By Dinesh Gannerlla

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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
BVRIT
HOSPITAL TRAINING REPORT To be submitted To CARE HOSPITALS

For partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of the Degree Of Bachelor of Technology In Bio-medical Engineering
SUBMITED BY
B.S SAI SRIDHAR -07211A1118 Y.MURALI MOHAN -07211A1112 PULIPATI KALYAN -07211A1108 G.DINESH -07211A1105 A N M SWAMY -07211A1125 B.HARSHA PRIYA -07211A1106 K.AARTHI -07211A1101
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BIOMEDICAL INTRODUCTION: During the last two decades, there have been tremendous advances in the field of biomedical engineering which have been applied to the medical sciences both for diagnosis and treatment. As a result of the interaction between these two specialties, a new discipline has emerged as bio-medical engineering. (Jacob john-1974) It is unique in the sense that this speciality emerged out of a combination of engineering, sciences, medicine and biology. (Staewen Williams-1984) Definition: Bio medical engineering is defined as that branch of applied science which is contained with solving and understanding the problems in biology or medicine using principles, methods and approach drawn from engineering science and technology (Richard johns-1975) Historical aspect of Bio-Medical Engineering: The field of Medical instrumentation is by no means new. Many instruments were developed as early as the nineteenth century, for example the ECG was first used by cinthoren at the end of the century. Progress was slow until after World War II when a surplus of electronic equipment became available. At that time many technicians and engineers both within industry and on their own started experiments with and modify existing equipment for medical use. This progress occurred during the 1950's and the results were after disappointing for physiological parameters and not measured in the same way as physical parameters. They also had severe communication problem with the medical profession. During the next decade
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT many instrument manufactures philosophy was changed equipment analysis and design were applied directly to medical problems. A large measure of help was provided by the US govt. /in particular by NASA. The mercury, Gemini and Apollo program needed accurate physiological monitoring for astronauts, consequently much research and development and money went into this area. Some of the concepts of patient monitoring presently used in hospitals through out the world evolved from the base of astronauts monitoring. The efficiency of modern medicine not only depends upon the clinical acumen of the physician but also in optimal utilization of available sophisticated bio medical equipment, and such equipments need careful attention as well as maintenance without any breakdown or if/there is a breakdown it should be attended within the shortest possible time. Hence the need for bio medical engineering depart/arises which has to take up the responsibility of maintenance equipment. Since the new technologies are rapidly creeping into the field of medicine. It is essential to have a Bio Medical Engineering unit attached to a modern hospital which can suggest/ can take care of planning, organizing, installation, maintenance newly developing biomedical equipment for rapid diagnosis and treatment of a number of ailments. Equipments from very large range such as the X-RAY, CT-SCAN, MRI, ULTRASOUND, ECHO, IABP, HEART-LUNG MACHINE, HOLTER, EEG, EMG, dialysis, PACEMAKER, ANESTHESIA VENTILATORS, DIATHERMIES. Monitors, ventilators, ABG, etc. have to be regularly checked and maintained by Bio Medical Engineering department. Preventive maintenance is necessary for the proper operating of equipment but other factors help add to the effectiveness of a good program. Apart from the BIOMEDICAL department has the greatest responsibility of maintaining major equipment because of service as well as emergency services, which inturn affect the patient care. BIOMEDICAL engg dept should also maintain the service record for the major equipment to meet the urgent requirement and keep the spare parts in stock for ready usage. The purpose of biomedical engg dept in hospital is to guiding/advising the administration and
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT physicians about the utility, future developments in the equipment to purchased or already purchased or conversion of old models to the recent once, extension of the usage of equipment for different purposes. RESPONSIBILITIES OF A BIO-MEDICAL ENGINEER: Attend to emergency breakdown of the essential equipment To monitor the available equipment on regular base. To keep stock of the spare parts. Introducing/briefing the hospital or institute to new technology and new equipment and how best to utilize the same. In short it is pre purchase evaluation, planning, acceptance testing, inventory control, training and maintenance Preparing and performing the preventive maintenance schedule. PREVENTIVE MAINTAINANCE: PM is defined in the ASHE manual is to clean, adjust. Check for wear and perhaps replace components that might cause total breakdown or serious functional impairment of the equipment before the next scheduled inspection (ASHE) PM will help eliminate hazards before they develop. The PM procedure is primarily a performance test to ensure that the equipment is operating properly and is calibrated. However problems do occur because of deterioration of equipment caused by normal use and again can be detected prior to their causing a malfunction. Proper cleaning, Lubrication and repair of replacement of defective parts prior to a serious malfunction will prolong the useful life of the equipments.
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CONTENTS:
1. NEPHROLOGY: DIALYSIS 2. NEUROLOGY: EEG 3. CARDIOLOGY: HEART - LUNG MACHINE 4. GASTROENTEROLOGY: ENDOSCOPES 5.RADIOLOGY: MRI,CT,X-RAY,ULTRASOUND 6. CSSD 7. OXYGEN PLANT
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NEPHROLOGY
Dialysis: In medicine, dialysis (from Greek "dialusis", meaning dissolution, "dia", meaning through, and "lusis", meaning loosening) is primarily used to provide an artificial replacement for lost kidney function (renal replacement therapy) due to renal failure. Dialysis may be used for very sick patients who have suddenly but temporarily, lost their kidney function (acute renal failure) or for quite stable patients who have permanently lost their kidney function (stage 5 chronic kidney disease). When healthy, the kidneys maintain the body's internal equilibrium of water and minerals (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfate) and the kidneys remove from the blood the daily metabolic load of fixed hydrogen ions. The kidneys also function as a part of the endocrine system producing erythropoietin and 1,25dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol). Dialysis treatments imperfectly replace some of these functions through the diffusion (waste removal) and convection (fluid removal). Dialysis is an imperfect treatment to replace kidney function because it does not correct the endocrine functions of the kidney Principle: Dialysis works on the principles of the diffusion and osmosis of solutes and fluid across a semipermeable membrane. Blood flows by one side of a semi-permeable membrane, and a dialysate or fluid flows by the opposite side. Smaller solutes and fluid pass through the membrane. The blood flows in one direction and the dialysate flows in the opposite. The concentrations of
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT undesired solutes (for example potassium, calcium, and urea) are high in the blood, but low or absent in the dialysis solution and constant replacement of the dialysate ensures that the concentration of undesired solutes is kept low on this side of the membrane. The dialysis solution has levels of minerals like potassium and calcium that are similar to their natural concentration in healthy blood. For another solute, bicarbonate, dialysis solution level is set at a slightly higher level than in normal blood, to encourage diffusion of bicarbonate into the blood, to neutralise the metabolic acidosis that is often present in these patients. Types: There are two primary types of dialysis, hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis Hemodialysis:
In hemodialysis, the patient's blood is pumped through the blood compartment of a dialyzer, exposing it to a semipermeable membrane. The cleansed blood is then returned via the circuit back to the body. Ultrafiltration occurs by increasing the hydrostatic pressure across the dialyzer membrane. This usually is done by applying a negative pressure to the dialysate compartment of the dialyzer. This pressure gradient causes water and dissolved solutes to move from blood to dialysate, and allows removal of several litres of excess fluid during a typical 3 to 5 hour treatment. In the US, hemodialysis treatments are typically given in a dialysis center three times per week (due in the
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT US to Medicare reimbursement rules), however, as of 2007 over 2,000 people in the US are dialyzing at home more frequently for various treatment lengths. Studies have demonstrated the clinical benefits of dialyzing 5 to 7 times a week, for 6 to 8 hours. These frequent long treatments are often done at home, while sleeping but home dialysis is a flexible modality and schedules can be changed day to day, week to week. In general, studies have shown that both increased treatment length and frequency are clinically beneficial Peritoneal dialysis:
