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Dwivedula, Ravikiran, & Mller, Ralf (2011) Work motivation as a determinant of organizational and professional commitment in case of temporary organizations : theoretical perspectives. In International Research Network for Organizing by Projects-IRNOP 10, University of Quebec, Montreal. This le was downloaded from: http://eprints.qut.edu.au/49522/

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Work Motivation as a Determinant of Organizational and Professional Commitment in Case of Temporary Organizations: Theoretical Perspectives
Dr Ravikiran Dwivedula IBS Hyderabad, India Prof Christophe N Bredillet Center for Advanced Studies and Research in Project, Program, and Portfolio Management, Senegal Prof Ralf Mller BI Norwegian Business School Ume Business School, Ume University, Sweden

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical framework to investigate the relationship between work motivation, organizational commitment, and professional commitment in temporary organizations. Through a review of theory, we contend that work motivation has two major patterns- internal motivation (that includes intrinsic, need-based, and self-deterministic theories), and external motivation (that includes cognitive or process-based theories of motivation) through which it has been investigated. We also subsume the nature of employee commitment to be of three types- affective, continuance, and normative. This commitment may either be towards organization or profession. A literature review reveals that the characteristics of the temporary organization - specifically tenure, and task - regulate the relationship between work motivation, and organizational commitment, and professional commitment. Relevant propositions are presented. Key words: Work motivation, organizational commitment, professional commitment, temporary Organization, project management

Introduction Organizational researchers and practitioners have always been interested in work motivation and employee commitment (c.f. Meyer, Becker, & Vandenberghe, 2004). It is because these variables have considerable influence on both task and behavioral outcomes (Vandenberghe & Tremblay, 2008;Karin, Birgit, 2007). While early work in these areas focused on developing the theoretical bases, and thereby developing the constructs for these variables (c.f. Johnson, Chang, & Yang, 2010; Fu, Bolander, & Jones, 2009; for a detailed review see Zakaria, 2004), more recent research has established that employees may identify with multiple target groups at the work place. For example, employees may identify with superiors, work groups, or occupational (professional) groups all at the same time (Haslam, Eggins, & Reynolds, 2003). To date, these streams of research have been well investigated in organizational behavior literature. However, they have not been rigorously researched in case of temporary organizations such as projects and in project management discipline. Thus, we have identified three major research gaps: First, research on work motivation in case of projects has predominantly focused on the project managers role in engaging the team members. A non-managerial perspective has not been considered yet. Second, it does not fully capture the theoretical foundations of employee motivation. This is especially important to not only identify the appropriate constructs (of motivation) but also to investigate their nature of influence over the outcomes. Finally, motivation research in this area assumes a direct relationship between project workers motives and commitment. The regulating role of individuals disposition or the work contexts is not considered.

The present paper addresses these issues. Our general aim is to understand how the different bases of employee motivation affect an employees commitment towards the organization, and the profession. More specifically, we list the following two research questions for investigation: 1. Is there a difference in the predictive nature of work motivation on (i). Organizational commitment (OC), and (ii). Professional commitment (PC) in case of temporary organizations (as opposed to permanent organizations)? 2. What are the regulating variables specific to temporary organizations that affect the relationship between work motivation, and OC and PC? We have organized this paper along five major sections. In the first section, we will briefly revisit the concepts of temporary organization, and understand how is it different from a permanent organization. Although these differences have been well presented by Lundin and Sderholm (1995), this discussion is important to put the propositions in a perspective, hence its pertinence. Second, we briefly discuss the theory on work motivation, and employee commitment. Through this section, we will present the operational definitions of our variables- work motivation, organizational commitment, and professional commitment. In the third section, we will present a literature review leading to propositions of this research study. This will be followed by the fourth section future research. In this section, we will highlight the research gaps identified

