using the Indian air force to beat back the Chinese advances. The CIA later revealed that at that time the Chinese had neither the fuel nor runways long enough for using their air force effectively in Tibet. Indians in general became highly sceptical of China and its military. Many Indians view the war
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as a betrayal of India's attempts at establishing a long-standing peace with China and started to question Nehru's usage of the term "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai" (meaning "Indians and Chinese are brothers"). The war also put an end to Nehru's earlier hopes that India and China would form a strong Asian Axis to counteract the increasing influence of the Cold War bloc superpowers.[73] The unpreparedness of the army was blamed on Defence Minister Menon, who "resigned" his government post to allow for someone who might modernise India's military further. India's policy of weaponisation via indigenous sources and self-sufficiency began in earnest under Nehru, completed by his daughter Indira Gandhi, who later led India to a crushing military victory over rival Pakistan in 1971. Toward the end of the war India had increased her support for Tibetan refugees and revolutionaries, some of them having settled in India, as they were fighting the same common enemy in the region. Nehru ordered the raising of an elite Indian-trained "Tibetan Armed Force" composed of Tibetan refugees, which served with distinction in future wars against Pakistan in 1965 and 1971.[74] During the conflict, Nehru wrote two desperate letters to US President John F. Kennedy, requesting 12 squadrons of fighter jets and a modern radar system. These jets were seen as necessary to beef up Indian air strength so that air to air combat could be initiated safely from the Indian perspective (bombing troops was seen as unwise for fear of Chinese retaliatory action). Nehru also asked that these aircraft be manned by American pilots until Indian airmen were trained to replace them. These requests were rejected by the Kennedy Administration (which was involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis during most of the Sino-Indian War), leading to a cool down in Indo-US relations. According to former Indian diplomat G Parthasarathy, "only after we got nothing from the US did arms supplies from the Soviet Union to India commence".[75] Per Time Magazine's 1962 editorial on the war, however, this may not have been the case. The editorial states, 'When Washington finally turned its attention to India, it honoured the ambassador's pledge, loaded 60 US planes with $5,000,000 worth of automatic weapons, heavy mortars and land mines. Twelve huge C-130 Hercules transports, complete with US crews and maintenance teams, took off for New Delhi to fly Indian troops and equipment to the battle zone. Britain weighed in with Bren and Sten guns, and airlifted 150 tons of arms to India. Canada prepared to ship six transport planes. Australia opened Indian credits for $1,800,000 worth of munitions'.[76] Nehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by alleged intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism, although actually Nehru had disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of "dynastism"; he said, indeed it was "wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing", and refused her a position in his cabinet.[77] Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections.[77] Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was "hurt" by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father.[5] In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Communist and socialist parties were the main beneficiaries although some right wing groups like Bharatiya Jana Sangh also did well.
Death
Nehru's health began declining steadily after 1962, and he spent months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust.[78] Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a
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heart attack. He was "taken ill in early hours" of 27 May 1964 and died in "early afternoon" on same day, and his death was announced to Lok Sabha at 1400 local time; cause of death is believed to be heart attack.[79] Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. Nehru, the man and politician made such a powerful imprint on India that his death on 27 May 1964, left India with no clear political heir to his leadership (although his daughter was widely expected to succeed him before she turned it down in favour of Shastri). Indian newspapers repeated Nehru's own words Nehru lying in state, 1964. of the time of Gandhi's assassination: "The light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere."
Prime Minister Nehru talks with United Nations General Assembly President Romulo (October 1949).
Religion
