Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143152

Review

Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products

E. Gallaghera*, T.R. Gormleya and E.K. Arendtb
a

Teagasc, The National Food Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland (fax: +353-1-805-9550; e-mail: egallagher@nfc.teagasc.ie) b Department of Food and Nutritional Science, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland

The replacement of gluten presents a major technological challenge, as it is an essential structure-building protein, which is necessary for formulating high quality cereal-based goods. Rising demands for gluten free products parallels the apparent or real increase in coeliac disease, or other allergic reactions/intolerances to gluten. This paper reviews the current prevalence of coeliac disease, and recent advances in the preparation of gluten-free products, using starches, hydrocolloids, gums and novel ingredients and processes. # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

coeliac disease is inammation of the small intestine leading to the malabsorption of several important nutrients including iron, folic acid, calcium and fatsoluble vitamins (Feighery, 1999; Kelly, Feighery, Gallagher, & Weir, 1999). Murray (1999) concluded that coeliac disease is the end result of three processes (genetic predisposition, environmental factors and immunogically-based inammation) that culminates in intestinal mucosal damage. The only eective treatment for coeliac disease is a strict adherence to a gluten-free diet throughout the patients lifetime, which, in time results in clinical and mucosal recovery. Foods not allowed in a gluten-free diet include: (i) any bread, cereal or other food made with wheat, rye, barley, triticale, dinkel, kamut and oat our or ingredients, and by-products made from those grains; (ii) processed foods that contain wheat and gluten-derivatives as thickeners and llers, for example hot dogs, salad dressings, canned soups/dried soup mixes, processed cheese, cream sauces; and (iii) medications that use gluten as pill or tablet binders. Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in our, and is responsible for the elastic characteristics of dough, and contributes to the appearance and crumb structure of many baked products. Gluten removal results in major problems for bakers, and currently, many gluten-free products available on the market are of low quality, exhibiting poor mouthfeel and avour (Arendt, OBrien, Schober, Gormley, & Gallagher, 2002). This presents a major challenge to the cereal technologist and baker alike, and has led to the search for alternatives to gluten in the manufacture of glutenfree bakery products. This review discusses the concept of coeliac disease and its increasing prevalence, and focuses on advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products.

Coeliac disease and the iceberg model Introduction

Coeliac disease is a life-long intolerance to the gliadin fraction of wheat and the prolamins of rye (secalins), barley (hordeins) and possibly oats (avidins) (Murray, 1999). The reaction to gluten ingestion by suerers of Recent epidemiological studies have shown that the prevalence of coeliac disease has been signicantly underestimated (Ascher & Kristiansson, 1997; Fasano & Catassi, 2001; Hovdenak, Hovlid et al., 1999; Johnson, Watson, McMillan, Sloan, & Love, 1997). From the rst report of coeliac disease in the 2nd century, to the discovery of antigliadin serological testing methods, much has been learned (Thomas, 1945). One of the oldest epidemiological studies on coeliac disease was

* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012

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conducted in 1950 (Davidsson & Fountain, 1950), where incidence of the disease in England and Wales was found to be 1/8000, and 1/4000 in Scotland. However, diagnosis was based entirely on the detection of typical symptoms and conrmed by complicated and sometimes non-specic tests. By the 1960s, more specic tests and the peroral biopsy technique became available, thus increasing the numbers of diagnosed cases in subsequent studies (Logan, Rigking, Busuttil, Gilmous, & Ferguson, 1986; Mylotte, Egan-Mitchell, McCarthy, & McNicholl, 1973). Although biopsy still remains the denitive diagnostic investigative procedure (Kennedy & Feighery, 2000), a heightened suspicion or awareness of coeliac disease, coupled with improved diagnostic procedures (antigliadin antibody serological tests) have resulted in a substantially increased rate of diagnosis. It is now possible to accurately evaluate the true prevalence of coeliac disease and Table 1 shows the dierence between traditional clinical diagnosis (according to classical gastrointestinal symptoms, measured by biopsy) and modern serological tests (Fasano & Catassi, 2001). Some of the highest incidences of coeliac disease (1:2001:300) have been found in Sweden (Grodinsky, 1992), Italy (Catassi et al., 1994) and Ireland (Stevens, 1987). The iceberg model is commonly used to explain the prevalence of coeliac disease (Visakorpi, 1997) (Fig. 1) and the prevalence can be conceived as the overall size of the iceberg. Cases which have been properly diagnosed make up the visible section (A) of the iceberg in quantitative terms (Fasano & Catassi, 2001). Patients who have been recently diagnosed, and are now following a gluten-free diet and show a normal mucosa form the lower part of this section. Below the waterline there is a group of silent cases (B), which have not yet been identied and have at small intestinal mucosa. They may remain undiagnosed because the condition has no symptoms, or the symptoms have not been linked to coeliac disease. At the bottom of the iceberg (C), there is a small group of patients with latent coeliac disease.

These show a normal mucosa while taking gluten, yet still have the potential to develop the disease (Feighery, 1999).

The gluten-free label

The Codex Standard for gluten-free foods was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the World Health Organization (WHO) and by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 1976. In 1981 and in 2000 draft revised standards stated that so-called gluten-free foods are described as: (a) consisting of, or made only from ingredients which do not contain any prolamins from wheat or all Triticum species such as spelt, kamut or durum wheat, rye, barley, oats or their crossbred varieties with a gluten level not exceeding 20 ppm; or (b) consisting of ingredients from wheat, rye, barley, oats, spelt or their crossbred varieties, which have been rendered gluten-free; with a gluten level not exceeding 200 ppm; or (c) any mixture of two ingredients as in (a) and (b) mentioned with a level not exceeding 200 ppm. In this context, the WHO/FAO standard gluten was dened as a protein fraction from wheat, rye, barley, oats or their crossbred varieties (e.g. Triticale) and derivatives thereof, to which some persons are intolerant and that is insoluble in water and 0.5M NaCl. Prolamins are dened as the fraction from gluten that can be extracted by 4070% aqueous ethanol. The prolamin from wheat is gliadin, from rye is secalin, from barley hordein and from oats avenin. The prolamin content of gluten is generally taken as 50%. However, there is still discrepancy around the world in labelling foods gluten-free because the exact amount of toxic prolamins that individuals with coeliac disease may consume without damaging the mucosa of the small intestine has still not been scientically determined (Thompson, 2000). It was previously believed that the protein component of wheat could be completely removed from the starch component, but it is now known that some amount of protein still remains in the starch. In the United States and Canada, the gluten-free diet is devoid of any gluten, and is based on naturally gluten-free ingredients such as rice. However, in the United Kingdom, products labelled as being gluten-free may still contain an amount of wheat starch.

Table 1. Prevalence of coeliac disease based on clinical diagnosis or screening data (Fasano and Catassi, 2001) Geographic area Denmark Finland Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Sweden United Kingdom United States Worldwide average Prevalence on clinical diagnosis 1:10,000 1:1000 1:2300 1:1000 1:4500 1:675 1:330 1:300 1:10,000 1:3345 Prevalence on screening data 1:500 1:130 1:500 1:184 1:198 1:250 1:190 1:112 1:111 1:266

The role of gluten in bakery products

Gluten is a proteinaceous material that can be separated from our when the starch and other minor components of the our are removed by washing out with running water. The resulting gluten contains approximately 65% water. On a dry matter basis, gluten contains 7586% protein, the remainder being carbohydrate and lipid, which are held strongly within the glutenprotein matrix (Bloksma & Bushuk, 1998).

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Fig. 1. Iceberg model depicting prevalence of coeliac disease (Feighery, 1999).