through our review of theory and literature. We will also elaborate on our proposed research procedure to investigate the problem. This will be followed by the final section- Conclusion. Our unit of analysis is the relationship between work motivation, and OC, and PC where the characteristics of the temporary organization regulate this relationship between (i). work motivation, and OC, and (ii). work motivation and PC. Lundin and Sderholm (1995) have shown that time, task, team, and transition are the characteristics that differentiate temporary and permanent organizations. These criteria are explained in detail in the following sections. Further, we also consider that work motivation is multi-dimensional and has two major approaches to define it- Internal motivation (that includes intrinsic, need based, and, self-deterministic theories of motivation), and external motivation (that includes cognitive or process-based theories of motivation; for a detailed explanation, see Kanfer, 1992). For OC, and PC, we refer to Meyer et als (1993) viewpoint of three types of commitment- affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Temporary Organization Versus Permanent Organization Temporary organizations such as projects are often established in the form of projects, which act as agencies to develop a new product or service, manage the inherent risks thereof, and the changes needed to make use of the projects product (Turner & Mller, 2003). From the human resource perspective, there are significant differences between temporary and permanent organizations. Unlike the permanent organizations that have a rigid organizational structure, temporary organizations are directed through a network of relationships that exist between various project roles (Powell, 1990). Further, temporary organizations rely on short-term employment relationships based on the individuals ability and experience to perform a specific task (DeFillippi & Arthur, 1998). This is in permanent organizations where employment is long term and formal. Such an arrangement becomes necessary in case of temporary organizations where there is a high degree of task and environmental uncertainty, and firms rely on interpersonal processes rather than formal structures to manage this uncertainty (Beckhy, 2006). Lundin and Sderholm (1995) described the characteristics of temporary organizations along four dimensions- time, task, team, and transition. We use these dimensions to differentiate between temporary and permanent organizations. From the time perspective, temporary organizations and especially projects seem to subscribe to the notion that time is linear and finite. This is to say that such temporary organizations have a definite beginning, and an end. This notion is in contrast to the arrangement of time in case of permanent organizations which are understood to exist for eternity. Further, it is also seen that time is arranged as a sequence of phases. In each of these phases, specific tasks need to be performed. However, it is not to say that only unique tasks are performed in each stage of a project. Given that temporary organizations such as projects are inherently complex, the nature of the tasks performed will be iterative in nature (see Steward, 1981). Therefore, from the task perspective, temporary organizations will contain tasks that can be related by a bi-directional inputoutput relationship. These tasks can either be unique (performed only once during the project) or may be repeatable. However, as opposed to permanent organizations where a broad
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array of tasks need be performed, temporary organizations are created for the completion of specific tasks. Team is the third concept which is used to demarcate temporary and permanent organizations. The behavioral effects on the actors working in a team in a temporary organization will occur at two levels. At the first level, an actor enters the team with her own expectations or priorities. These may or may not be aligned to the teams interests, and also those of the other members of the team. It may also be thea case where that there is increased mobility of the team members into and out of the team. At the second level is the issue of how is the temporary organization is positioned within the permanent organization. Will the temporary organization complement the other temporary and permanent structures within the parent organization; or will it have conflicting interests? In the later case, it leads to isolation of the temporary organization, so much so that the members of the temporary organization may even develop their own norms. The final distinction between temporary and permanent organizations is explained through the concept of transition. Transition is probably the raison d tre of the temporary organization as it is created to affect a change, or develop a desirable perception of change among the actors. Either way, it can be understood as being the equivalent of the goal structure of the permanent organization. Such a change will have behavioral implications for the actors. Theory Organizational Commitment & Professional Commitment Commitment is defined as a force that binds an individual to a course of action that is relevant to the individuals aims (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). This definition has its roots in the explanation provided by Locke et al (1981) who propose that commitment is the individuals determination to try and attain a goal, irrespective of the goal being assigned, anticipative, or being set by the individual. This notion of commitment suggests that individuals commitment is not strictly directed by ones volition. This is further clarified by the two theoretical perspectives- Exchange theory, and Social identity theory. The Exchange theory presents commitment as an outcome of the transactions between the organization and its member. However, the members perception of the favorableness or unfavorableness of the outcome depends on how much the organization meets the expectations of its member. The opposing premise of the exchange theory is presented through Beckers (1960) sidebet theory wherein he argues that an individual accrues sidebets or gains when he takes membership in an organization. These extrinsic gains would be lost once the individuals membership in the organization is terminated. Thus, individuals invest in organizations by staking sidebets or gains that are important to them. The greater the stake, the more the individuals commitment to the organization. On the other hand, Social identity theory maintains that individuals classify themselves into various social groups which may include both organizational and professional memberships (Tajfel, 1982; Dutton et al, 1994). Support for this argument comes from various studies (c.f. Becker & Billings, 1993; Jaros, Jermier, Koehler, & Sinich, 1993) who suggest that commitment takes different forms, and it may also be directed towards different foci such as organization,