Nehru rejected religion. He observed the effects of superstition on the lives of the Indian people and wrote of religion that it shuts its eyes to reality. Nehru thought that religion was at the root of the stagnation and lack of progress in India. The basis of Indian society at that time was unthinking obedience to the authority of sacred books, old customs, and outdated habits.[citation needed ] Nehru observed that these attitudes and religious taboos were preventing India from going forward and adapting to modern conditions: No country or people who are slaves to dogma and dogmatic mentality can progress, and unhappily our country and people have become extraordinarily dogmatic and little-minded. Therefore, he concurred, that religions and all that went with them must be severely limited before they ruined the country and its people. He was deeply concerned that so many Indian people could not read or write and wanted mass education to release Indian society from the limitations that ignorance and religious traditions imposed.[80] The spectacle of what is called religion, or at any rate organised religion, in India and elsewhere, has filled me with horror and I have frequently condemned it and wished to make a clean sweep of it. Almost always it seemed to stand for blind belief and reaction, dogma and bigotry, superstition, exploitation and the preservation of vested interests. Nehru considered that his afterlife was not in some mystical heaven or reincarnation but in the practical achievements of a life lived fully with and for his fellow human beings: Nor am I greatly interested in life after death. I find the problems of this life sufficiently absorbing to fill my mind, he wrote. In his Last Will and Testament he wrote: I wish to declare with all earnestness that I do not want any religious ceremonies performed for me after my death. I do not believe in such ceremonies, and to submit to them, even as a matter of form, would be hypocrisy and an attempt to delude ourselves and others.
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Personal life
Nehru married Kamala Kaul in 1916. Their only daughter Indira was born a year later in 1917. Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he lived only for a week."[81] Nehru was alleged to have had relationships with Padmaja Naidu and Edwina Mountbatten.[82] Edwina's daughter Pamela acknowledged Nehru's platonic affair with Edwina.[83]
Legacy
As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education[citation needed ], reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,[84] Indian Institutes of Technology,[85] and the Indian Institutes of Management. In addition, Nehru's stance as an "Nehru was a great man... Nehru gave to unfailing nationalist led him to also Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded implement policies which stressed in doing." Sir Isaiah Berlin[86] commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a Bust of Nehru at Aldwych, London common adversary. While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organised the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, "Integrate or perish."[87]
Commemoration
In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Baal Divas ("Children's Day") in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory. Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap and the "Nehru Jacket", and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress Party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional
Nehru distributes sweets among children at Nongpoh, Meghalaya
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attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style. Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Teen Murti House now has Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, and one of five Nehru Planetariums that were set in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Allahabad and Pune. The complex also houses the offices of the 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund', established in 1964 under the Chairmanship of Dr S. Radhakrishnan, then President of India. The foundation also gives away the prestigious 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship', established in 1968.[88] The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.
In popular culture
Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj , based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj .[89] In Ketan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Girish Karnad's historical play, Tughlaq (1962) is an allegory about the Nehruvian era. It was staged by Ebrahim Alkazi with National School of Drama Repertory at Purana Qila, Delhi in 1970s and later at the Festival of India, London in 1982.[90][91]
Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp.
Writings
Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Toward Freedom.
Awards
In 1955 Nehru was awarded Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.[92]
See also
Glimpses of World History written by Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