In peritoneal dialysis, a sterile solution containing minerals and glucose is run through a tube into the peritoneal cavity, the abdominal body cavity around the intestine, where the peritoneal membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane. The dialysate is left there for a period of time to absorb waste products, and then it is drained out through the tube and discarded. This cycle or "exchange" is normally repeated 4-5 times during the day, (sometimes more often overnight with an automated system). Ultrafiltration occurs via osmosis; the dialysis solution used contains a high concentration of glucose, and the resulting osmotic pressure causes fluid to move from the blood into the dialysate. As a result, more fluid is drained than was instilled.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Peritoneal dialysis is less efficient than hemodialysis, but because it is carried out for a longer period of time the net effect in terms of removal of waste products and of salt and water are similar to hemodialysis. Peritoneal dialysis is carried out at home by the patient and it requires motivation. Although support is helpful, it is not essential. It does free patients from the routine of having to go to a dialysis clinic on a fixed schedule multiple times per week, and it can be done while travelling with a minimum of specialized equipment. Hemofiltration: Hemofiltration is a similar treatment to hemodialysis, but it makes use of a different principle. The blood is pumped through a dialyzer or "hemofilter" as in dialysis, but no dialysate is used. A pressure gradient is applied; as a result, water moves across the very permeable membrane rapidly, facilitating the transport of dissolved substances, importantly ones with large molecular weights, which are cleared less well by hemodialysis. Salts and water lost from the blood during this process are replaced with a "substitution fluid" that is infused into the extracorporeal circuit during the treatment. Hemodiafiltration is a term used to describe several methods of combining hemodialysis and hemofiltration in one process What is dialysis access? In the context of this article, dialysis access is entranceway into your bloodstream that lies beneath your skin and is easy to use. The access your arm, but sometimes in the leg, and allows removed and returned quickly, efficiently, and dialysis or, less commonly, for other procedures frequent access to your circulation. Dialysis, hemodialysis, is the most common treatment failure. A dialysis machine is an artificial an completely is usually in blood to be safely during requiring also called for kidney kidney
designed to remove impurities from your blood. During dialysis, physicians use the dialysis access to remove a portion of your blood to circulate it through the dialysis machine so it can
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT remove impurities and regulate fluid and chemical balances. The purified blood is then returned to you, again through the dialysis access. Creating the access portal is a minor surgical procedure. There are two types of portals placed completely under the skin:

Fistula, which your vascular surgeon constructs by joining an artery to a vein. Graft, which is a man-made tube, consisting of a plastic or other material, that your vascular surgeon inserts under the skin to connect an artery to a vein.
For both fistulas and grafts, the connection artery and vein increases blood flow through response, your vein stretches and becomes allows an even greater amount of blood to vein and allows your dialysis to proceed weeks after surgery, the fistula begins to increases in size and may look like a cord The whole process of maturation, which is a that permits the blood flow to increase in the takes 3 to 6 months. Some fistulas may take
between your the vein. In strengthened. This pass through the efficiently. In the mature. The vein under your skin. beneficial feature fistula, typically as long as a year
or more to develop fully, but this is unusual. Once matured, a fistula should be large and strong enough for dialysis technicians and nurses to insert the large dialysis needles easily. If it fails to mature in a reasonable period of time, however, you may need another fistula. You can usually begin using your graft in 2 to 6 weeks, when it is healed sufficiently. Usually fistulas are preferred to grafts, however, because fistulas are constructed using your own tissue, which is more durable and resistant to infection than are grafts. However, if your vein is blocked or too small to use, the graft provides a good alternative.
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How do you prepare? Before choosing the access site, your surgeon may ask you if you have a history or symptoms of arm or leg artery disease. Hardening of the arteries, which reduces blood flow to your arms or legs, often can cause these conditions. Your vascular surgeon will not place a dialysis access site in an area of the body with reduced circulation because the blood flow will be insufficient. For this reason, your surgeon usually places dialysis access sites in the arms rather than in the legs because atherosclerosis is more common in the legs. Your vascular surgeon may order a blood flow test in your arms and legs, such as an ultrasound exam, or an x ray, such as a venogram, to determine whether your veins are large enough to use for a fistula. Sometimes a non-invasive pulse volume recording test is used to evaluate the flow in your arteries if this issue is a concern to your surgeon. Your vascular surgeon will give you the necessary instructions you need to follow before the surgery, such as fasting. Usually, your physician will ask you not to eat or drink anything 8 hours before your procedure. Your physician will discuss with you whether to reduce or stop any medications that might increase your risk of bleeding or other complications. Are you eligible for dialysis access? If you have chronic kidney failure and need long-term hemodialysis, you may require dialysis access. You may not be a good candidate for a fistula if your veins are too small or are scarred from frequent placement of intravenous catheters (thin, flexible tubes inserted into veins to deliver medicine) or needles to draw blood. In that event, you may be eligible for a graft access procedure. You also may not be a good candidate for a fistula if your arteries are severely blocked, although they might be repairable if necessary. Your vascular
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT surgeon will probably be reluctant to use a graft if you have an ongoing infection since the graft itself might become infected. If this happens, the infected graft might need to be removed in order to clear up the infection. What happens during dialysis access? Typically you will have the procedure on an outpatient basis. Most often, you will first be sedated and then your surgeon will numb the area where the fistula or graft will go. In some cases, your anesthesiologist may give you supplemental sedation or put you to sleep. Depending upon the quality of your artery and vein, your surgeon will try to construct the fistula with one incision using the forearm of the arm that you do not use as frequently. For example, if you're left handed, your physician will place the fistula in your right arm, if possible. To perform the surgery, your physician joins a large vein under the skin to an artery nearby. The physician divides your vein and sews it to an opening made in the side of the artery. As a result, the blood flows down the arteries into the hand, as usual, and also some of this faster moving blood flows into the veins that lead back to your heart. The blood that normally traveled in your divided vein goes back to the heart through other veins, and there is usually plenty of blood remaining in your artery to supply your hand. If you cannot receive a fistula because the vein is too small or blocked, your physician may construct a graft using a tube of man-made, plastic material. Less commonly, your physician may also choose to use a piece of a vein from your leg or a section of artery from a cow as alternative graft materials. Your physician sews the graft to one of your veins and connects the other end to an artery. Your physician may place the graft material straight or form a loop under the skin either in your lower arm, upper arm, or less commonly in your leg. What can you expect after dialysis access?
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT After the operation, you should initially keep the access area raised above your heart to reduce swelling and pain. Your surgeon may recommend an over-the-counter painkiller to relieve pain, if necessary. Following the suggestions below will help you keep your new access site working properly in the weeks after the surgery:
Keep the incision dry for at least 2 days after the procedure and do not soak or scrub the incision until it has healed. Avoid lifting more than about 15 pounds or other activities that stress or compress the access area, such as digging. Report pain, swelling, or bleeding immediately to your physician, especially if these symptoms are becoming worse. Some pain or swelling is common and not worrisome if decreasing, but you should tell your physician if you have bleeding, drainage or a fever higher than 101 degrees Fahrenheit You may initially feel some coolness or numbness in the hand with the fistula. These sensations usually go away in a few weeks as your circulation compensates for the fistula. However, if these sensations are severe, tell your physician as soon as possible, because the fistula may be causing too much blood to flow away from your hand. You should perform exercises to grow and strengthen your fistula, after the pain from the surgery decreases, to make dialysis faster and easier. Your physician may recommend squeezing a soft object using the hand on the arm in which the fistula was placed. Grafts may mature more quickly than fistulas depending upon the size of the vein to which the graft is initially attached. They sometimes can be ready in 2 to 3 weeks, but many physicians recommend waiting about 4 to 6 weeks before using a graft. Grafts have disadvantages over fistulas, however. Grafts are more likely than fistulas to become infected. Also, grafts usually last about 1 to 2 years, which is less than fistulas, which can often last up to 3 to 7 years. If you care properly for your graft, however, you can help it last for many years. Sometimes access portals can take
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT weeks or even months until they are ready for dialysis use. Until the portal is ready, you may have to use a catheter for dialysis.
