LAB REPORT Design and measure the equivalent resistance and capacitance of parallel and series resistive and

capacitivecircuits respectively

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this experiment is to find the equivalent resistance and capacitance in parallel and series combination by using a breadboard .

Procedure
First I took three resistors of different values and found their equivalent value theoratically by applying formulas .then I placed these resistors first in series in the bread board and then I parallel combination and noted the values experimentally and then I found the first error . in the breadboard all the horizontal lines are considered as one point in a row and all the vertical point as one point in a column so while placing them in series and parallel combination I kept it in mind . Then I took three capacitors and found their equivalent value theoratically then I arranged them in the bread board in series and parallel combination and found

the equivalent value experimentally then took the percentage error to find the accuracy .

RELATED PHYSICS RESISTORS CIRCUIT CAPACITOR BREADBOARD CIRCUIT

A circuit ia a closed loop that electrons can travel in. A source of electricity such as battery provides electrical energy in circuit . unless the circuit is complete that is making a full circle back to the electrical source no electron will move

RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law: I = V/R Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated

circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

UNIT
The unit of resistance is [V.A-1], which is given the name, the Ohm. [] in honour of the physicist and mathematician, Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854). Ohm is most famous for the law that bares his name Ohm's law

Inside a Resistor
Resistors are made in several different ways, and although they just look like blobs on a wire, they are quite interesting.

Resistor Networks
Amlost any non-trival electrical circuit will contain some resistors in series and parallel, therefore it is necessary to be able to work out the equivalent resistances of the network. Temperature Dependence of Resistance Resistance occurs because electrons flowing through a material

COLOUR CODE AND TOLERANCE

The values of the resistor are calculated from the colour of the bands. The values of the colours are shown in Table 1. The first band is the tens values. The second band gives the units, the third band is a multiplying factor the factor being 10 band value . The fourth band gives the tolerance of the resistor. No band implies a

tolerance of 20%, a silver band means the resistor has a tolerance of 10% and a gold band has the closest tolerance of 5%. Colour Code Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS RESISTORS IN SERIES In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances: Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. RESISTOR IN PARALLEL Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:

APPLICATIONS
Resistors are largely used in the automotive area. They are used in the: Body Control Systems; Drive Train & Starter/Alternators; DC/DC Converters; Lighting Supplies; Engine Management & Ignition/Injection Systems; Electrical

Replacement of Mechanical Functions; Hybrid/Electric Vehicles. Metal film series, automotive areas. Medical: In the medical area the resistors are used in the : Defibrillator Charge Control; Defibrillator Pulse Protection; ECG High Gain Amplification; X-Ray Supply; Ultrasound & MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scanners Avionics: The electronics equipments installed in the planes and dedicated to their driving are indicated by the "avionics" term. The TMC series thick film chip resistors meets both avionics and military high reliability requirements, including aerospace systems, weapon systems, aircraft and communication equipment. This series has a failure rate of 0.01%

CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

CONSTRUCTION
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass,

air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field.

UNITS
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here's what happens:

The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery. Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery (1.5 volts on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small capacitor, the capacity is small. But large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge. You can find capacitors as big as soda cans that hold enough charge to light a flashlight bulb for a minute or more. Even nature shows the capacitor at work in the form of lightning. One plate is the cloud, the other plate is the ground and the lightning is the charge releasing between these two "plates." Obviously, in a capacitor that large, you can hold a huge amount of charge! Let's say you hook up a capacitor like this:

Here you have a battery, a light bulb and a capacitor. If the capacitor is pretty big, what you will notice is that, when you connect the battery, the light bulb will light up as current flows from the battery to the capacitor to charge it up. The bulb will get progressively dimmer and finally go out once the capacitor reaches its capacity. If you then remove the battery and replace it with a wire, current will flow from one plate of the capacitor to the other. The bulb will light initially and then dim as the capacitor discharges, until it is completely out. Like a Water Tower One way to visualize the action of a capacitor is to imagine it as a water tower hooked to a pipe. A water tower "stores" water pressure -- when the water system pumps produce more water than a town needs, the excess is stored in the water tower. Then, at times of high demand, the excess water flows out of the tower to keep the pressure up. A capacitor stores electrons in the same way and can then release them later. SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITOR For capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area. For capacitors in series

Several capacitors in series. Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge buildup equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components. Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on occasion series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current will not apply too much voltage to the other series capacitors.

Applications The difference between a capacitor and a battery is that a capacitor can dump its entire charge in a tiny fraction of a second, where a battery would take minutes to completely discharge. That's why the electronic flash on a camera uses a capacitor -- the battery charges up the flash's capacitor over several seconds, and then the capacitor dumps the full charge into the flash tube almost instantly. This can make a large, charged capacitor extremely dangerous -- flash units and TVs have warnings about opening them up for this reason. They contain big capacitors that can, potentially, kill you with the charge they contain. Capacitors are used in several different ways in electronic circuits: IN LASERS Sometimes, capacitors are used to store charge for high-speed use. That's what a flash does. Big lasers use this technique as well to get very bright, instantaneous flashes. TO ELIMINATE RIPPELS Capacitors can also eliminate ripples. If a line carrying DC voltage has ripples or spikes in it, a big capacitor can even out the voltage by absorbing the peaks and filling in the valleys. IN TOUCH SCREEN A capacitor can block DC voltage. If you hook a small capacitor to a battery, then no current will flow between the poles of the battery once the capacitor charges. However, any alternating current (AC) signal flows through a capacitor unimpeded. That's because the capacitor will charge and discharge as the alternating current fluctuates, making it appear that the alternating current is floOne of the more futuristic applications of capacitors is the capacitive touch screen.

These are glass screens that have a very thin, transparent metallic coating. A builtin electrode pattern charges the screen so when touched, a current is drawn to the finger and creates a voltage drop. This exact location of the voltage drop is picked up by a controller and transmitted to a computer. These touch screens are commonly found in interactive building directories and more recently in Apple's iPhone

BREADBOARD
A breadboard (protoboard) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term is commonly used to refer to solderless breadboard (plugboard) A breadboard is a device used as a construction base in developing an electronic circuit. Breadboards can be solderless, which allows them to be reusable. CONSTRUCTION A solderless breadboard is made of plastic and perforated with numerous holes. Small tin-plated bronze or nickel alloy clips are located under the perforations and provide contact points or "nodes" to attach electronic pieces to create a circuit. A breadboard is used for multiple functions to create a variety of products using electricity.

Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. Older breadboard types did not have this property. A stripboard (veroboard) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build permanent soldered prototypes or oneoffs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central processing units CPU APPLICATIONS A breadboard also functions as a host for a variety of other electrical components. A component called a transistor can amplify or turn off the electrical current to certain parts of the circuit. Circuit breakers are used to control the flow of electricity, coming in the form of a power button or a slide switch. A consuming device or load is what provides the circuit end function. Light bulbs, electric fans and radios are examples of circuits with a consuming device.

Light Emitting Diodes When creating a circuit, using a breadboard in conjunction with a light emitting diode (or LED) helps circuit creators test the functions of a circuit to make sure it is running properly. LED's are removable and are placed next to the circuit

parts to ensure the power supply or electrical current is running in the proper direction. Wires are components used with a breadboard to create a functioning circuit. Use solid, not stranded, wire to connect a circuit in a breadboard. Stranded wire is thin and strands may separate when applying wire into a node. Solid wire is insulated with plastic and comes in different colors to help the engineer creating the circuit to differentiate between paths. Use a pair of pliers or wire cutters to gently cut into the plastic and strip off the end, leaving exposed wire to connect to the breadboard. The breadboard functions as a host for wire connections.