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Letters from a Father to His Daughter a collection of letters written by Jawaharlal Nehru to his daughter Indira. List of political families Nehru jacket The Discovery of India written by Jawaharlal Nehru Tryst with destiny the historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru, considered in modern India to be a landmark oration that captures the essence of the triumphant culmination of the hundred-year Indian freedom struggle against the British Empire in India.
References
1. ^ [1] (http://books.google.com/books?id=zoQUqJZgjgYC&pg=PA54) 2. ^ "Mob Scenes Mar Last Nehru Rites" (http://news.google.co.in/newspapers? id=LZotAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jp4FAAAAIBAJ&pg=7168,1579610) . The Gazette (Montreal: Google News Archive). 9 June 1964. p. 4. 3. ^ Ramachandra Guha (23 September 2003). "Inter-faith Harmony: Where Nehru and Gandhi Meet Times of India" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/opinion/edit-page/LEADER-ARTICLEBRInter-faith-Harmony-WhereNehru-and-Gandhi-Meet/articleshow/196028.cms) . The Times of India. 4. ^ In Jawaharlal Nehru's autobiography, An Autobiography (1936), and in the Last Will & Testament of Jawaharlal Nehru, in Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, 2nd series, vol. 26, p. 612, 5. ^ a b Marlay, Ross; Clark D. Neher (1999). Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders (http://books.google.com/? id=7i0jGxysUUcC&pg=PA368) . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 368. ISBN 0-8476-8442-3. 6. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (2011). Makers of Modern India (http://books.google.co.uk/books? id=rWxXqEp4eQsC&pg=PA1) . Harvard University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0674052468. 7. ^ Ramachandra Guha (26 September 2012). "Manmohan Singh at 80" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asiaindia-19671397) . BBC. 8. ^ "A legacy that Nehru left behind" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-0527/india/27865559_1_pandit-nehru-independent-india-nehruvian-socialism) . Times of India. May 27, 2005. 9. ^ Vikas Singh (11 May 2009). "Who's been India's best and worst PM?" (http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ruebarbpie/entry/who-s-been-india-s) . Times of India. 10. ^ Moraes 2008. 11. ^ Zakaria, Rafiq A Study of Nehru, Times of India Press, 1960, p. 22 12. ^ Bonnie G. Smith; The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Oxford University Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0195148909. pg 406407. 13. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 22. 14. ^ a b c d e f g h Om Prakash Misra; Economic Thought of Gandhi and Nehru: A Comparative Analysis. M.D. Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-8185880716. pg 4965. 15. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 23. 16. ^ a b Bal Ram Nanda; The Nehrus. Oxford University Press. 1962. ISBN 978-0195693430. pg 65. 17. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 36. 18. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 43. 19. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 47. 20. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 37. 21. ^ Ghose 1993, p. 25. 22. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 49. 23. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 50. 24. ^ In Jawaharlal Nehru's autobiography, An Autobiography (1936) p. 33. 25. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 52. 26. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 53. ^ Ghose 1993, p. 26. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru 23/27
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27. ^ Ghose 1993, p. 26. 28. ^ Nehru, Jawaharlal Glimpses of world history: being further letters to his daughter (Lindsay Drummond Ltd., 1949), p. 94 29. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 56. 30. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 55. 31. ^ "Jawaharlal Nehru a chronological account" (http://www.jnmf.in/chrono.html) . Retrieved 23 June 2012. 32. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 115. 33. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 77. 34. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 266. 35. ^ Copland, Ian (1997), The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 19171947, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57179-0 p. 258. 36. ^ Lumby, E.W.R. (1954), The Transfer of Power in India, 19451947, London: George Allen and Unwin p. 228 37. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life, pp. 171, ASIN: B0006EYQ0A 38. ^ "Declaration of independence" (http://cs.nyu.edu/kandathi/swaraj.txt) . Retrieved 2012-08-14. 39. ^ Gandhi, Gopalkrishna. "The Great Dandi March eighty years after" (http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/oped/article388858.ece) , The Hindu, 5 April 2010 40. ^ Fisher, Margaret W. (June 1967). "India's Jawaharlal Nehru p. 368. 41. ^ Johnson, Richard L. (2005). Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739111426 p. 37 42. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 196. 43. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 234-238. 44. ^ "Forty-Second Amendment to the Constitution" (http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend42.htm) . Ministry of Law and Justice of India. 28 August 1976. Retrieved 16 June 2012. 45. ^ Moraes 2008, p. 129. 46. ^ "3rd Five Year Plan (Chapter 1)" (http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/3rd/3planch1.html) . Government of India. Retrieved 16 June 2012. 47. ^ Science & culture, Volume 30. Indian Science News Association. 1964. 48. ^ Nehru, Jawaharlal (8 August 2006). "Wikisource" (http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Tryst_With_Destiny) (PHP). Retrieved 8 August 2006. 49. ^ Nehru's address on Gandhi's death. Retrieved 15 March 2007. 50. ^ Janak Raj Jai (1996). 19471980 (http://books.google.com/books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC&pg=PA45) . Regency Publications. pp. 4547. ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3. 51. ^ Yasmin Khan (2011 52. ^ Thapar, Karan (17 August 2009). "Gandhi, Jinnah both failed: Jaswant" (http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gandhijinnah-both-failed-jaswant/99323-37.html) . ibnlive.in.com. 53. ^ "After Advani, Jaswant turns Jinnah admirer" (http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/AfterAdvani-Jaswant-turns-Jinnah-admirer/articleshow/4900326.cms) . The Economic Times (India). 17 August 2009. 54. ^ "Walk The Talk with Jaswant Singh" (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KXg0qOPUfk) . Retrieved 23 August 2009. 55. ^ a b Farmer, B. H. (1993). An Introduction to South Asia (http://books.google.com/? id=UNINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA120) . Routledge. p. 120. ISBN 0-415-05695-0. 56. ^ The Bourgeoisie Comes of Age in India (http://www.marxists.org/archive/kosambi/exasperatingessays/x01/1946.htm) . Marxists.org. Retrieved 14 November 2011. 57. ^ Som, Reba (1994-02). "Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code: A Victory of Symbol over Substance?". Modern Asian Studies 28 (1): 165194. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00011732 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00011732) . JSTOR 312925 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/312925) . 58. ^ Basu, Srimati (2005). She Comes to Take Her Rights: Indian Women, Property, and Propriety (http://books.google.com/?id=mXgX8rrW6JsC&pg=PA3) . SUNY Press. p. 3. ISBN 81-86706-49-6. "The Hindu Code Bill was visualised by Ambedkar and Nehru as the flagship of modernisation and a radical revision of Hindu law...it is widely regarded as dramatic benchmark legislation giving Hindu women equitable if not superior entitlements as legal subjects." 59. ^ Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (http://books.google.com/?
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id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA328) . Routledge. p. 328. ISBN 0-415-32919-1. "One subject that particularly interested Nehru was the reform of Hindu law, particularly with regard to the rights of Hindu women..." ^ Forbes, Geraldine; Geraldine Hancock Forbes, Gordon Johnson (1999). Women in Modern India (http://books.google.com/?id=hjilIrVt9hUC&pg=PA115) . Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-521-653770. "It is our birthright to demand equitable adjustment of Hindu law...." ^ Erckel, Sebastian (2011). India and the European Union Two Models of Integration, GRIN Verlag, ISBN 365601048X, p. 128 ^ Robert Sherrod (19 January 1963). "Nehru:The Great Awakening". The Saturday Evening Post 236 (2): 6067. ^ Indian Express, 6 October 1949 at Pune at the time of lying of the foundation stone of National Defence Academy (India). ^ Mahatma Gandhi's relevant quotes, "My non-violence does not admit of running away from danger and leaving dear ones unprotected. Between violence and cowardly flight, I can only prefer violence to cowardice. Nonviolence is the summit of bravery." "I do believe that, where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." "I would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour." All Men Are Brothers Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words. UNESCO. pp. 85108. ^ a b c d e f Sublet, Carrie. "Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/Bhabha.html) . Nuclearweaponarchive.ord. Retrieved 8 August 2011. ^ Bhatia, Vinod (1989). Jawaharlal Nehru, as Scholars of Socialist Countries See Him. Panchsheel Publishers. p. 131. ^ Dua, B. D.; James Manor (1994). Nehru to the Nineties: The Changing Office of Prime Minister in India (http://books.google.com/?id=X90G8gnoqv4C&pg=PA141) . C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 141, 261. ISBN 185065-180-9. ^ The full text of this agreement (which entered into force on 3 June 1954): "Treaties and international agreements registered or filed and recorded with the Secretariat of the United Nations" (http://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20299/v299.pdf) (PDF). United Nations Treaty Series 299. New York: United Nations. 