Are there any complications? Complications with dialysis access include clotting, narrowing, aneurysm formation in the access itself, infection, and bleeding. What can you do to stay healthy? Protecting the dialysis access is crucial for you. The following tips will help you care for a fistula or a graft:
Check several times each day to make sure the access is functioning. You should be able to feel a vibration in the. Your physician or dialysis center staff will show you how to do this. Monitor any bleeding after dialysis. If the graft seems to bleed longer than usual from the needle sites, you should notify your dialysis center staff. Do not carry heavy items with the arm that has the access. Do not sleep on that arm. Do not wear any clothing or jewelry that binds that arm. Do not let anyone draw blood or measure blood pressure from that arm. Do not allow injections to be given into the fistula or graft. Keep the site of the fistula or graft clean. After dialysis, monitor the access for signs of infection, such as swelling or redness.
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Electroencephalography
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the measurement of electrical activity produced by the brain as recorded from electrodes placed on the scalp. Just as the activity in a computer can be perceived on multiple different levels, from the activity of individual transistors to the function of applications, so can the electrical activity of the brain be described on relatively small to relatively large scales. At one end are action potentials in a single axon or currents within a single dendrite, and at the other end is the activity measured by the scalp EEG. The data measured by the scalp EEG are used for clinical and research purposes. A technique similar to the EEG is intracranial EEG (icEEG), also referred to as subdural EEG (sdEEG) and electrocorticography (ECoG). These terms refer to the recording of activity from the surface of the brain (rather than the scalp). Because of the filtering characteristics of the skull and scalp, icEEG activity has a much higher spatial resolution than surface EEG. Source of EEG Activity: Scalp EEG measures summated activity of post-synaptic currents. An action potential in a pre-synaptic axon causes the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in a post-synaptic dendrite. The activity of many types of receptors results in a flow of ions into or out of the dendrite. This results in compensatory currents in the extracellular space. It is these extracellular currents which are responsible for the generation of EEG voltages. The EEG is not sensitive to axonal action potentials.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT While it is post-synaptic potentials that generate the EEG signal, it is not possible to determine the activity within a single dendrite or neuron from the scalp EEG. Rather, surface EEG is the summation of the synchronous activity of thousands of neurons that have similar spatial orientation, radial to the scalp. Currents that are tangential to the scalp are not picked up by the EEG. The EEG therefore benefits from the parallel, radial arrangement of apical dendrites in the cortex. Because voltage fields fall off with the fourth power of the radius, activity from deep sources is more difficult to detect than currents near the skull.Scalp EEG activity is composed of multiple oscillations. These have different characteristic frequencies, spatial distributions and associations with different states of brain functioning (such as awake vs. asleep). These oscillations represent synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The neuronal network underlying some of these oscillations are understood (such as the thalomocortical resonance underlying sleep spindles), while many others are not (e.g., the system that generates the posterior basic rhythm is not yet fully understood). Method: In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin cells. The technique has been advanced by the use of carbon nanotubes to penetrate the outer layers of the skin for improved electrical contact. The sensor is known as ENOBIO. however, this technique is not in common research or clinical use. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of which is attached to an individual wire. Some systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are embedded; this is particularly common when highdensity arrays of electrodes are needed.
Computer Electroencephalograph Neurovisor-BMM 40
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 1020 system for most clinical and research applications (except when high-density arrays are used). This system ensures that the naming of electrodes is consistent across laboratories. In most clinical applications, 19 recording electrodes (plus ground and system reference) are used. A smaller number of electrodes are typically used when recording EEG from neonates. Additional electrodes can be added to the standard set-up when a clinical or research application demands increased spatial resolution for a particular area of the brain. High-density arrays (typically via cap or net) can contain up to 256 electrodes more-or-less evenly spaced around the scalp.Each electrode is connected to one input of a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair of electrodes); a common system reference electrode is connected to the other input of each differential amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage between the active electrode and the reference (typically 1,000100,000 times, or 60100 dB of voltage gain). In analog EEG, the signal is then filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is output as the deflection of pens as paper passes underneath. Most EEG systems these days, however, are digital, and the amplified signal is digitized via an analog-to-digital converter, after being passed through an anti-aliasing filter. Analog-to-digital sampling typically occurs at 256-512 Hz in clinical scalp EEG; sampling rates of up to 10 kHz are used in some research applications.The digital EEG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical settings for the high-pass filter and a lowpass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 3570 Hz, respectively. The high-pass filter typically filters out slow artifact, such as electrogalvanic signals and movement artifact, whereas the low-pass filter filters out high-frequency artifacts, such as electromyographic signals. An additional notch filter is typically used to remove artifact caused by electrical power lines (60 Hz in the United States and 50 Hz in many other countries).As part of an evaluation for epilepsy surgery, it may be necessary to insert electrodes near the surface of the brain, under the surface of the dura mater. This is accomplished via burr hole or craniotomy. This is referred to variously as "electrocorticography (ECoG)", "intracranial EEG (I-EEG)" or "sub-dural EEG (SD-EEG)". Depth electrodes may also be placed into brain structures, such as the amygdala or
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT hippocampus, structures which are common epileptic foci and may not be "seen" clearly by scalp EEG. The electrocorticographic signal is processed in the same manner as digial scalp EEG (above), with a couple of caveats. ECoG is typically recorded at higher sampling rates than scalp EEG because of the requirements of Nyquist theoremthe sub-dural signal is composed of a higher predominance of higher frequency components. Also, many of the artifacts which affect scalp EEG do not impact ECoG, and therefore display filtering is often not needed.A typical adult human EEG signal is about 10V to 100 V in amplitude when measured from the scalp and is about 1020 mV when measured from subdural electrodes.Since an EEG voltage signal represents a difference between the voltages at two electrodes, the display of the EEG for the reading encephalographer may be set up in one of several ways. The representation of the EEG channels is referred to as a montage. Bipolar montage Each channel (i.e., waveform) represents the difference between two adjacent electrodes. The entire montage consists of a series of these channels. For example, the channel "Fp1F3" represents the difference in voltage between the Fp1 electrode and the F3 electrode. The next channel in the montage, "F3-C3," represents the voltage difference between F3 and C3, and so on through the entire array of electrodes. Referential montage Each channel represents the difference between a certain electrode and a designated reference electrode. There is no standard position at which this reference is always placed; it is, however, at a different position than the "recording" electrodes. Midline positions are often used because they do not amplify the signal in one hemisphere vs. the other. Another popular reference is "linked ears," which is a physical or mathematical average of electrodes attached to both earlobes or mastoids. Average reference montage The outputs of all of the amplifiers are summed and averaged, and this averaged signal is used as the common reference for each channel.
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MINI PROJECT Laplacian montage
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Each channel represents the difference between an electrode and a weighted average of the surrounding electrodes. Limitations: EEG has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution. EEG is most sensitive to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those which are generated in superficial layers of the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. Dendrites which are deeper in the cortex, inside sulci, are in midline or deep structures (such as the cingulate gyrus or hippocampus) or produce currents which are tangential to the skull have far less contribution to the EEG signal.The meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and skull "smear" the EEG signal, obscuring its intracranial source.It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intercranial current source for a given EEG signal, as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred to as the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good estimates of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded currents. Advantages: EEG has several strong sides as a tool of exploring brain activity; for example, its time resolution is very high (on the level of a single millisecond). Other methods of looking at brain activity, such as PET and MRI have time resolution between seconds and minutes. EEG measures the brain's electrical activity directly, while other methods record changes in blood flow (e.g., SPECT, MRI) or metabolic activity (e.g., PET), which are indirect markers of brain electrical activity. EEG can be used simultaneously with MRI so that high-temporal-resolution data can be recorded at the same time as high-spatial-resolution data, however, since the data derived from each occurs over a different time course, the data sets do not necessarily represent the exact same brain activity. There are technical difficulties associated with combining these two modalities, including the need to remove RF pulse artifact and ballistocardiographic
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT artifact (a results from the movement of pulsed blood) from the EEG. Furthermore, currents can be induced in moving EEG electrode wires due to the magnetic field of the MRI.EEG can be recorded at the same time as MEG so that data from these complimentary high-time-resolution techniques can be combined. Normal activity: The EEG is typically described in terms of (1) rhythmic activity and (2) transients. The rhythmic activity is divided into bands by frequency. To some degree, these frequency bands are a matter of nomenclature (i.e., any rhythmic activity between 8-12 Hz can be described as "alpha"), but these designations arose because rhythmic activity within a certain frequency range was noted to have a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain biological significance.Most of the cerebral signal observed in the scalp EEG falls in the range of 1-20 Hz (activity below or above this range is likely to be artifactual, under standard clinical recording techniques).