Gluten contains the protein fractions glutenin and gliadin. The former is a rough, rubbery mass when fully hydrated, while gliadin produces a viscous, uid mass on hydration. Gluten, therefore, exhibits cohesive, elastic and viscous properties that combine the extremes of the two components (Anon., 1982). The gluten matrix is a major determinant of the important properties of dough (extensibility, resistance to stretch, mixing tolerance, gas holding ability), which encloses the starch granules and bre fragments. Gluten is often termed the structural protein for breadmaking. The properties of gluten become apparent when our is hydrated, giving an extensible dough, with good gas holding properties, and a good crumb structure in baked bread. The absence of gluten often results in a liquid batter rather than a dough pre-baking, and can result in baked bread with a crumbling texture, poor colour and other quality defects post-baking. Rotsch (1954) concluded from his studies that bread doughs without gluten can only retain gas if another gel replaces the gluten. Preparation of gluten-free pasta is dicult, as the gluten contributes to a strong protein network that prevents dissolution of the pasta during cooking. The diversication of gluten-free raw materials which may be used may also necessitate modications to the traditional production process (Marconi & Careca, 2001). Such problems are rarely encountered during the manufacture of gluten-free biscuits, as the development of a gluten network in biscuit and cookie dough is minimal and undesirable (apart from some semi-sweet biscuits, which may have a developed gluten system); the texture of baked biscuits is primarily attributable to starch gelatinization and supercooled sugar rather than a protein/starch structure (Gallagher, 2002).

The formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products

The formulation of gluten-free bakery products presents a formidable challenge to both the cereal technologist and the baker. A literature search has indicated a limited number of papers on gluten-free bakery products. This reects both the diculty of the technological challenge and the lack of awareness of the number of people requiring gluten-free products, both as coeliacs and as non-coeliac persons intolerant or allergic to gluten. In recent years there has been signicantly more R&D on gluten-free products, involving a diverse approach which has included the use of starches, dairy products, gums and hydrocolloids, other non-gluten proteins, prebiotics and combinations thereof, as alternatives to gluten, to improve the structure, mouthfeel, acceptability and shelf-life of gluten-free bakery products. Such R&D has also lead to an increase in the range of gluten-free products being sold in health shops and supermarkets. Recent scientic developments/ approaches are reviewed below. Extensive R&D is ongoing at the authors laboratories at The National Food Centre and at University College, Cork in a joint project which is using a bioengineering approach. This term is used to describe the building of texture in glutenfree cereal based products (in the absence of gluten) using a range of novel/functional ingredients.

Starches and gums/hydrocolloids

Starches and hydrocolloids are widely used in the bakery industry to impart texture and appearance properties to cereal-based foods (Anon., 2002; Cunin, 1999; Laureys, 1996; Salama, 2001; Ward & Andon, 2002). A number of teams have used a range of starches with gums/hydrocolloids for making gluten-free bakery