occupation or profession, team, and union (c.f. Becker et al, 1996; Meyer & Allen 1997; Cohen, 2003, for a more recent review of commitment typology, see Somers, 2010). Using these two theories as a point of departure, we will consider two foci of commitment among project workersorganizational commitment, and professional commitment. We will also use the framework suggested by Meyer et al (1993) for organizational and professional commitment in terms of three different forms of commitmentaffective, continuance, and normative. Affective organizational commitment refers to the employees identification with, involvement in, and emotional attachment to the organization out of their volition (Meyer, & Allen, 1997). Thus, project workers are characterized by a desire to follow a particular course of action (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Continuance Organizational Commitment refers to the employees awareness of costs associated with leaving the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1997). This is to say that project workers can become committed to a course of action because of perceived cost of failing to do so (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Normative Organizational Commitment refers to the employees feeling of obligation to remain with the organization; individuals believe they ought to remain (in the organization).Thus, project workers are driven by a sense of perceived obligation to stay in the organization (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Affective Professional Commitment is defined as the identification with, involvement in and emotional attachment to the profession. Thus, project workers demonstrating strong affective commitment remain members of project management community because they chose to do so (Meyer et al, 1993). Continuance Professional Commitment is defined as commitment based on the employees recognition of the costs associated with leaving the profession. Thus, project workers with strong continuance commitment perceive that they have much to lose if they leave this profession (Meyer et al, 1993). Normative Professional Commitment refers to commitment based on a feeling of obligation towards the profession. The project workers feel that they ought to remain in the project management profession (Meyer et al, 1993). Once we have understood the nature and foci of commitment, it makes sense to ask what the determinants of commitment are. While there are numerous antecedents of commitment (personal variables such as age, gender, and managerial behavior; and organizational variables such as nature of work, job design, and human resource policies, Gonzales & Guillen, 2007), we will concern ourselves with work motivation as a determinant of organizational and professional commitment. We will begin the discussion on work motivation by briefly referring to the theories of work motivation that are broadly divided as internal and external theories of motivation. The internal motivation theories include the need-based, intrinsic, and self determination theories of motivation, and the external theories (of motivation) include cognitive
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or process based theories of motivation (see Kanfer, 1992 for a detailed discussion of this typology). Work Motivation Internal motivation. Internal motivation theories primarily include the need based theories to motivation (Maslow, 1946, McClelland, 1961, Alderfer, 1972), and the self determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan, & Deci, 2000). Internal motivation has its roots in the works of Freud (1940), Viteles (1932), and Maier (1946) and has largely been studied from biological or psychological perspectives by these scientists. This formed the basis for the need based theories of motivation that gained popularity in the subsequent years (c.f. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1943), ExistenceRelatednessGrowth (ERG) theory (Alderfer, 1972). The central point of these theories was satisfaction of individuals needs at work place influenced ones behavior. This line of research was extended by social psychologists such as Deci (1975), Turner (1978), and Greenwald, and Pratkanis (1984). They proposed the idea of intrinsic motivation which includes individual motives related to one self or identity (expressed in the form of traits, competencies, values etc). Individuals will constantly refer to their self and will demonstrate only those behaviors that are consistent with their self. Later, Tajfel (1982) through his social-identity theory, and Deci and Ryan (1985) through their self-determination theory suggested that individuals will gravitate towards social groups (organizations, groups, or occupational groups) which compliment their values; so much so that individuals internalize the values of the referent social group with their own self. This is called internalization and has been known to produce strong affective commitment (Gagne & Deci, 2005; Meyer et al, 2004 as cited in Johnson, Chang, & Yang, 2010). Apart from one stream of research in internal motivation that focused on the psychological antecedents of behavior, job design and how the perceptions of job design determine individual behavior was also investigated in a parallel stream of research. The earliest known studies on job design can be traced back to the ideas of job simplification (Smith, 1776), and scientific management (Taylor, 1911). But the psychological impact of job design was brought forward by Vernon, Wyatt, and Ogden (1924), and later by Davis and Canter (1956) who popularized job design techniques such as rotation, enlargement, and enrichment. This line of research was further strengthened by the studies conducted at Tavistock Institute, which proposed SocioTechnical System model of job design (STS, Bostrom, & Heinen, 1977). Various principles of job design such as employee training, empowerment, information exchange, and quality of work life were found to be important to motivate employees. Similar propositions were brought forward by the Job Charactersitic Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) that identified five job dimensions- skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback as being important for job satisfaction and productivity. Thus, together, the concept of self , and job design defined individuals motives, and therefore the influence on the behavior. External motivation. Actors motives based on external rewards are explained through individuals cognition of rewards obtained. The central tenet to these theories is an actors desire to adjust or regulate her behavior based on the satisfaction with the rewards (see Social cognitive