Comparison table Comparison of EEG bands Frequency (Hz)
Type
Location
Normally adults slow wave sleep

Pathologically subcortical lesions diffuse lesions metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus
Delta up to 3
frontally in adults, posterior in children; high
in babies
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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING amplitude waves

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Deep midline lesions. focal subcortical lesions metabolic encephalopathy deep midline disorders
young children
Theta 4 - 7 Hz
drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults
some instances of hydrocephalus
Posterior regions of head, both sides, higher Alpha 8 - 12 Hz in amplitude on dominant side. Central sites (c3-c4) at rest. Beta 12 - 30 Hz both sides, symmetrical distribution, most evident frontally; low amplitude

Closing the eyes and by relaxation.
coma
active, busy or anxious thinking, active concentration
benzodiazepines
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certain cognitive or motor functions
Gamma 26100
Wave patterns: Delta is the frequency range up to 3 Hz. It tends to be the highest in amplitude and the slowest waves. It is seen normally in adults in slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in babies. It may occur focally with subcortical lesions and in general distribution with diffuse lesions, metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus or deep midline lesions. It is usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA - Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and posteriorly in children e.g. OIRDA - Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta). Theta is the frequency range from 4 Hz to 7 Hz. Theta is seen normally in young children. It may be seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it can also be seen in meditation. Excess theta for age represents abnormal activity. It can be seen as a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can be seen in generalized distribution in diffuse disorder or metabolic encephalopathy or deep midline disorders or some instances of hydrocephalus.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Alpha is the frequency range from 8 Hz to 12 Hz. Hans Berger named the first rhythmic EEG activity he saw, the "alpha wave." This is activity in the 8-12 Hz range seen in the posterior regions of the head on both sides, being higher in amplitude on the dominant side. It is brought out by closing the eyes and by relaxation. It was noted to attenuate with eye opening or mental exertion. This activity is now referred to as "posterior basic rhythm," the "posterior dominant rhythm" or the "posterior alpha rhythm." The posterior basic rhythm is actually slower than 8 Hz in young children (therefore technically in the theta range). In addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are two other normal alpha rhythms that are typically discussed: the mu rhythm and a temporal "third rhythm". Alpha can be abnormal; for example, an EEG that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma and is not responsive to external stimuli is referred to as "alpha coma".
Mu rhythm is alpha-range activity that is seen over the sensorimotor cortex. It characteristically attenuates with movement of the contralateral arm (or mental imagery of movement of the contralateral arm).
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Beta is the frequency range from 12 Hz to about 30 Hz. It is seen usually on both sides in symmetrical distribution and is most evident frontally. Low amplitude beta with multiple and varying frequencies is often associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with various pathologies and drug effects, especially benzodiazepines. Activity over about 25 Hz seen in the scalp EEG is rarely cerebral (i.e., it is most often artifactual). It may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical damage. It is the dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious or who have their eyes open. Gamma is the frequency range approximately 26100 Hz. Because of the filtering properties of the skull and scalp, gamma rhythms can only be recorded from electrocorticography or possibly with magnetoencephalography. Gamma rhythms are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function.
HEART LUNG MACHINE The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart. The most common cause of death for is heart attack which is usually caused by blockages in arteries. When the condition cannot be effectively treated with medicines or catheter-based angioplasty and stents(blood flows through
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT stents after opening clogged arteries), a form of open-heart surgery called coronary artery bypass grafting is recommended which usually takes 3 to 5 hours.. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) uses arteries and/or veins from other parts of the body to bypass the blocked coronary arteries on the surface of the heart. This technique and technology make operations more effective and safer for patients.
Open-Heart Surgery: For Open-Heart surgery, patient is made unconscious and various parameters like heartbeat, blood pressure, oxygen levels, breathing etc are monitored. A breathing tube is placed in lungs through throat and connected to a ventilator and surgeon makes a 6- to 8-inch incision in the center of chest wall. Then the chest bone is cut and rib cage is opened to access heart. Then a medicine is given to thin blood and keeps it from clotting. A heart-lung bypass machine is connected to heart and takes over for heart by replacing the heart's pumping action. The bypass machine allows the surgeon to operate on a heart that isn't moving and full of blood. Then medicines are given to stop the heartbeat once patient is connected to the heart-lung machine. A pipe is placed in heart to drain blood to the machine which removes carbon dioxide from blood, & adds oxygen, and then pumps the blood back into body. Tubes are then inserted into chest to drain fluid. Once the machine begins to work, the surgeon performs the surgery to repair heart problem.
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At the end of the surgery, heart is restarted using mild electric shocks. The pipes and tubes are removed from heart, and the heart-lung machine is stopped. Then again a medicine is given to allow the blood to clot and chest bone is closed with wires. Stitches or staples are used to close the incision. The breathing tube is removed. An advantage of open-heart surgery is that it's easier for the surgeon to operate for long and complex surgeries. Applications: Heart surgery is done to repair or replace valves that control blood flow through the heart, repair structures in the heart, implant devices to regulate heart rhythms, or replace a damaged heart with a healthy heart from a donor, bypass blocked arteries, treat arrhythmias, repair aneurysms, treat angina (chest pain or discomfort) etc. Sarns 8000 Heart Lung Machine: Cardiothoracic surgical program is the most important goal of open-heart program. The Sarns 8000 is a modular heart lung machine that is available in a variety of configurations. It has 4 pumps units that are available with built-in centrifugal pump and power input is 220-240VAC, 50Hz,/440 V 3 Phase as appropriate fitted.