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products. Studies have been conducted using wheat starch and non-wheat starches, the latter being more desirable as some coeliacs cannot tolerate wheat starch. (Reports have highlighted that the long-term eects of regular ingestion of small amounts of gliadin (e.g. wheat starch) were harmful to patients with coeliac disease (Chartrand, Russo, Dulhaime, & Seidman, 1997; Hovarth & Mehta, 2000; Lohiniemi, Maki, Kaukinen, Laippala, & Collin, 2000; Skerritt & Hill, 1992). To ensure that gluten-free bread is acceptable, products with baked and sensory characteristics similar to those of wheat our yeast bread are needed. Rotschs (1954) study on the role of starch in breadmaking showed that breads could be prepared from starch and gel-forming substances. Rice starches are widely available and oer potential in the formulation of gluten-free baked products. Absence of gluten, low levels of sodium and high amounts of easily digested carbohydrate are all properties of rice, which are desirable for special diets (Eliasson & Larsson, 1993). However, the absence of gluten causes problems in breadmaking. Kang, Choi, and Choi (1997) showed that many gum types including hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), locust bean gum, guar gum, carageenan, xanthan gum and agar gave successful formation of rice bread where HPMC gave optimum volume expansion. Gan, Rafael, Cato, and Small (2001) found that HPMC (1.7%) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (0.4%), as gluten substitutes, gave better bread characteristics than guar gum (0.7%) in a 50:50 wheat our: rice our formulation. They also concluded that replacing 30% of the wheat our by rice our was the maximum possible level for acceptable bread quality without addition of a gluten substitute, and brown rice our was unsuitable for baking rice bread. Cato, Rafael, Gan, and Small (2002) found that ne white and ground rice ours gave gluten-free breads of good quality when used in combination with CMC (0.8%) and HPMC (3.3%). cs, Kovacs, and Matuz (1996a, 1996b) investigated A the use of dierent binding agents (xanthan, guar gum, locust bean gum and tragant) as a substitute for gluten in gluten-free bread formulations based on corn starch. They found that the binding agents resulted in a highly signicant increase in loaf volume and loosening of the crumb structure. The highest quality gluten-free bread contained xanthan gum at levels of 13%. Ranhorta, Loewe, and Puyat (1975) discussed the application of soy protein in the manufacture of glutenfree breads. They formulated wheat starch-based glutenfree breads with 20, 30 and 40% soy protein isolate (containing 88% protein). The breads had more protein and fat than wheat bread and showed satisfactory baking characteristics. Fermented cassava starches were used by Demiate, Dupuy, Huvenne, Cereda, and Wosiacki (2000) in the production of gluten-free breads

and biscuits in South America. By increasing the proofing time of gluten-free bread dough (based on potato/ corn/rice starches, pectin, emulsiers and lactose-free margarine), Bauer (1980) obtained high quality glutenfree yeast breads and gingerbreads. Gums and thickeners are used in gluten-free formulations for a variety of purposes including gelling and thickening, water retention and texture improvement. They are derived from various sourcesseeds, fruits, plant extracts, seaweeds and micro-organismsmany are polysaccharides while others are proteins (Norton & Foster, 2002). Schwarzla, Johnson, Barbeau, and Duncan (1996) used combinations of guar gum and locust bean gum to partially replace our in bread. They found that the introduction of guar gum resulted in crumb structure with a more even cell size distribution, while locust bean gum inclusion increased the height of the bread loaves; both gums retarded bread staling. Optimum levels for locust bean gum and guar gum were 24%. Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002a) investigated the application of novel rice starches (manufactured with low to high degrees of starch hydrolysis) on a replacement basis for wheat starch in gluten-free bread formulations. The inclusion of the rice starches at 39% levels resulted in gluten-free loaves with less yellow crumb appearance (Minolta b* value), and darker crust colour (Minolta L*). Crust hardness was unaffected, but crumb hardness (Texture Prole Analysis) was reduced, as was the rate of staling. The optimum level for rice starch inclusion was 6%; this also doubled dietary bre content of the loaves. Extensive tests are also being carried out at University College, Cork, Ireland (Arendt et al., 2002) on the formulation of glutenfree loaves based on corn, potato, buckwheat, with blends of gums and dairy ingredients.

Dietary bre
The role of dietary bre in providing roughage and bulk, and in contributing to a healthy intestine has long been recognized. Diets that contain moderate quantities of cereal grains, fruits and vegetables are likely to provide sucient bre. Due to the fact that gluten-free products generally are not enriched/fortied, and are frequently made from rened our or starch, they may not contain the same levels of nutrients as the glutencontaining counterparts they are intended to replace. Therefore, uncertainty still exists as to whether coeliac patients living on a gluten-free diet are ensured a nutritionally balanced diet. Grehn, Fridell, Lilliecreutz, and Hallert (2001) screened the intake of nutrients and foods of 49 adults diagnosed with coeliac disease and following a gluten-free diet. They were found to have a lower intake of bre when compared to a control group of people on a normal diet. Similarly, Lohiniemi et al., (2000) found that the average bre consumption