1958. pp. 5781. Retrieved 14 August 2012. ^ A short history of long speeches (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8272473.stm) BBC News, 25 September 2009 ^ Majid, Amir A. [http://www.ier.ro/documente/rjea_vol7_no3/RJEA_Vol7_No3_Can_Self_Determination_Solve_the_Kashmir_Disp ute.pdf (2007). "Can Self Determination Solve the Kashmir Dispute?". Romanian Journal of European Affairs 7 (3): 38. ^ Noorani, A.G. "Perseverance in peace process" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2017/stories/20030829001604900.htm) , Frontline, 29 August 2003. ^ "Asia: Ending the Suspense" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842104-10,00.html) . Time. 17 September 1965. ^ "China's Decision for War with India in 1962 by John W. Garver" (http://web.archive.org/web/20090326032121/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf) . Web.archive.org. 26 March 2009. Archived from the original (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/garver.pdf) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 14 August 2012. ^ Gangdruk, Chushi. "Chushi Gangdruk: History (http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.html) ", ChushiGangdruk.Org ^ "Jawaharlal Nehru pleaded for US help against China in 1962" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jawaharlal-Nehru-pleaded-for-US-help-against-China-in1962/articleshow/6931810.cms) . The Times of India. 16 November 2010. ^ "India: Never Again the Same" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,829540,00.html) . Time. 30 November 1962. ^ a b Frank, Katherine (2002). Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (http://books.google.com/? id=0eolM37FUWYC&pg=PA250) . Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 250. ISBN 0-395-73097-X. ^ Embree, Ainslie T., ed. (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian History 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 98 100. ISBN 0-684-18899-6. ^ BBC ON THIS DAY | 27 | 1964: Light goes out in India as Nehru dies
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79. ^ BBC ON THIS DAY | 27 | 1964: Light goes out in India as Nehru dies (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/27/newsid_3690000/3690019.stm) . BBC News. Retrieved 17 March 2011. 80. ^ "Pandit Jawarharlal Nehru (18891964)" (http://www.humanism.org.uk/humanism/humanisttradition/20century/Nehru) . Humanism.org.uk. Retrieved 14 August 2012. 81. ^ "From years 1916 to 1964...The man and the times" (http://news.google.com/newspapers? id=tzA_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=81AMAAAAIBAJ&pg=4355,5162968&dq=kamala+nehru&hl=en) . The Windsor Star. 27 May 1964. Retrieved 19 January 2013. 82. ^ "Nehru-Edwina were in love: Edwina's daughter" (http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php? newsid=89537) . The Indian Express. 15 July 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2010. 83. ^ "Love, longing & politics!" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-21/people/28137788_1_ladyedwina-mountbatten-lord-mountbatten-edwina-and-nehru) . The Times of India. 21 April 2010. Retrieved 2 September 2012. 84. ^ "Introduction" (http://www.aiims.ac.in/aiims/aboutaiims/aboutaiimsintro.htm) . AIIMS. 85. ^ "Institute History" (http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/institute/history.php) ., Indian Institute of Technology 86. ^ Jahanbegloo, Ramin Conversations with Isaiah Berlin (London 2000), ISBN 1842121642 pp. 2012 87. ^ Harrison, Selig S. (July 1956). "The Challenge to Indian Nationalism". Foreign Affairs 34 (2): 620636. doi:10.2307/20031191 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F20031191) . 88. ^ History (http://www.jnmf.in/history.html) Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, Official website. 89. ^ The Last Days of the Raj (2007) (TV) (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0986237/) . imdb.com 90. ^ AWARDS: The multi-faceted playwright (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1603/16031170.htm) Frontline (magazine), Vol. 16, No. 3, 30 January 12 February 1999. 91. ^ Sachindananda (2006). "Girish Karnad" (http://books.google.com/books?id=PGWa7v08JikC&pg=PT82) . Authors speak . Sahitya Akademi. p. 58. ISBN 81-260-1945-X. 92. ^ "Padma Awards Directory (19542007)" (http://www.mha.nic.in/pdfs/PadmaAwards1954-2007.pdf) . Ministry of Home affairs. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
Bibliography
Frank Moraes (2008). Jawaharlal Nehru. Jaico Publishing House. ISBN 978-8179926956. Sankar Ghose (1993). Jawaharlal Nehru. Allied Publishers. ISBN 978-8170233695.
Further reading