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Equipment consist of following : 5- Pump Console Temperature Control Module (Hypo-Hyper thermia unit) Monitors: a) Pressure monitor arterial and cardioplegia with transducers b) Time c) Temperature Monitor with probes d) Display of total volume of each infusion with delivery time Air- Oxygen Blender with hoses and Flow meter Safety Devices Ultrasonic air sensor Level Sensor Technical Specifications: A. 5- Pump Console: 1. 2. It has 5-pump console compactly arranged with separate power supply and control modules with easy access connectors for interchanging the pump. Each individual roller pump is capable of running independently on 220 V/50Hz supply with a spill proof base. The unit is supplied with a Battery backup for at least two pumps & all safety systems for a minimum of 15 minutes. Switch over from main power to battery backup is automatic and immediate.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT 3. Individual pump heads have Harvey Roller pumps with facility for tubing to be used adjustable from to 5/8 through 3/8 & by easily changeable mechanism. The total infusion volume in litres and delivery time, the flow rates in LPM and in RPM. 4. 5. 6. Each Pump has easy mechanism for occlusion setting for different thickness of tubes with unidirectional hand crank facility as a critical safety feature. The Console has a compact base mount for the entire pump heads together, with pole and handles and variable, changeable tubing holders in each pump head. It has a movable oxygenator holder and roller pump has a self diagnostic circuit with provision to detect and display critical alarm conditions and optional pulsatile module which can be mounted on any of the blood pump. 7. It has a venous control module with single pole mast with electronic venous line occluder, a monitor mount with adjustable monitoring arm and an instrument tray positionable with long monitoring arm. B. Temperature Control Module: Temperature control and monitor system with Cardioplegia supply and remote temperature display has following features: 1. Simultaneous delivery of water for arterial and cardioplegia heat exchangers and to thermal blankets and works with a power supply of 220 20 V 50 Hz. 2. Pressure regulated blanket ports maintain the temperature of arterial port with temperature display range of 0- 50 Celsius and remote accuracy of 0.3 Celsius. 3. Microprocessor based unit control, cool, rewarm and maintains temperature. Water outlet temperature of heat exchanger and blanket range 0-42 C. 4. Maximum flow performance of heat exchanger port 15 22 LPM; 480mmHg maximum pressure; Blanket 1.5 to 2.5 LPM at zero head. 5. Ice generation and rewarming facility with venous difference mode settable at 6 to 10 C gradients to hold the water bath at higher than venous blood temperature.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT 6. Temperature probe module for the operating ranges of 0-50 C. and temperature probes to fit in standard oxygenators (bubble / membrane). C. Monitors: They have optional capability for computer interface to retrieve perfusion data. 1. Pressure Monitor: It can monitor one arterial line pressure and two cardioplegia line pressures (total 3); along with necessary pressure transducers, cables and domes reusable, with accurate digital display and alarms. 2. Time Monitor: 4 time displays -- 2 for arterial and 2 for cardioplegia delivery with stop, reset and start function. 3. Temperature: 6 displays- 3 for patient monitoring & 3 for cardioplegia monitoring with digital display in Celsius with 6 necessary compatible temperature probes with 3 of them for nasal, rectal and esophageal use. D. Air-Oxygen Blender: Works at 50-60 PSI for membrane oxygenator with water trap attached with hoses & connections of min. of 5 meters length and triple flow glass flow meters. E. Safety and monitoring devices: 1. Ultrasonic Air Sensor: It detect bubbles to work equally well with crystalloid and blood and can fit anywhere in the circuit easily. 2. Level Sensor System: Ultrasonic transducers to work well with crystalloid and blood with adhesive pads & with alarm settings. F. Environmental factors: The unit is capable of operating continuously in ambient temperature of 10 -400 C and relative humidity of 15-90% and is capable of being stored continuously in ambient temperature of 0 -500 C and relative humidity of 15-90% with general requirements of safety for Electromagnetic Compatibility.
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VENTRICULAR ASSIST DEVICES Ventricular assist devices are innovative external pumps that temporarily support the circulation inpatients who are believed to have reversible heart failure or who are candidates for heart transplantation. The Cardiothoracic Surgeons use the Abiomed BVS 5000 Blood Pump, which can take over pumping action for the right, left, or both ventricles. Ventricular assist devices are used relatively rarely and are very expensive for the hospital, but are mandatory for any comprehensive cardiac program. They provide support for prolonged heart recovery and, in addition, can be an effective bridge to further therapy including transplantation.
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Design Overview: Most VADS operate on similar principles. A cannula is inserted into the apex of the appropriate ventricle. Blood passes through this to a pump and thence through a tube to the aorta in the case of an LVAD or to the pulmonary artery in the case of an RVAD. The pump is powered through a lead which connects it to a controller and power supply. Pumps: Pumps used in VADS can be divided into two main categories - pulsatile pumps which mimic the natural pulsing action of the heart, and continuous flow pumps. Pulsatile VADS use positive displacement pumps. In some of these pumps the volume occupied by blood varies during the pumping cycle, and if the pump is contained inside the body then a vent tube to the outside air is required. Continuous flow VADs normally uses either centrifugal pumps or axial flow pump. Both types have a central rotor containing permanent magnets. Controlled electric currents running through coils contained in the pump housing apply forces to the magnets which cause the rotors to rotate. In the centrifugal pumps the rotors are shaped to accelerate the blood circumferentially and thus cause it to move towards the outer rim of the pump whereas in the axial flow pumps the rotors are more or less cylindrical with blades that are more or less helical, causing the blood to be accelerated in the direction of the rotor's axis.
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ENDOSCOPE
INTRODUCTION: Endoscopy is a minimally invasive diagnostic medical procedure that uses tube like instruments (called endoscopes) to assess interior surfaces of an organ. This procedure is different from imaging tests, such as X-Rays, which also look inside of the body but usually do not place instruments inside the body. An endoscope is a device that uses fibre optics and powerful lens system s to provide lighting and visualization of the interior of a joint. The portion of the endoscopes inserted into the body may be rigid or flexible, depending upon the medical procedure. The rigid or flexible tube not only provide an image for visual inspection and photography, but also enable taking biopsies and retrieval o foreign objects. Endoscopes uses two fibre optic lines. A light fibre carries light into the body cavity and an image fibre carries the image of the body cavity back to the physicians viewing lens. There is also a separate port to allow for administration of drugs, suction, and irrigation. This port may also be used to introduce small folding instruments such as forceps, scissors, brushes, snares and baskets for tissue incision (removal), sampling or other diagnostic and therapeutic work. Endoscopes may be used in conjunction with a camera or video recorder to document images of the inside of the joint or chronicle an endoscopic procedure. New endoscopes have digital capabilities for manipulating and enhancing the video images.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Many endoscopic procedures are considered to be relatively painless and, at worst, associated with mild discomfort; for eg. As in esophagogastroduodenoscopy, most patients tolerate the procedure with only topical anaesthesia of the oropharynx using lignocaine spray. Complications are not common (only 5% of all operations) but can include perforation of the organ under inspection with the endoscope or biopsy instrument. If that occurs open surgery may ENDOSCOPE There are many different kinds of endoscopes, or scopes. Some are hollow, allowing the doctor to see directly into the body, while others use fibre optic (flexible glass or plastic fibers that transmit light). Still others have small video camera on some endoscopes are stiff while others are flexible. Endoscopes also vary in length. Each type is specially designed for looking at a different part of the body. Depending on the area of the body being looked at, the endoscope may be inserted through an opening like the mouth, anus, or urethra. In some cases, endoscope is inserted through small incision. TYPES OF ENDOSCOPES: Type of Endoscope Inserted into or through Bronchoscope mouth or nose Body area Examined Trachea bronchi Bronchoscopy, (tubes bronchoscopy Name of procedures be required to repair the injury.
(windpipe) and flexible inside the lungs) Colonoscope Anus Colon intestine) (large Colonoscopy, lower endoscopy
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MINI PROJECT Cystoscope
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING Urethra Urinary bladder Cystoscopy, cystourethroscopy
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Esophagogastroduode- Mouth noscope
Esophagus, stomach duodenum
Esophagogastroand uodenoscopy (EGD), panendoscopy, upper endoscopy gastroscopy
Hysteroscope
Vagina
Inside of uterus
Hysteroscopy
Laproscope
Incision abdomen
in Space abdomen pelvis
inside Laproscopy, and peritoneal endoscopy
Laryngoscope
Mouth or nose
Larynx box)
(voice Layngoscopy
Mediastinoscope
Incision bone)
above Mediastinum lungs) Rectum sigmoid
Mediastinoscopy
sternum (breast (space between
Sigmoidoscope
Anus
and Sigmoidoscopy, colon flexible
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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING (lower part of sigmoidoscopy, large intestine)
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proctosigmoidoscopy
Thoracoscope
Incision
Space wall
between Thoracoscopy,
lungs and chest pleuroscopy
Gastroscopy viewing of the stomach. Used to check for ulcers, bleeding or tumours. Colonoscopy and Sigmoidoscopy viewing of the colon. Used to check for tumours or polyps (small growths). Bronchoscopy viewing of the airways and lung tissue. Used to remove foreign bodies, take samples to diagnose lung cancer or other lung diseases and to assess the condition of the airways following smoke inhalation. Cystoscopy viewing of the bladder. Used to check for tumors, stones and other abnormalities. Hysteroscopy viewing of the uterus. Used to check for adhesions or polyps and to investigate excessive menstrual bleeding.
