OUTLINE

Introduction Manufacturing of Steel Properties of Steel Steel Products for Construction Joining of Steel Durability of Steel

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
IRON & STEEL

Guggenheim Museum Biblao, Spain

2010 | Praveen Chompreda | Mahidol University

Source: Wikipedia

IRON
Iron is the 10th most abundant element in the universe Iron accounts for about 35% of earths mass, most of it is in the inner core Earth crust contains about 5% of iron, the 2nd most abundant metal (the first being aluminum)

IRON
The relatively low cost of iron and its high strength make it the most-used metal in the world. The majority of iron is in the form of steels, which are alloys of iron with different metals and carbon.

Source: Wikipedia 3

Source: Wikipedia 4

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, the worlds longest bridge, is made of steel

MANUFACTURING OF STEEL The manufacturing of steel consists of 3 main phases

Reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron Refining Pig Iron to Steel Forming Steel into products

MANUFACTURING OF STEEL
Manufacturing of Steel Iron Ore Pig Iron (Step 1) Cast Iron Pig Iron Steel (Step II) Steel Alloy Forming of Steel (Step III)
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Iron Ore

Blast Furnace

Pig Iron

Basic Oxygen Furnace, etc

Steel

Blooming Mill

Steel Products

MANUFACTURING OF STEEL

IRON ORE PIG IRON (STEP 1)

Iron does not occur in nature as pure metal, but as combinations with oxygen or sulfur, called Iron Ore. The most common are hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), or pyrite (FeS2) 3 main ingredients used in reducing Iron Ore to Pig Iron are Coke (product from Coal), Limestone, and Iron Ore Iron ore is converted to pig iron in the Blast Furnace

Hematite
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 7

Pyrite (Fools Gold)

Magnetite
Picture Source: Wikipedia 8

IRON ORE PIG IRON

Iron is extracted from ore by removing the oxygen, usually by combining with carbon to produce CO2 It takes about 5-8 hours from the loading of material at the top till the iron is obtained at the bottom. The process is done continuously the furnace never shuts down. To produce 1 ton of pig iron, it takes about 1300 kg of iron ore, 600 kg of coke, 400 kg of limestone, 7300 kg of air, 22000 kg of water, and 27x106 BTU of heat. Pig iron obtained from the blast furnace cannot be used by its own, due to its high carbon content (about 3.5-4%). It has to be processed further to reduce the amount of carbon and to remove other impurities.
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IRON ORE PIG IRON

Inside the blast furnace The coke (from coal) reacts with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide (CO) 2 C + O2 2 CO

Carbon monoxide reacts with iron ore to become carbon dioxide (CO2) 3 CO + Fe2O3 2 Fe + 3 CO2

Limestone (CaCO3) is used as a flux (solvent) to help removing the impurities, such as silicon dioxide in the ore CaO + CO2 CaSiO3 Slag The molten slag is lighter than the molten iron, so it floats on the top and can be drawn off through an opening at the bottom of the furnace this can later be used as cement replacement material in concrete (Recall GGBS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag)
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CaCO3 CaO + SiO2

CAST IRON
Cast iron is produced by reheating pig iron and remove some of the impurities. It contains about 2-4% of carbon It can be cast into molds It is brittle and best used in compression rather than tension Common applications are pipes and fittings. Cast iron is difficult to weld.
Source: Marotta (2005) 11

CAST IRON
4 main types
White cast iron: The carbon and iron are in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C). It is hard and very brittle so it is not used as structural components. It may be used where high resistance to abrasion and wear is required. When broken, the fracture surface appears white. Grey Cast Iron: The carbon is present in the form of graphite flakes. This graphite make it softer and machineable, but it is still very brittle. When broken, the fracture surface appears grey. This is the most common type of cast iron.

Source: wikipedia

Cast Iron Pipe Fittings

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CAST IRON
Ductile Iron or Spheroidal Graphite Iron: By adding some alloying elements and the right casting procedure, the graphite in the grey cast iron may be induced to form into spherulites (small spheres). This reduce the brittleness. Malleable Iron: By applying heat treatment to the white cast iron, the nodules of graphite may be formed. This helps increase the strength and reduce brittleness.