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theory, Bandura, 1977). This approach assumes the automatic influence of rewards and feedback on work as drivers to work motivation. This relationship is moderated by cognitive and affective elements of the actor (Carver & Scheier, 1981). The cognitive component consists of the actors efforts to juxtapose ones current state with the goals. These goals are internal to the actor. On the other hand, the affective component is defined by the actors behavior to reduce the discrepancy between the current and desired states (Klein, 1989). Numerous theories subscribing to this position were proposed especially in the later half of the previous century (c.f. expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), equity theory (Adams, 1963), goal-setting theory (Locke, 1968), social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), control theory (Klein, 1989). Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) and Equity theory (Adams, 1963) assume that individuals evaluate the outcomes of their efforts, and in turn will adjust their behavior to achieve a parity between the efforts expended and the outcomes achieved. Similar premise is put forward by Edwin Lockes Goal setting theory (1968) which states that individuals behavior is modified by the difficulty of the goal to be achieved. The higher the level of difficulty, and specificity of the goal, more would be the individuals motive to achieve the goal. However, this relationship is moderated by the individuals commitment to the goal. Higher the degree of individuals commitment to the goal more would be the effort expended in achieving those goals. Thus, the external motivation school of motivation maintains that the relationship between individuals motives and the behavior (which in this case is commitment towards the organization or profession) is moderated by the individuals affection, and cognition of the outcomes. This includes the individuals proclivity for rewards, and also how the individual adjusts the efforts in relation to the outcomes achieved. The discussion on the internal and external basis of motivation concludes that work motivation is a multi dimensional concept. While the internal motivation seems to rely on actors volition to predict her behaviors (one of which can be commitment), the external motivation relies on actors cognition of her work environment (such as fairness of rewards against the efforts expended). This cognition leads the actor to adjust her behavior. With this understanding, in the following section, we contend that (i). Since the motivational basis of the actors behavior are different, the actor will demonstrate different types of commitment (either affective, continuance, or normative) towards the organization and profession; (ii). the typical nature of temporary organizations time, task, team, and transition will influence the actors volition, and cognition. Therefore, one or more of these characteristics will moderate the relationship between work motivation (as a proposed independent variable), and OC, and PC (as proposed dependent variables). Propositions Internal motivation, OC, & PC The literature review of permanent organizations has revealed two bases for intrinsic motivation: (i).Internalization or personalization of organizations values by the actor, and (ii). Work characteristics. For example, Andolsek and Stebe (2004) studied a global sample of 500 respondents as a part of an International Social Survey Program (ISSP) project. They studied the
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moderating effects of individuals values on the relation between intrinsic motivation and three types of organizational commitment. Using the Competing values framework (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1981) as theoretical lens, they posit that actors who have high individualistic values, and low materialistic values tend to be affectively committed to their organizations. High levels of individualistic values alone will also lead to increased continuance commitment. Similar results were reported by Kenneth, Schlacter, Schultz, & Gremler et al, (2002). From a survey of 248 salespersons and 48 sales managers in the USA, they found that lack of personalization between the values of employees and organization moderates the relationship between job characteristics and organizational commitment. Similarly, Behery (2009) used personorganization fit theory (Kristof, 1996) to demonstrate the moderating role of personalization on the relation between job characteristics and organizational commitment. From a sample of 960 respondents working with 16 large companies in the UAE (which included investment & banking, insurance, real estate, and retail industries), he concluded that the greater the extent of personalization of values between the employees and their organizations, the stronger the employees affective organizational commitment. A few studies also reported the contrary, where personalization was only found to partially influence organizational commitment (Ugboro, 2006). A few other studies also identified intrinsic motivation to be determinant of affective, continuance, and normative organizational commitment; the moderating variables though were not considered (c.f. van Vuuren, Veldkamp, Jong, & Seydel, 2008). Research on temporary organizations seems to consider the same arguments as seen in case of permanent organizations to present the relationship between intrinsic motivation and OC. We also note that personalization of values is an outcome of actors volition. Interestingly, in case of temporary organizations, values seem to be defined in terms of nature of work. For example, Chang, Choi, and Kim (2008) studied 132 R&D professionals in a Korean electronics firm. They concluded that individuals have intrinsic work values such as opportunity to learn, autonomy at work, and challenging nature of work, and professional networking. These work values are a determinant of employees organizational commitment. This relationship between intrinsic work values and organizational commitment is moderated by the work context. If the context is controlling, professionals with high intrinsic values will find the environment less satisfying, and therefore are more likely to leave the organization. Similar results are reported from Kochanski and Ledford (2001) who studied 210 high-tech scientists and engineers to propose that work content is an important determinant of organizational commitment, as it satisfies intrinsic needs rather than instrumental needs. Projects are typically undertaken to execute non routine processes. Hence, they are characterized by discontinuity, uniqueness, and complexity (Cova, & Salle, 2005; Skaates & Tikkanen, 2003). Projects also call for application of highly specialized skills as it includes interaction between multiple stakeholders. Further, the work itself provides discretion, technical autonomy, and creative freedom to the project workers. While this indeed may be motivating to the project workers, previous research has also shown that highly skilled workers who are engaged in temporary employee arrangements such as projects may not identify completely with the organization as they are less dependent on the organization for incentives. Further, the skills that they have acquired are role specific rather than organization centric (Westenholz, 2006). Similar arguments have been presented by Masters and Miles (2002) who posit that permanent employees have firm specific skills, and therefore better identify with the organization as
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compared to workers engaged in temporary employment arrangement. Workers assigned for a limited period of time experience lower levels of task significance, autonomy, and receive less frequent feedback on their work as compared to their counterparts who have more permanent employment arrangement (Ang & Slaughter, 2001). Therefore, we contend that as project workers are assigned for a limited period of time, they are less likely to identify with the organization and therefore demonstrate lower affective organizational commitment than permanent workers. Proposition 1a. The relation between the actors needs and affective organizational commitment is moderated by the extent of personalization of actors values with that of the organization Proposition 1b. The relation between the actors needs and affective professional commitment is moderated by the extent of personalization of actors values with that of the profession Proposition 1c. The relation between the actors needs and affective organizational commitment is moderated by the actors tenure of employment in the organization. Proposition 1d. Actors employed in temporary organizations will demonstrate lower affective organizational commitment as compared to actors employed in permanent organizations.