In other types of endoscopy, the skin is opened to allow the scope to enter an area: Arthroscopy to look into a joint such as the knee. Used to check for torn ligaments or damaged cartilage.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Laparoscopy to look into the abdomen. Used to check for gynecological conditions, damage from injury and conditions affecting any of the abdominal organs.
Some types of endoscopes can be used to look for cancer in people who have no symptoms. For example, colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy are procedures used to screen for colorectal cancer. These procedures can also help prevent cancer by allowing doctors to find any polyps (growths) that might eventually become cancerous if left alone. Laryngoscopy is used to look at the vocal cords in people with hoarseness. Upper endoscopy in people having trouble eating, and Colonoscopy in people with unexplained anemia (low red blood cell counts) or blood in their stool. LOOKING AT PROBLEMS FOUND ON IMAGING TESTS: Imaging tests such as CT scans can sometimes show physical changes within the body. But these tests may only give information about the size, shape, and location of the problem. Doctors can use endoscopy to see more details such as color and surface texture, when trying to find out whats going on.
DIAGNOSING AND DETERMINING THE STAGE (EXTENT) OF CANCER: Most types of endoscopes have tools on the end known as the DISTAL PART that allow the doctor to remove small tissue samples for biopsy. The samples can be viewed under a
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT microscope or tested in other ways to know for sure whether or not cancer is present. A biopsy is the best way to find out if a growth is cancer or something else. In some cases endoscopes are used to help find out how far a cancer may have spread. Thoracoscopy and laparoscopy can be especially useful in finding out whether certain cancers have spread into one of the body cavities (thorax or abdomen). They let the surgeon look at these spaces without making a large incision in the skin. Some types of endoscopy can help make imaging tests more accurate. This can e especially helpful when trying to find the stage (extent) of cancer within the body. Most people are familiar with ultrasound, an imaging test in which a transducer is moved over the skin. It sends sound waves into the body, which bounce back in a pattern that creates an image of the inside of the body. ENDOSCOPIC ULTRASOUND (ESU) is a procedure in which a small transducer on the tip of an endoscope is inserted into the mouth or rectum. By putting the transducer on the tip of the endoscope, it can get closer to the area where the tumor is to take pictures. It is used to get information about problems in the digestive tract and surrounding organs. Because the transducer is close to the organ being studied, it can make very detailed pictures. EUS can be used to see how deeply a tumor may have penetrated into the rectum or esophagus, or into an organ like the pancreas. It can also help show whether certain lymph nodes are enlarged. EUS can also help a doctor guide a needle into a lymph node or other suspicious area to do biopsy.
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TREATING CANCER: Endoscopes can be used to remove or destroy small cancers. Small instruments passed through an endoscope can be used to cut out small growths. Some forms of endoscopy allow doctors to use a cautery or laser through the tip of the endoscope to burn or vaporize growths. Over the last decade or so, a wide variety of endoscopic tools have been developed that allow doctors to perform minimally invasive surgery. This type of surgery is sometimes called keyhole surgery or when used for the abdomen, is called laparoscopic surgery. Instead of using one long surgical incision, it involves making several small incisions in the skin usually in the chest or abdomen. Long, thin instruments are then inserted through the holes to reach the inside of the body. A video endoscope is placed through one of the holes to allow the surgeon to see inside during the operation. This type of surgery was first used for fairly minor procedures such as gall bladder removal, but in recent years have begun using it to treat some types of cancer. It is also used to treat early cancers of the lung, colon, prostate, and some other organs. There are pros and cons to keyhole surgeries. There is generally less blood loss during the operation, and patients often recover faster and with less pain because the incisions are smaller than in regular surgery. Some forms of keyhole surgery use robotic arms, which a surgeon controls from a console. This technique allows for better magnification of the area and more precision in working with the delicate surgical instruments.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AFTER THE ENDOSCOPY PROCEDURE:
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After the procedure the patient will be observed and monitored by a qualified individual in the endoscopy or a recovery area until a significant portion of the medication has worn off. Occasionally a patient is left with a mild sore throat, which promptly responds to saline gargles, or a feeling of distention from the insufflated air that was used during the procedure. Both problems are mild and fleeting. When fully recovered, the patient will be instructed when to resume his/her usual diet (probably within a few hours) and will be allowed to be taken home. Because of the use of sedation, most facilities mandate that the patient is taken home by another person and not to drive on his/her own or handle machinery for the remainder of the day.
RISKS

Infection Punctured organs Allergic reactions due to Contrast agents or dyes (such as those used in a CT scan) Over-sedation
COMPONENTS OF ENDOSCOPE:
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a rigid or flexible tube A light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical fibre system a lens system transmitting the image to the viewer from the fiberscope an additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators
DISTAL END PART OF ENDOSCOPE A distal end part of an endoscope including an end cap provided with a nozzle for spouting a fluid in a predetermined direction. The end cap is detachable with respect to a distal end block which is provided at the distal end of an insert part of the endoscope. Engagement portions are provided on the end cap and the distal end block to regulate the condition in which the end cap is fitted to the distal end block. The engagement portion of the end cap and the engagement portion of the distal end block are formed such that, among different models of endoscopes in which the distal end blocks have approximately the same outer diameter, the engagement portion of the end cap off one model cannot be engaged with
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT A system of different models of endoscopes, each endoscope having a distal end part, each distal end part comprising: an end cap provided with a nozzle for spouting a fluid in a predetermined direction, said end cap being detachable with respect to a distal end block which is provided at a distal end of an insert part of an endoscope; and engagement means provided on said end cap and said distal end block to regulate a condition in which said end cap is fitted to said distal end block, said engagement means including mating portions which are engageable with each other, said mating portions also positioning the end cap with respect to said distal end block in a direction of rotation, said engagement means provided on said end cap and said engagement means provided on said distal end block being formed such that, among said different models of endoscopes in said system in which distal end blocks have approximately the same outer diameter, said engagement means provided on said end cap of one model cannot be engaged with said engagement means provided on said distal end block of another model.
Distal endoscope part having light emitting source such as light emitting diodes as illuminating means
A substrate having a plurality of light emitting diodes united therewith lies on a plane containing the longitudinal axis of an insertion unit of an endoscope and its neighborhood. Likewise, part of a first objective surface lies on the plane containing the longitudinal axis of the insertion unit of the endoscope and its neighborhood. As long as the diameter of the insertion unit remains unchanged, the plane containing the longitudinal axis of the insertion unit of the endoscope and its neighborhood provides the largest area for the light emitting diodes.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT The light emitting diode sub-assembly is therefore placed on the plane, whereby the outer diameter of a distal endoscope part can be made as small as possible.
BRONCHOSCOPE BRONCHOSCOPY is a medical procedure where a tube is inserted into the airways, usually through the nose or mouth. This allows the practitioner to examine inside a patients airway for abnormalities such as foreign bodies, bleeding, tumors, or inflammation. The practitioner often takes samples from inside the lungs: biopsies, fluid (bronchoalveolar lavage), or endobronchial brushing. The practitioner may use either a rigid bronchoscope or flexible bronchoscope.
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Rigid Bronchoscopy: A rigid bronchoscope is a straight, hollow, metal tube. Doctors perform rigid bronchoscopy less often today, but it remains the procedure of choice for removing foreign materials, as its increased thickness allows instruments to be more easily inserted through it. Rigid bronchoscopy also becomes useful when bleeding interferes with viewing the examining area, and allows for more interventions, such as cautery to stop the bleeding.
Flexible Bronchoscopy: A flexible bronchoscope is a long tube that contains small clear optical fibers that transmit light images as the tube bends. Its flexibility allows this instrument to reach further into the airway. The procedure can be performed easily and safely under local anesthesia. As flexible bronchoscopes become more advanced, it is likely that they will replace rigid bronchoscopes for most procedures.