PIG IRON STEEL (STEP 2)

Steel is an alloy of iron with some other metals, called alloying elements. Alloying elements are added to improve properties of iron such as hardness, elasticity, ductility, tensile strength, corrosion resistant, etc Steel contains up to about 1.5% carbon Structural Steel contains up to about 0.25% carbon Types
Mild Steel or Low Carbon Steel (C < 0.25%) this is the structural steel Medium Carbon Steel or just Carbon Steel (0.3% < C < 0.6%) High Carbon Steel (0.6% < C < 1.5%) Alloy Steel (Steel + Alloying elements) eg. Stainless steel

3 main types of furnaces used in refining pig iron to steel

Open Hearth Furnace (Traditional) Basic Oxygen Furnace (Most Popular) Electric Arc
Source: wikipedia Source: wikipedia

Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge (1785), UK Cast iron bridge

Decorative Cast Iron Gate

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PIG IRON STEEL

Basic Oxygen Furnace Molten pig iron and recycled steel are dumped from the top. Pure oxygen is blown with high pressure into the furnace to stir things up and cause rapid burning of materials. Limestone is added as a flux Impurities are either removed as gases (such as CO2) or as slag. Alloying metals may be added to produce special steel alloy Basic oxygen furnace can refine about 300 tons of steel in under 30 minutes. The molten steel may be cast into a large prism called Ingot to be sent to another factory to form into desired shapes

PIG IRON STEEL

Molten pig iron is added to the top of the Basic Oxygen Furnace

Steel Ingot

Source: wikipedia 15

Source: wikipedia 16

STEEL ALLOY

STEEL ALLOY

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006) 17 18

STEEL
The largest producer in the world is China, followed by Japan and USA

STEEL
Today, most of the steel is from recycled steel. This has some effects on the chemical compositions of the modern steel by having elements that were not previously considered to be a part of normal steel chemistry It is now become more difficult to find a low-strength grade of steel. We tend to get much higher actual strength for the lower-strength grade of steel.

Source: wikipedia

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FORMING OF STEEL (STEP 3)

The steel ingot goes to blooming mill where it is reheated to about 1200 C and get passed through huge rollers to reduce the ingot to a smaller size It may take 20+ rollers to reduce the ingot into the desired shape and size Typical shapes produced are plates, rods/bars, and structural steel rolled shapes.

FORMING OF STEEL (STEP 3)

Source: wikipedia 21 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 22

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Properties of metals, in general, may be divided into 2 categories Structure Insensitive Properties : these are properties that has to do with the atoms themselves, but not the microstructure. Examples are density, elastic modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat.

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Properties of Steel Tensile Test & Modulus of Elasticity Impact Test Hardness Test

Structure Sensitive Properties : these are properties that depends on the microstructure of the materials, which is greatly affected by heating and cooling histories. Examples are yield strength, fracture strength, ductility (elongation at failure), and fatigue performance.

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PROPERTIES OF STEEL

TENSILE STRENGTH & MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Tensile strength (ASTM A 370) and modulus of elasticity of steel are obtained by testing a steel specimen under direct tension.
Typical tensile test setup for large bars (left), and small bars/ wires (right)

We can record the load and the displacement between two points to get a stress-strain plot
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STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

Typical stress-strain curve of mild steel in tension (we also assume that the behavior in compression is the same as in tension this is true for most purposes)

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

The followings can be observed: The stress-strain curve is linear from the point of zero load to a point called Yield Point, Yield Strength (Fy), Limit of Proportionality, or Elastic Limit. In some steel, we can observe the upper yield point and the lower yield point. The slope of the stress-strain curve during the linear portion is called Modulus of Elasticity (E), the typically value is 200 GPa After the yield point, steel undergoes yielding, in which the strain increases significantly without much increase in the load At some point, the stress begin to increase until it reaches the point of maximum stress, called Ultimate Strength (Fu) at a strain much larger than the strain at yielding. This portion of the curve is called Strain Hardening Range. We usually grade the steel by its yield strength (not the ultimate strength as in concrete!)
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Source: ASCE (2001)

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

At the ultimate strength, the tensile test member exhibit necking behavior in which the area of the test piece decreases as the deformation increases with the corresponding decrease in load. Thus, if we calculate the stress by Engineering Stress = F/Aoriginal, we get a decrease in stress from ultimate to rupture. But if we calculate the stress by True Stress = F/Aactual, we get an increase in stress (dashed line) instead.
Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

Note that if we unload the steel after the yield point, it will not return to the original length; thus, a permanent deformation has occurred

Original
Source: ASCE (2001)

At Ultimate Just before Failure Necking

If we reload it again, it will follow the unloading path until it reaches the previous maximum load. After that, it follows the same stress-strain curve as if it is loaded continuously (without unloading) to failure.
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STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

Idealized Stress-Strain Curve

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

Where should be the yield point???