As discussed earlier, apart from an actors congruence of values with the organization, ones volition to be associated with a particular social group is also a determinant of commitment. Previous research indicates that tenure of employment determines the strength of association between an actor and her social group. Homans (1961), and later Salanick and Pfeffer (1978) suggest that group members who spend longer time together, tend to share history with each other and develop a collective identity. More recent research by Roger and Phillips (2007) states that homogenous groups working together for longer lengths of time share a strong sense of identity. This will also reduce their proclivity to look for associations outside their own group. An alternative explanation was given by Abigail and Scholarios (2007). In a study of information technology workers engaged in projects, they found that employees chose to be associated with an elitist group such as information technology workers rather than with that of the organization. Similarly, Wang and Armstrong (2004) compared the organizational and occupational commitment of project workers. They reported that a project worker greatly values the reputation of being associated with the project management community as this gives an opportunity to learn and apply advanced knowledge. A contradictory finding by Wang (2001) is also reported where he suggests that project workers may not closely associate with the project management profession. This is because as in case of permanent organizations, individual job descriptions may not be available for project management professionals. However, given the growing popularity of project management (demonstrated by increase in memberships in professional associations, professional
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certifications, and project management standards), this observation may not be well founded. However, hindrance to the development of a shared identity among actors working together for a limited period of time as in case of projects is explained by Cunningham and Sagas (2004). They argue that when homogenous groups of individuals enter the organization at the same time, they would be exposed to similar experiences. As a result of this socialization, they share a sense of identity with the organization (see Bryne, 1971 for similarity-attraction paradigm). Previous research has shown that socialization shapes the normative commitment of an actor. The social experiences of an actor (either with the organization or a professional community) helps the actors what is valued and expected of them when working within that social group. This again leads to the concept of internalization discussed earlier. Weiner, 1982; Eisenberger et al, 2001). However projects are manned by workers with complementary skills rather than homogenous skills. Creation of a shared sense of identity among these diverse actors working together for a limited period of time will be a challenge. Therefore, the actors normative commitment towards the organization will be low as compared to her normative professional commitment. Proposition 2a. Shorter organizational tenure leads to actors in temporary organization to demonstrate lower normative organizational commitment as compared to actors employed in permanent organizations Proposition 2b. A stronger shared sense of identity towards the profession leads to actors working in temporary organization to demonstrate higher normative professional commitment than normative organizational commitment External Motivation, OC, & PC Our literature review shows that the concept of rewards has been well established both in the organizational behavior literature (through the various motivational theories), and in the human resource management research (as indicated by performance management practices, (Kroumova, & Lazarova, 2009). Predominantly, the emphasis seems to be on financial rewards, and career development. Further, an actors perception of equity of reward is the regulatory variable between rewards obtained and organizational commitment. The central argument is that perceptions of fairness of rewards affect the employees attitudes and therefore their behavior towards their organization (Kim and Leung, 2007). Using self determination theory as a framework, Gellatly, Hunter, Currie, & Irving (2009) conducted a survey of 332 alumni of a leading Canadian business school. They argued that financial rewards positively correlated with affective organizational commitment, while negatively correlated with continuance organizational commitment. In this case, the employees perception of fairness of the rewards moderated the relationship. Similar results were reported by Malhotra, Budhwar, & Prowse, (2007). From their study of 342 employees working in four UK based call centers, they concluded opportunities for career development and financial rewards to be determinants of affective commitment, while financial incentives alone were a determinant of normative commitment. There have also been studies which suggest positive relation between monetary rewards and affective commitment, although the regulatory variables are not considered (Lewig & Dollard, 2003; Karatepe, Yavas, & Babakus, 2007).