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GASTROSCOPY is an examination of the inside of the gullet, stomach and duodenum. It is performed by using a thin, flexible fibre optic instrument that is passed through the mouth and allows the doctor to see whether there is any damage to the lining of the oesophagus (gullet) or stomach, and whether there are any ulcers in the stomach or duodenum.
Gastroscope
The gastroscope is a flexible plastic tube approximately four feet long and one half inch wide. The gastroscope contains optic fibers with a light source that allow the gastroscope to function like a video camera.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT The use of the gastroscope is esophagogastroduodenoscopy or EGD. An EGD is done when the doctor suspects that there is a problem with the swallowing tube, stomach, or small intestine. In the ICU, the two most common reasons for the using the gastroscope are to evaluate a patient suspected of bleeding from the stomach or intestines and to help place a gastrostomy tube. Occasionally, a special gastroscope is used for patients who may have an inflamed pancreas or blocked gallbladder drainage system.
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RADIOLOGY
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING Medical Imaging has created a revolutionary change in the field of medicine, the imaging of the human body is very much useful in determining the diseases and used for all the treatments. The magnetic resonance phenomenon can be described by both classical and quantum mechanical approaches. Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the techniques of nuclear magnetic resonance. MRI scanner uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei (single proton) in water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially encoded resulting in images of the body. MRI involves the use of three kinds of electromagnetic field: Avery strong (of the order of units of teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the static field, A weaker time-varying (of the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, called the gradient fields, A weak radio-frequency (RF) field for manipulation of the hydrogen. The scanner first aligns the nuclear spins of hydrogen atoms in the patient and starts rotating them in a perfect concert. The nuclei emit maximum-strength electromagnetic waves at the start, but over time the rotating spins get out of synch, simply due to small differences in local magnetic fields. The unsynchronized spins cause the combined electromagnetic signal to decay with time, a phenomenon called relaxation. A slice is selected applying a gradient in a particular direction (X, Y or Z). Magnetic resonance signals are then formed by means of the application of magnetic field gradients along three different directions. Finally, the signals are acquired and Fourier transformed to form a two-dimensional or three-dimensional image. MRI Construction and operation
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Magnet: The imaging magnet is the most expensive component of the magnetic resonance imaging system. Most magnets are of the superconducting type. A superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made of superconducting wire. Superconducting wire has a resistance approximately equal to zero when it is cooled to a temperature close to absolute zero (-273.15 o C or 0 K) by immersing it in liquid helium. Once current is caused to flow in the coil it will continue to flow as long as the coil is kept at liquid helium temperatures. The length of superconducting wire in the magnet is typically several miles. The coil of wire is kept at a temperature of 4.2K by immersing it in liquid helium. The coil and liquid helium is kept in a large dewar. The typical volume of liquid Helium in an MRI magnet is 1700 liters. In early magnet designs, this dewar was typically surrounded by a liquid nitrogen (77.4K) dewar which acts as a thermal buffer between the room temperature (293K) and the liquid helium. In later magnet designs, the liquid nitrogen region was replaced by a dewar cooled by a refrigerator. This design eliminates the need to add liquid nitrogen to the magnet. It is expected that cryocoolers for the helium reservoir will soon be available
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Gradient coils: The gradient coils produce the gradients in the Bo magnetic field. They are room temperature coils which because of their configuration create the desired gradient. Since the horizontal bore superconducting magnet is most common, the gradient coil system will be described for this magnet. Assuming the standard magnetic resonance coordinate system, a gradient in Bo in the Z direction is achieved with an antihelmholtz type of coil. Current in the two coils flow in opposite directions creating a magnetic field gradient between the two coils. The B field at one coil adds to the B o field while the B field at the center of the other coil subtracts from the Bo field. RF coils: RF coils create the B1 field which rotates the net magnetization in a pulse sequence. They also detect the transverse magnetization as it processes in the XY plane. RF coils can be divided into three general categories; 1) transmit and receive coils, 2) receive only coils, and 3) transmit only coils. Transmit and receive coils serve as the transmitter of the B 1 fields and receiver of RF energy from the imaged object. A transmit only coil is used to create the B 1 field and a receive only coil is used in conjunction with it to detect or receive the signal from the spins in the imaged object. There are several varieties of each. The RF coil on an imager can be likened unto the lens on a camera. Just as a good photographer has several lenses, a good imaging site will have several imaging coils to handle the variety of imaging situations which might arise.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT An imaging coil must resonate, or efficiently store energy, at the Larmor frequency. All imaging coils are composed of an inductor, or inductive elements, and a set of capacitive elements. The resonant frequency, of an RF coil is determined by the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) of the inductor capacitor circuit. .
RF Coil for 4.7T Magnet There are many types of imaging coils. Volume coils surround the imaged object while surface coils are placed adjacent to the imaged object. An internal coil is one designed to record information from regions outside of the coil, such as a catheter coil designed to be inserted into a blood vessel. Some coils can operate as both the transmitter of the B 1 field and the receiver of the RF signal. Other coils are designed as only the receiver of the RF signal. When a receive only coil is used, a larger coil on the imager is used as the transmitter of RF energy to producing the 90o and 180o pulses.
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MINI PROJECT Quadrature Detector
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The quadrature detector is a device which separates out the Mx' and My' signals from the signal from the RF coil. The heart of a quadrature detector is a device called a doubly balanced mixer (DBM). The DBM has two inputs and one output.If the input signals are Cos(A) and Cos(B), the output will be 1/2 Cos(A+B) and 1/2 Cos(A-B). For this reason the device is often called a product detector since the product of Cos(A) and Cos(B) is the output The quadrature detector typically contains two doubly balanced mixers, two filters, two amplifiers, and a 90o phase shifter. Gradient Fields: The gradient coils produce the gradients in the B o magnetic field. They are room temperature coils which because of their configuration create the desired gradient. Since the horizontal bore superconducting magnet is most common, the gradient coil system will be described for this magnet. Assuming the standard magnetic resonance coordinate system, a gradient in B o in the Z direction is achieved with an antihelmholtz type of coil. Current in the two coils flow in opposite directions creating a magnetic field gradient between the two coils. The B field at one coil adds to the Bo field while the B field at the center of the other coil subtracts from the B o field.
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MINI PROJECT Slice selection
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A single frequency RF pulse is applied to the whole sample; only a narrow plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis at the centre of the sample will absorb the RF energy. Everywhere else in the sample is receiving the wrong frequency of excitation for resonance to occur. This technique allows a slice, with thickness determined by the magnetic field gradient strength, to be selected from a sample.
Technical Specifications Tim Up to 76 seamlessly integrated coil elements with up to 18 RF channels 205 cm FoV. Whole Body PAT. Unlimited Workflow automation Examples are: Phoenix, Auto Align, Inline Technology Compact magnet Ultra compact 1.5T magnet (length: 120 cm) Wide, patient-friendly inner bore diameter (70 cm) Magnet weight including Helium only approx. 3,800 kg Unique CT-like 70 cm Open Bore diameter, with high homogeneity over 30 cm
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Computer syngo-speaking user interface syngo is the common software platform for all imaging modalities. Enhanced productivity with minimized user interactions per operation step. Based on a powerful Pentium 4/3 GHz Panoramic Recon Image Processor reconstructing up to 3,226 images per second (256 x 256, 25% recFoV) in combination with a Pentium 4-based Host Computer with two CPUs/3 GHz and 2 GB RAM capacity. Cost-effective siting 30 qm/325 sq. ft. floor space only No computer room required for a total of just two electronic cabinets (water-cooled). Computer tomography(ct scan) CT scanningsometimes called CAT scanningis a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT scanning combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body. These cross-sectional images of the area being studied can then be examined on a computer monitor, printed or transferred to a CD. CT scans of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity and reveal more details than regular x-ray exams. Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body, radiologists can more easily diagnose problems such as cancers, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, appendicitis, trauma and musculoskeletal disorders.