As the yield strength of steel increases (higher strength steel), the yield point becomes more difficult to define. We can define the yield point in this case by using Offset Method, or Proof Stress.
Source: ASCE (2001)

Yield point of A36 steel

In the design of steel structures, we usually rely on the strength up to the yielding. For simplicity, we generally model the stress-strain curve as bilinear. We know that there is some reserved strength in the Strain Hardening range but we just dont use it in the design.
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Source: ASCE (2001) 32

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

We find the point of small strain (0.1%, 0.2% depending on the standard or the value agreed upon) and draw a line parallel to the linear portion of the stressstrain curve. The point where the parallel line intersects the stress-strain curve is the proof stress or the yield stress. We may also use the stress at 0.5% strain as the yield point. This may give slightly different yield point than the offset method.

STRESS - STRAIN CURVES

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

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Source: ASCE (2001)

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IMPACT
The Charpy V-Notch Impact test (ASTM E23) is used to measure the energy required to fracture a steel specimen. It uses a hammer pendulum to strike a notched specimen After striking, some of the kinetic energy is absorbed by the test specimen so the swinging arm will not go up as high as its starting position. We can measure the height to compute the energy. The lower the energy required to fracture, the more brittle the steel

HARDNESS
Hardness is the measure of the materials resistance to small dent or scratch to the surface. Most common method is the Rockwell hardness test (ASTM E18) This method measures the penetration depth of small metal ball or diamond cone under a standard load. The hardness value can be used to estimate the tensile strength of the material. This is very useful because hardness test is easy to do, inexpensive, and do not require special specimens.

Notch
Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

For the same type of steel, the measured strength and/or elongation at failure may be affected by the following factors: Loading rate (static vs. dynamic) Location in the section where the sample is collected this is usually critical for hot-rolled sections as it is affected by residual stress in some parts of the section Loading history cold-forming of steel changes the strength and deformation capacity of steel.

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

Structural steel sections have residual stresses in them. Residual stress occurs due to nonuniform cooling of the section after hot rolling. The thinner part cools faster than the thicker part. The parts that cool first will have residual compression. The parts that cool last will have residual tension. Magnitude and distribution depends on the shape of the section, not the strength of the steel. This reduce the usable strength to yielding
Compression Tension

Compression

Tension

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Source: ASCE (2001)

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

Cold forming of steel (i.e. shaping of steel without heat) leaves the steel with higher yield strength but lower strain to failure. If we test the steel with the history of cold forming, we would get different behavior from the one without any forming Ductility = u/y u = ultimate strain y = yield strain

Source: ASCE (2001) 39

STEEL PRODUCTS FOR CONSTRUCTIONS

Reinforcing steel Round bar Deformed bar Prestressing strands Structural steel Hot Rolled steel Cold-formed steel Built-up Members (Steel plate)

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STEEL PRODUCTS FOR CONSTRUCTIONS Reinforcing steel

Round bar Deformed bar Prestressing strands

REINFORCING STEEL
Reinforcing bars are obtained by hot rolling of steel Two main types:
Round bar the surface of the bar is smooth Deformed bar the surface of the bar has ribs on it

Structural steel
Hot Rolled steel Cold-formed steel Built-up Members (Steel plate)

The ribs on the surface of deformed bar increase the bond to the concrete. Thus, the Deformed bars are generally used as main reinforcement of structural members. Round bars are generally used as reinforcement to prevent concrete cracking under temperature changes and shrinkage.