A Tryst With Destiny historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru on 14 August 1947 Nehru: The Invention of India by Shashi Tharoor (November 2003) Arcade Books ISBN 1-55970-697X Jawaharlal Nehru (Edited by S. Gopal and Uma Iyengar) (July 2003) The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-565324-6 Autobiography:Toward freedom, Oxford University Press Jawaharlal Nehru: Life and work by M. Chalapathi Rau, National Book Club (1 January 1966) Jawaharlal Nehru by M. Chalapathi Rau. [New Delhi] Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India [1973] Letters from a father to his daughter by Jawaharlal Nehru, Children's Book Trust (http://www.childrensbooktrust.com/index.htm) Nehru: A Political Biography by Michael Brecher (1959). London:Oxford University Press. After Nehru, Who by Welles Hangen (1963). London: Rupert Hart-Davis. Nehru: The Years of Power by Geoffrey Tyson (1966). London: Pall Mall Press.
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Independence and After: A collection of the more important speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru from September 1946 to May 1949 (http://www.questia.com/read/2379634? title=Independence%20and%20after%3a%20A%20Collection%20of%20Speeches%2c%201946%201949) (1949). Delhi: The Publications Division, Government of India. Joseph Stanislaw and Daniel A. Yergin (1988). "Commanding Heights" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/pdf/prof_jawaharla.pdf) . New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. "The Challenge to Indian Nationalism." by Selig S. Harrison Foreign Affairs vol. 34, no. 2 (1956): 620 636. Nehru, Jawaharlal. by Ainslie T. Embree, ed., and the Asia Society. Encyclopedia of Asian History. Vol. 3. Charles Scribners Sons. New York. (1988): 98100.
External links
Lord Mountbatten's daughter recalls Nehru (http://www.india-intro.com/remembering-nehru-andothers.html) Jawahar Lal Nehru's Biography (http://www.indohistory.com/jawaharlalnehru.html) Jawaharlal Nehru University (http://www.jnu.ac.in/) Nehru biography at Harappa.com (http://www.harappa.com/sounds/nehru.html) India Today's profile of Nehru (http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/nehru.html) Nehru's legacy to India (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2120/stories/20041008000307600.htm) Nehru on Communalism (http://books.google.com/books?id=sI_Ijk8YWsC&dq=nehru+communalism&printsec=frontcover) 12 Indians who are famous in Russia (http://indrus.in/articles/2011/08/02/12_indians_who_are_famous_in_russia_12823.html) Booknotes interview with Stanley Wolpert on Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny, 29 December 1996. (http://www.booknotes.org/Watch/77488-1/Stanley+Wolpert.aspx) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jawaharlal_Nehru&oldid=547911769" Categories: First Indian Cabinet 1st Lok Sabha members 1889 births 1964 deaths Alumni of the Inns of Court School of Law Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Cold War leaders Deaths from myocardial infarction Deaths from stroke Indian atheists Democratic socialists Indian independence activists Indian National Army trials Indian socialists Indian writers Kashmiri people NehruGandhi family People educated at Harrow School People from Allahabad Presidents of the Indian National Congress Prime Ministers of India Members of Constituent Assembly of India Nehru administration Recipients of the Bharat Ratna Prisoners and detainees of British India Contemporary Indian philosophers This page was last modified on 31 March 2013 at 01:31. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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In office 30 January 1957 17 April 1957 Preceded by Kailash Nath Katju

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V. K. Krishna Menon In office

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Early life and career (18891912)

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The Nehru family ca. 1890s

Struggle for Indian Independence (191247)

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Home rule movement

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Internationalising the struggle

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World War II and Quit India

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Prime Minister of India (194764)

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Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education and social reform

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National security and foreign policy

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Nehru with Otto Grotewohl, the Prime Minister of East Germany

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India China War 1962

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Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nehru distributes sweets among children at Nongpoh, Meghalaya

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp.

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jawaharlal Nehru - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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