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On the other hand, few studies also reported the lack of influence of rewards on organizational commitment (Chew & Chan, 2008). Restubog, Bordia, & Bordia, (2009) contend that perceived fairness of rewards did not significantly predict affective commitment. Likewise, career development may also not be important to foster employee commitment (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). Rewards as a determinant of organizational commitment is well documented even in case of temporary organizations. For example, in a study of 1154 employees working in an aerospace company headquartered in southern California, USA, perceptions of fairness and perceived control were found to be strong determinants of organizational commitment (Brockner, Spreitzer, Mishra, Hochwarter, Pepper, & Weinberg, 2004). The organization was downsizing their workforce. It was found that perceived control (ability to physically and psychologically counteract the harmful effects of threat) moderated the relationship between fairness of rewards and organizational commitment. OC was particularly high among the workers whose perceived control was high. Similar results were reported by Ahuja,Chudoba, Kacmar, Knight, & George (2007) who showed that perceived fairness of rewards significantly predicts organizational commitment. Apart from fairness of compensation, additional constructs of employment conditions were also tested for their influence on organizational commitment. Using psychological contract theory as a framework (Rousseau, 1990), Harris, Klaus, Blanton, and Wingreen (2009) from their study of 415 information systems / information technology professionals suggest that job security, individual rewards (including compensation and new opportunities) are determinants of organizational commitment. Previous research suggests that an actors length of association with the organization determines her perceptions of fairness of the rewards (Soon & Slaughter, 2001). Previous research shows that workers employed for shorter duration of time with the organization experience greater job instability, and fewer opportunities for career advancement (Amuedo-Dorantes, 2000; AmuedoDorantes, Malo & Munoz-Bullon, 2008). For example, from a study of 103 information systems development workers (which comprised of 81 in house, and 21 contract workers), Raghavan, Sakaguchi, & Mahaney (2008) found out that non-permanent employees (such as the contract workers) reported lower perceived fairness of rewards as compared to the permanent employees. In yet another study Loi, Hang-yue, and Foley (2006) observed that permanent workers, and those associated with the organization for a longer period of time demonstrated greater commitment towards the organization. Based on this discussion, we argue that rewards determine an actors normative commitment towards the organization. Further, this relationship is moderated by the actors tenure with the organization. Actors with longer length of time with an organization perceive the rewards more positively than those with shorter duration of time. Therefore, in case of temporary organizations, workers may demonstrate lower normative organizational commitment than their counterparts in permanent structures. Proposition 3a. The relation between rewards and normative organizational commitment is moderated by the actors perceived fairness of rewards.