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia 41 Source: Wikipedia 42

REINFORCING STEEL - GRADES

Reinforcing steel is graded by the minimum yield strength

REINFORCING STEEL - ROUND BAR

. 20-2543: Grade: SR 24
Type RB 6 RB 8 RB 9 RB 10 RB 12 RB 15 RB 19 RB 22 RB 25 RB 28 RB 34 Diameter (mm) 6 8 9 10 12 15 19 22 25 28 34 Cross-Sectional Area (mm2) 28.3 50.3 63.6 78.5 113.1 176.7 283.5 380.1 490.9 615.8 907.9

. 20-2543, 24-2548
Type Grade Fy (ksc) Minimum 2400 3000 4000 5000 Fu (ksc) Minimum 3900 4900 5700 6300 Ultimate Strain (%) Minimum 21 17 15 13

Round Bar Deformed Bar

SR 24 SD 30 SD 40 SD 50

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REINFORCING STEEL - DEFORMED BAR

. 24-2548: Grades: SD 30, SD 40, SD 50
Type DB 6 DB 8 DB 10 DB 12 DB 16 DB 20 DB 22 DB 25 DB 28 DB 32
Source: Wikipedia

REINFORCING STEEL - PRESTRESSING STRANDS

28.3 50.3 78.5 113.1 201.1 314.2 380.1 490.9 615.8 804.2 1017.9 1256.6
45 Source: Naaman (2004) 46

Diameter (mm) 6 8 10 12 16 20 22 25 28 32 36 40

Cross-Sectional Area (mm2)

Prestressing strands are made by twisting 2, 3, 7, or 19 wires together. The most common type is the 7-wire strand. They are made of higher strength steel than those used in regular reinforcing steel bars . 420-2540:

DB 36 DB 40

REINFORCING STEEL - PRESTRESSING STRANDS

REINFORCING STEEL - PRESTRESSING STRANDS

Prestressed concrete segmental girders

Source: Naaman (2004) 47

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STRUCTURAL STEEL For steel structures, there are 3 main types of steel members
Hot rolled members Cold-formed members Built-up members (from steel plates)

STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

Hot rolled shapes are obtained by passing very hot block of steel through various rollers several times to obtain the desired shape. Most of the shapes are standardized by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Typical shapes are W or H (wide-flange), I, C (Channel), L (Angle), T, Pipe, and Tube. 1227-2539:

Strata Center MIT, Boston, MA

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STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

They are used for main structural members, such as truss members, beams, and columns.

Source: Wikipedia Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 51

Source: Wikipedia 52

STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

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STRUCTURAL STEEL - HOT ROLLED

STRUCTURAL STEEL - COLDFORMED

Cold-formed shapes are obtained by stamping and/or bending steel plate to a desired shape at normal temperature Cold-formed sections usually have small thickness (we cannot bend a very thick plate). Common shapes are C (Channels), Z (Zees), and L (Angles)

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Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)

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STRUCTURAL STEEL - COLDFORMED

They are used mostly for nonstructural elements or for structures that carry small loads

STRUCTURAL STEEL - COLDFORMED

1228-2537: Has only one grade: SSC 400 Yield Strength Minimum (MPa) 245 Tensile Strength Minimum (MPa) 400-510 Elongation, Minimum (%) Thickness < 5 mm 21 Thickness > 5 mm 17

Source: Wikipedia

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STRUCTURAL STEEL - COLDFORMED

STRUCTURAL STEEL - BUILTUP MEMBERS

We can create structural members by welding steel plates into any desirable shapes Typical examples are bridge girders and columns of tall buildings

Source: Nowak (2004) 59 60

STRUCTURAL STEEL - BUILTUP MEMBERS

1499-2541:

STRUCTURAL STEEL - BUILTUP MEMBERS

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JOINING OF STEEL Structural steel pieces may be join by one of these 3 methods:

JOINING OF STEEL
Rivet High-Strength Bolt Welding

Riveting Bolting Welding

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Connection Details of the Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge (the first cast iron bridge)
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RIVET
Rivet is the oldest method of joining. It involves heating a small metal pin until it is sufficiently soft. The metal pin is inserted to the hole and a special tool is used to form the heads of the rivet Riveting is rather slow, requires a lot of skilled workers, cannot carry a lot of loads, and difficult to replace The method is now becomes obsolete due to the invention of high-strength bolts in the 1950s

RIVET
Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

Rivets on columns and bridge truss members

Source: Marotta (2005)

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HIGHSTRENGTH BOLT
High-strength bolt replaces rivet as a steel fastener
Construction of Empire State Tower, 1930

HIGHSTRENGTH BOLT
High-strength bolts are usually tightened such that high tensile stress is developed in the bolt. The tensile stress in the bolt causes compressive stress on the steel pieces being joined. The compressive stress causes friction to develop between the joined piece, holding the pieces together. There are two types of connections:
Slip Critical: The friction is high enough that the pieces must not slip past each other under service load, i.e. the loads are transferred through friction only. Bearing Type: The slippage is allowed under service load. The load is transferred by bearing and shearing of bolts.
Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)