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amongst coeliacs in Sweden was lower than recommended. In their studies with coeliac adolescents, Mariani et al. (1998) concluded that adherence to a strict gluten free diet worsens the already nutritionally unbalanced diet of adolescents. (Dietary levels of nutrients and bre were found to be low.) Similar ndings were revealed by Thompson (2000). The enrichment of gluten-free baked products with dietary bres has, therefore, been a topic of research for various teams of technologists (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2000). Inulin is a non-digestible polysaccharide that is classed as a dietary bre. It also acts as a prebiotic by stimulating the growth of healthy bacteria in the colon (Gibson & Roberfroid, 1995). When added to wheat bread it improves loaf volume and sliceability, increases dough stability and produces a uniform and nely grained crumb texture (Anon., 1999). Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002b) incorporated inulin (8% inclusion level) into a wheat starch-based gluten-free formulation. The dietary bre content of the bread increased from 1.4 (control) to 7.5% (control+inulin) and crust colour was also enhanced. The latter was due to the enzymes in the yeast hydrolyzing part of the inulin, resulting in the formation of fructose, which caused crust browning. Gambus, Gambus, and Sabat (2002) replaced cornstarch with amaranthus our to enhance the protein and bre contents of gluten-free breads. At a 10% replacement level, protein and bre levels increased by 32 and 152% respectively, while sensory quality was unaected. Taylor and Parker (2002) discussed the application of quinoa as a novel application in the production of enriched gluten-free bakery goods. Tosi, Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) described the use of amaranth in gluten-free products. They formulated a gluten-free mix using wholemeal amaranthus our. Both quinoa and amaranth are pseudocereals, which have a high nutritional value and only recently are being utilized as novel/functional ingredients. Schoenlechner and Berghofer (2002) completed trials with both quinoa and amaranth (as a 40% replacement for wheat our in a yeast bread formulation). They found that the bread quality (loaf volume and crumb softness) and nutritional aspects, including dietary bre content were improved when the dough moisture was increased to 65%.

Mannie & Asp, 1999). Dairy products may be used in gluten-free bread formulas to increase water absorption and, therefore, enhance the handling properties of the batter. However, supplementation of gluten-free breads with the high lactose-content powders is not suitable for coeliacs who have signicant damage to their intestinal villi as they may be intolerant of lactose due to the absence of the lactase enzyme which is generated by the villi (Ortolani & Pastorello, 1997). Seven dairy powders were applied to a gluten-free bread formulation by Gallagher, Gormley, and Arendt (2003). In general, the powders with a high protein/low lactose content (sodium caseinate, milk protein isolate) gave breads with an improved overall shape and volume, and a rmer crumb texture (Fig. 2). These breads had an appealing dark crust and white crumb appearance, and received good acceptability scores in sensory tests. When optimal water was added to the gluten-free formulation these breads exhibited increased volume and a much softer crust and crumb texture than the controls. Supplementing the gluten free formulation with high protein-content dairy powders doubled the protein content of the breads.

Other approaches
Response surface methodology (RSM) is a statistical tool, which is particularly appropriate for product development work. Successful application of RSM in the production of dierent types of wheat bread has been reported (Lee & Hoseney, 1982; Malcolmson, Matsuo, & Balshaw, 1993). Ylimaki, Hawrysh, Hardin, and Thomson (1991) used RSM to produce and objectively measure gluten-free breads based on three types of rice our (varying in grain size and grinding method). Amongst their results, they found that optimal loaves were formulated with medium grain, nely ground rice our, low levels of HPMC and low levels of CMC. These beads were the most similar to wheat our breads, based on crust and crumb colour, Instron rmness and loaf moisture. They also used the same three rice ours in a second trial. Gluten-free yeast breads were produced based on the rice ours (80%) and potato starch (20%). Using sensory measurements from a trained panel, RSM was applied to nd CMC, HPMC and water combinations for the dierent rice ours. It was found that gluten-free loaves made with medium grain rice ours were of a higher standard with respect to moistness, cohesiveness, avour, colour and cell structure than those made from long grain rice our (Ylimaki et al., 1991). The proportions of cornstarch, cassava starch and rice our in the production of gluten-free breads were optimized by Sanchez, Osella, and de la Torre (2002). Addition of soy our was also tested to improve the bread crumb characteristics. The optimal formulation was calculated as cornstarch (74.2%), rice our (17.2%)