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Proposition 3b. Actors employed in temporary organizations demonstrate lower normative organizational commitment as compared to actors employed in permanent organizations. The above discussion on the relationship between the two constructs of motivation, different types of organizational and professional commitment, and the related moderating variables are summarized in table 1 below as the Research framework (see p.14).

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Table 1. Research framework

Internal motivation External motivation Affective OC Relationship: Positive Moderating variable 1: personalization of values Proposition: 1a. Relationship: Positive Moderating variable 2: tenure of employment Proposition: 1c and 1d. External motivation Relationship: Positive Moderating variable: Perceived fairness of rewards Proposition: 3a Relationship: Positive Moderating variable: Tenure of employment Proposition: 3b Affect OC Continuance OC Normative OC Relationship: Negative Moderating variable 1: Continuance OC Normative OC Relationship: Positive Moderating variable : tenure of employment Proposition: 2a Affective PC Relationship: Positive Moderating variable: personalization of values Proposition: 1b. Continuance PC Normative PC

Internal motivation

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shared sense of identity Proposition: 2b Affective PC Continuance PC Normative PC -

Future research The purpose of the current paper was to prevent the theoretical framework and review the literature on the relationship between work motivation, organizational commitment, and professional commitment in case of temporary organizations and especially projects. From the literature review, we observed that research focusing on the antecedents of affective organizational and professional commitment has been done. Some research identifying external rewards as a determinant of normative organizational commitment is also presented. However, more research considering motivation as a determinant of other forms of OC and PC is needed. On the other hand, we had also observed that only the moderating effects of time, and partially task have been directly considered when evaluating the influence of motivation on commitment. Other characteristics of temporary organizations- team and transition have not been investigated. Hence our future research will focus on conducting a rigorous empirical study on motivation, and its relationship with OC and PC. For motivation, we will consider two constructs- internal motivation and external motivation. For organizational and professional commitment, we will consider three states of commitment- affective, continuance, and normative as the constructs. We intend to conduct a cross sectional study by considering project based organizations from various industries. While the issues of generalization of results will be raised for such as study, it will provide us with initial findings. These initial findings will subsequently lead to longitudinal studies where mixed research methodologies may be applied. Conclusion The lack of focus to investigate the motivational basis of organizational and professional commitment in case of temporary organizations has presented a notable weakness. Through this study, we wish to contribute to an understanding of how the characteristics of a temporary organization moderate the relationship between work motivation, OC, and PC. Overall, our review of theory and literature suggests that the length of tenure (with an organization), a sense of identification (with a profession or an organization) that is brought about by the task regulates the relationship between work motivation and affective OC, and affective PC. Further, an actors perception of fairness of rewards, and a shared sense of identity also explains the high normative professional and low normative organizational commitment in case of temporary organizations. However, the effects on continuance commitment are yet to be investigated by the research community. Thus, the study provides a better insight to explain the nature of commitment in case of temporary organizations and highlight the differences with the permanent organizations. It is

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expected that the study would have direct implication for employee engagement in temporary organizations, and indirect implications for managing their performance.

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