It takes about 4-5 highly skilled workers to install a rivet (not included in the picture are workers heating the rivet)

One worker can install a bolt

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HIGHSTRENGTH BOLT

WELDING
Welding is the joining of metal by applying heat to fuse the two pieces together The history of metal welding dates back to the Egyptian period (3000 B.C.). The modern welding method was invented around 1885. A lot of improvements to the process occurred during 1930-1950. There are several welding methods but the most popular are Arc Welding and Gas Welding Arc welding uses an arc between the electrode and the grounded base metal to heat both metals to their melting points. The electrode is coated with flux, which provide the oxygen-free atmosphere around the weld to prevent oxidation. The flux cools down to become slag covering the weld area. Gas welding also uses an arc to heat the metal. However, it uses gas from external sources, such as inert gases or CO2, to shield the weld from oxidation. This is often used in small welds because there is no slag formation.

Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)

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WELDING

WELDING
Some types of structural steel are better than the others for welding, depending on its chemical composition Electrode must be selected to match the strength of the material being joined Diameter of the electrode must be selected to match the size of the weld and the electrical output of welding machine

Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996)

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)

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WELDING
Weld metal in arc welding is deposited by electromagnetic field, not gravity. Therefore, welding can be done in any positions. Welded connection are usually smaller and more aesthetically pleasing than bolted or riveted connections.

WELDING

Source: Salmon and Johnston (1996) Source: Salmon and Johnson (1996) 73 74

WELDING

Welded Plate Girder Field Bolting

WELDING
Residual stress occurs in the welded section in a similar manner to the hot rolled sections: i.e. the parts that cool first will have residual compression. The parts that cool last will have residual tension.

The current practice is to weld parts of built-up structural members in the shop but using bolts to assemble the member in the field.
Field welding is inconvenient, difficult to inspect, and can be expensive Shop welding is faster and looks better than bolting Field Bolting Welds done in fabrication shop
75 76 Source: ASCE (2001)

WELDING
In addition, the location near the weld was subjected to very high heat and fast cooling rate. A Martensite structure was developed, which was very hard and brittle. This is the area where failure often occurs. This area is called Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) To reduce the residual stresses and HAZ, cooling rate of welding must be carefully controlled, especially in large welds.

DURABILITY OF STEEL
Corrosion Prevention of Corrosion Weathering Steel Stainless Steel

Source: Momlouk and Zaniewski (2006)

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CORROSION
Corrosion is a destruction of a material by electrochemical reaction. When the steel corrodes, rust is formed. Some rust on the steel reinforcement before placing of concrete is OK Rust on the steel structures must be avoided as it can lead to reduction in strength Steel rust at the rate of about 0.5mm/year In order for rust to occur, we need 4 elements
Anode: The electrode where corrosion occurs Cathode: The other electrode needed to form a corrosion cell Conductor: A metallic pathway for electrons to flow Electrolyte: A liquid that can support the flow of electrons

CORROSION
Reactions: Anode Side Fe2+ Fe + 2(OH) Fe2+ + 2eFe(OH)2 Ferrous Hydroxide (Black Rust) 4Fe(OH)3 Ferric Hydroxide (Red Rust) 4(OH)-

4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 Cathode Side 4e- + 2H2O + O2

Steel by itself already has 3 elements, it only needs water (electrolyte) to complete the corrosion cell

Source: Nowak (2004)

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Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

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CORROSION
The amount of time the steel stays wet affects the rate of corrosion. Environmental contaminants may accelerate corrosion. Examples are SO2 in acid rain, and salts (from sea or deicing salts).

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Design the structure such that water cannot collect on the surface or joints

Source: Nowak (2004)

Source: Nowak (2004)

Source: Nowak (2004)

Corrosion of steel column near the sea

Corrosion from deicing salts

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Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

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PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Design the structure such that inspection and maintenance can be done easily

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Applying protective coating to seal off the surface from moisture.
The surface to be painted must be dry and clean Periodic repainting is necessary

Inspection Catwalk underneath a Cable-Stayed Bridge

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PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Cathodic protection: we prevent the corrosion of steel by making it the cathode side of the corrosion cell!
Sacrificial Anode: this is done by connecting more anodic metal with steel. The anode metal will corrode instead of the steel. This anode metal must be replaced occasionally.