Dairy ingredients
The incorporation of dairy ingredients has long been established in the baking industry (Stahel, 1983; Zadow & Hardham, 1981). Dairy proteins are highly functional ingredients and due to their versatility can be readily incorporated into many food products. They may be used in bakery products for both nutritional and functional benets including avour and texture enhancement, and storage improvement (Cocup & Sanderson, 1987; Kenny, Wehrle, Auty, & Arendt, 2001;

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and cassava starch (8.6%). The inclusion of 0.5% soy our was found to signicantly enhance crumb grain score and overall bread score. Also, an abnormality of large gas cells, and a resultant high specic volume was rectied by the addition of soy our. RSM is currently being employed at the authors laboratory at The National Food Centre to develop and optimize a gluten-free bread formulation based on rice our, potato starch, skim milk powder and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC). A central composite design with two variables (water; 7095% our weight and HPMC; 0.52.5% our weight) was prepared, and a formulation was optimised based on loaf weight, specic volume, texture prole analysis and image analysis measurements. Specic volume was most inuenced by the level of water added (P < 0.005). HPMC had a signicant eect on colour, i.e. CIE L* values increased as the level of HPMC increased. Crumb hardness values were reduced as water levels increased (P < 0.005), except when HPMC was at its maximum level of addition (Fig. 3). The number of

large gas cells increased (P < 0.05) with increasing levels of both water and HPMC (Fig. 4). Optimization was based on the generation of the best results for specic volume, crumb hardness and image analysis data. Toufeili et al. (1994) applied RSM to analyze the eects of methylcellulose, gum arabic and egg albumen on the sensory properties of gluten-free at breads baked from formulae based on pregelatinized rice our and pregelatinized cornstarch with cornour. Methylcellulose and egg albumen were identied as the major determinants of product sensory quality. Lower levels of gum arabic resulted in loaves of inferior quality. When 3% gum arabic, and 24% methylcellulose and egg albumen were used, gluten-free breads comparable to wheat breads were produced. However, the breads staled more rapidly over a 2-day period than regular wheat bread. A novel approach at The National Food Centre has focussed on the supplementation of a control glutenfree bread formulation based on rice our and potato starch with sh surimi (as a structure enhancer and protein replacer) at a 10% inclusion level (of starch

Fig. 2. Inuence of dairy powders, and their level of inclusion, on the volume of gluten free bread loaves.

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weight) (Gormley, Elbel, Gallagher, & Arendt, 2003). Surimi is a concentrate of myobrillar proteins obtained after mincing and water washing of sh esh (HanChing & Leinot, 1993). It contains approximately 78% water, 20% protein, lipids, sugars and polyphosphates. Surimi is a highly functional ingredient with excellent gel-forming properties (Whitehead, 1992). Frozen surimi of four species was evaluated, i.e. mackerel, blue whiting, red gurnard and pollock. Texture prole analysis post-baking indicated that three of the surimi breads had a softer (P < 0.001) crust and crumb than the controls. These breads also revealed higher (P < 0.001) loaf volumes than the controls. Paired comparison taste panel tests for acceptability indicated no dierence between the control and the surimi breads, with the exception of bread with blue whiting surimi. This was preferred (P < 0.05) to the control.