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Aluminum anodes are mounted on steel structure

Source: Wikipedia

Anodic coating : this is similar to the sacrificial anode but, instead of using a piece of metal, the anode metals is coated on the surface of the steel. Galvanizing: uses Zinc to coat the surface of the steel Zinc-Pigmented Paint: Same concept as galvanizing but in the form of paint
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Source: Wikipedia

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

Galvanized Surface

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PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP): Using external power source to make the metal cathodic and consume the anode metal instead. Inert Anodes such as carbon, titanium, lead, or platinum are used. This is typically used for large structures, such as buried pipelines, as placing sacrificial anodes at regular intervals is impossible.

WEATHERING STEEL
Weathering steel or high strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel (also known commercially as COR-TEN steel) is a steel alloy with very low percentage of carbon (<0.15%) and small amounts of chromium, copper, phosphorus, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, molybdenum, silicon, or zirconium Weathering steel has the unique characteristic that, under proper conditions (not too wet and not too dry), it corrodes by forming a dense and tightly adherent oxide barrier that seals out the atmosphere and retards further corrosion. This is in contrast to other steels that form a coarse, porous and flaky oxide that allows the atmosphere to continue penetrating the steel. Although more expensive than the regular carbon steel, we save the cost of painting for the entire service life. ASTM A 242, ASTM A 572, and ASTM A 588
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Source: www.daviddarling.info

Source: www.byauto.com.cn

WEATHERING STEEL
It is widely used in bridges and marine structures. It is not rust-proof. If water collects on the surface, it will corrode.

STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless steel, also known as high-alloy steels, contains 16-28% chromium, up to 22% nickel, and some manganese. It has very high resistance to corrosion due to the forming of a thin, transparent coating of chromium oxide over the surface. It is often used as kitchen tools, laboratory equipments, etc For construction, stainless steel are used as cladding, water pipes/fittings, and corrosion-resistant reinforcement for concrete (ASTM A 955M). Over 150 grades are available, some has higher corrosion resistance than the others, some are harder, some has magnetic property, some are easier to weld, etc Variety of finishes are available from unpolished, brushed, to mirror finishes.
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Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia

Petronas Towers Stainless steel cladding

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U.S. Steel Building, Pittsburgh

Core-Ten Sculpture

STAINLESS STEEL

RECAP
Introduction Manufacturing of Steel Iron Ore Pig Iron Steel Microstructure & Heat Treatment Properties of Steel Tensile Stress-Strain Curve Impact & Hardness Test Factors Affecting Strength Steel Products for Construction Reinforcing steel Round Bar Deformed Bar Prestressing Strands
Source: Wikipedia

Structural steel
Hot Rolled steel Cold-formed steel Built-up Members (Steel plate)

Source: Wikipedia

St. Louis Gateway Arch St. Louis, Missouri, USA Stainless steel cladding

Joining of Steel Riveting, Bolting, Welding Durability of Steel Corrosion Preventions of Corrosion Weathering Steel Stainless Steel

Stainless steel rebar

Chrysler Building, New York Stainless steel spire Completed 1929

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Source: Wikipedia

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REFERENCES
American Society of Civil Engineers (2001), Structural Steel Selection Considerations: A Guide for Students, Educators, Designers, and Builders, Ed. R. Bjorhovde et. al., ASCE, Reston, VA, 110 pages. American Society of Testing and Materials, ASTM A370, West Conshohocken, PA. Illston, J. M. and Domone, P. L. J. (2001), Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour, 3rd Edition, Spon Press, London. Mamlouk, M. S., and Zaniewski, J. P. (2006), Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 576 pages Marotta, T. W. (2005), Basic Construction Materials, 7th Edition, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 598 pages Naaman, A. E. (2004), Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: Fundamentals, Technopress 3000, Ann Arbor, MI. Nowak, A. S. (2004), Bridge Design Course Materials, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E. (1996), Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, 4th Edition, HarperCollins College Publishers, NY, 1024 pages. Smith, R.C, and Andres, C.K. (1989), Materials of Construction, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 401 pages. Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 20-2543, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 24-2548, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 420-2540, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1227-2539, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1228-2537, Bangkok, Thailand Thai Industrial Standard Institute, TISI 1499-2541, Bangkok, Thailand http://www.wikipedia.org

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