Non-bread gluten-free products

Response surface methodology was performed by Huang, Knight, and Goad (2001) to produce non-gluten pasta. They based their optimization procedure on sensory properties and pasta stickiness, and found that gluten-free pasta with characteristics most similar to a wheat-based pasta was obtained when higher levels of modied starch, xanthan gum and locust bean gum

were used. This gave samples with a good hardness of rst bite and cohesiveness. Pea our is higher in protein and lysine than both wheat our and semolina. It is also gluten-free. The cooking quality of pasta products made by twin screw extrusion of 100% pea our was evaluated by Wang, Bhirud, Sosulski, and Tyler (1999). They found that the pea our ingredient, coupled with the novel process exhibited improved texture and avour after cooking, and less change after overcooking compared with the same product prepared using a conventional pasta extruder. The eects of rice, corn, soya, millet, buckwheat and potato starches, in combination with dierent fat sources (palm oil, cream powder, microencapsulated high fat powder and low fat dairy powders) on the formulation of gluten-free biscuits was studied by Arendt et al. (2002). Rice, corn, potato and soya with high fat powders produced biscuit doughs, which were sheetable, and biscuits of comparable quality to wheat biscuits. The same authors found that cornstarch, guar gum and high fat powder produced acceptable gluten-free pizza bases. Tosi, Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) used wholemeal amaranthus our to develop gluten-free biscuits. They found that addition of 0.1% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) to the fat extended the shelf-life without enhancing the avour. The protein content of these

Fig. 3. 3-D surface plots of crumb hardness values of gluten-free breads containing low, medium and high levels of water and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC).

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Fig. 4. 3-D surface plots of image analysis (total number of cells/cm2) values of gluten-free breads containing low, medium and high levels of water and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC).

biscuits at 5.7%, was higher than the average for gluten-free biscuits.

References
cs, E., Kovacs, Zs., & Matuz, J. (1996a). Bread from corn starch for A dietetic purposes. I. Structure formation. Cereal Research Communications, 24, 441449. cs, E., Kovacs, Zs., & Matuz, J. (1996b). Bread from corn starch A for dietetic purposes. II. Formation of the visual and technological properties. Cereal Research Communications, 24, 451 459. Anon (1982). Wheat gluten contributes to nutrition, functionality to meat, baked goods and other foods. Food Development, 16, 2223. Anon (1999). Inulin: added value. European Baker, 32, 4044. Anon (2002). Hydrocolloids improve shelf-life and moisture retention of shelf-stable bagels. Food Technology, 56, 50. Arendt, E. K., OBrien, C. M., Schober, T., Gormley, T. R., & Gallagher, E. (2002). Development of gluten-free cereal products. Farm and Food, 12, 2127. Ascher, H., & Kristiansson, B. (1997). The highest incidence of celiac disease in Europe: the Swedish experience. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 24, 5356. Bauer, G. (1980). Gluten-free and low protein bakery products for people suering from coeliac disease and kidney diseases. Baecker und Konditor, 28, 217218. Bloksma, A. H., & Bushuk, W. (1998). Rheology and chemistry of dough. In Pomeranz (Ed.), Wheat: chemistry and technology (pp. 131200). St. Paul, MN, USA: AACC.

Conclusion
A greater awareness, and improved reliability of diagnostic procedures has recently highlighted the prevalence of coeliac disease. Lifelong adherence to a gluten-free diet remains the cornerstone treatment for the disease. However, gluten is a major component of wheat and rye ours, and its replacement in bakery products remains a signicant technological challenge. The use of starches, gums and hydrocolloids represent the most widespread approach used to mimic gluten in the manufacture of gluten-free bakery products, due to their structure-building and water binding properties. Novel approaches including the application of dietary bres and alternative protein sources combined with response surface methodology are also emerging. However, in view of the current increasing incidence of coeliac/gluten intolerant suerers (due to improved diagnostic procedures), there is a major need for more research and development in the area of gluten-free cereal-based products.

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