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CT-SCAN MACHINE
The CT scanner is typically a large, box like machine with a hole, or short tunnel, in the center. You will lie on a narrow examination table that slides into and out of this tunnel. Rotating around you, the x-ray tube and electronic x-ray detectors are located opposite each other in a ring, called a gantry. The computer workstation that processes the imaging information is located in a separate room, where the technologist operates the scanner and monitors your examination.
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CT SCAN IS:

one of the best and fastest tools for studying the chest, abdomen and pelvis because it provides detailed, cross-sectional views of all types of tissue. often the preferred method for diagnosing many different cancers, including lung, liver and pancreatic cancer, since the image allows a physician to confirm the presence of a tumor and measure its size, precise location and the extent of the tumor's involvement with other nearby tissue. an examination that plays a significant role in the detection, diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases that can lead to stroke, kidney failure or even death. CT is commonly used to assess for pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lung vessels) as well as for abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA). invaluable in diagnosing and treating spinal problems and injuries to the hands, feet and other skeletal structures because it can clearly show even very small bones as well as surrounding tissues such as muscle and blood vessels.
In pediatric patients, CT is rarely used to diagnose tumors of the lung or pancreas as well as abdominal aortic aneurysms. For children, CT imaging is more often used to evaluate: lymphoma neuroblastoma congenital malformations of blood vessels the kidneys PHYSICIANS USE CT SCAN TO: quickly identify injuries to the lungs, heart and vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, bowel or other internal organs in cases of trauma. guide biopsies and other procedures such as abscess drainages and minimally invasive tumor treatments. plan for and assess the results of surgery, such as organ transplants or gastric bypass. stage, plan and properly administer radiation treatments for tumors as well as monitor response to chemotherapy. measure bone mineral density for the detection of osteoporosis. PROCEDURE:
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT In many ways CT scanning works very much like other x-ray examinations. X-rays are a form of radiationlike light or radio wavesthat can be directed at the body. Different body parts absorb the x-rays in varying degrees. In a conventional x-ray exam, a small burst of radiation is aimed at and passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special image recording plate. Bones appear white on the x-ray; soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black. With CT scanning, numerous x-ray beams and a set of electronic x-ray detectors rotate around you, measuring the amount of radiation being absorbed throughout your body. At the same time, the examination table is moving through the scanner, so that the x-ray beam follows a spiral path. A special computer program processes this large volume of data to create twodimensional cross-sectional images of your body, which are then displayed on a monitor. This technique is called helical or spiral CT. CT imaging is sometimes compared to looking into a loaf of bread by cutting the loaf into thin slices. When the image slices are reassembled by computer software, the result is a very detailed multidimensional view of the body's interior. Refinements in detector technology allow new CT scanners to obtain multiple slices in a single rotation. These scanners, called "multislice CT" or "multidetector CT," allow thinner slices to be obtained in a shorter period of time, resulting in more detail and additional view capabilities. BENEFITS AND RISKS OF CT-SCAN Benefits

CT scanning is painless, noninvasive and accurate. A major advantage of CT is its ability to image bone, soft tissue and blood vessels all at the same time. Unlike conventional x-rays, CT scanning provides very detailed images of many types of tissue as well as the lungs, bones, and blood vessels. CT examinations are fast and simple; in emergency cases, they can reveal internal injuries and bleeding quickly enough to help save lives. CT has been shown to be a cost-effective imaging tool for a wide range of clinical problems. CT is less sensitive to patient movement than MRI. CT can be performed if you have an implanted medical device of any kind, unlike MRI. A diagnosis determined by CT scanning may eliminate the need for exploratory surgery and surgical biopsy. No radiation remains in a patient's body after a CT examination. X-rays used in CT scans usually have no immediate side effects.
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MINI PROJECT Risks

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There is always a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. However, the benefit of an accurate diagnosis far outweighs the risk. The effective radiation dose for this procedure varies. Women should always inform their physician and x-ray or CT technologist if there is any possibility that they are pregnant. CT scanning is, in general, not recommended for pregnant women unless medically necessary because of potential risk to the baby. Nursing mothers should wait for 24 hours after contrast material injection before resuming breast-feeding.
X-RAY An x-ray (radiograph) is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. Imaging with x-rays involves exposing a part of the body to a small dose ofionizing radiation to produce pictures of the inside of the body. X-rays are the oldest and most frequently used form of medical imaging. A bone x-ray makes images of any bone in the body, including the hand, wrist, arm, elbow, shoulder, foot, ankle, leg (shin), knee, thigh, hip, pelvis or spine.
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X-RAY IMAGE
X-RAY MACHINE
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The equipment typically used for bone x-rays consists of an x-ray tube suspended over a table on which the patient lies. A drawer under the table holds the x-ray film or image recording plate. Sometimes the x-ray is taken with the patient standing upright, as in cases of knee x-rays. A portable x-ray machine is a compact apparatus that can be taken to the patient in a hospital bed or the emergency room. The x-ray tube is connected to a flexible arm that is extended over the patient while an x-ray film holder or image recording plate is placed beneath the patient. PROCEDURE X-rays are a form of radiation like light or radio waves. X-rays pass through most objects, including the body. Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate. Different parts of the body absorb the x-rays in varying degrees. Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them. As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black. Until recently, x-ray images were maintained as hard film copy (much like a photographic negative). Today, most images are digital files that are stored electronically. These stored images are easily accessible and are frequently compared to current x-ray images for diagnosis and disease management. The technologist, an individual specially trained to perform radiology examinations, positions the patient on the x-ray table and places the x-ray film holder or digital recording plate under the table in the area of the body being imaged. When necessary, sandbags, pillows or other
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT positioning devices will be used to help you maintain the proper position. A lead apron may be placed over your pelvic area or breasts when feasible to protect from radiation. You must hold very still and may be asked to keep from breathing for a few seconds while the x-ray picture is taken to reduce the possibility of a blurred image. Thetechnologist will walk behind a wall or into the next room to activate the x-ray machine. You may be repositioned for another view and the process is repeated. Two or three images (from different angles) will typically be taken around a joint (knee, elbow or wrist). An x-ray may also be taken of the unaffected limb, or of a child's growth plate (where new bone is forming), for comparison purposes. When the examination is complete, you will be asked to wait until the radiologist determines that all the necessary images have been obtained. A bone x-ray examination is usually completed within five to 10 minutes. BENEFITS AND RISKS OF X-RAY Benefits Bone x-rays are the fastest and easiest way for a physician to view and assess broken bone and joint abnormalities, such as arthritis and spine injuries. X-ray equipment is relatively inexpensive and widely available in emergency rooms, physician offices, ambulatory care centers, nursing homes and other locations, making it convenient for both patients and physicians. Because x-ray imaging is fast and easy, it is particularly useful in emergency diagnosis and treatment. No radiation remains in a patient's body after an x-ray examination. X-rays usually have no side effects in the diagnostic range. Risks

There is always a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. However, the benefit of an accurate diagnosis far outweighs the risk. The effective radiation dose for this procedure varies. Women should always inform their physician or x-ray technologist if there is any possibility that they are pregnant.
ULTRASOUND
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Ultrasound imaging, also called ultrasound scanning or sonography, involves exposing part of the body to high-frequency sound waves to produce pictures of the inside of the body. Ultrasound exams do not use ionizing radiation (as used in x-rays). Because ultrasound images are captured in real-time, they can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, as well as blood flowing through blood vessels. Ultrasound imaging is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. ULTRSOUND IMAGE OF A KIDNEY
Conventional ultrasound displays the images in thin, flat sections of the body. Advancements in ultrasound technology include three-dimensional (3-D) ultrasound that formats the sound wave data into 3-D images. Four-dimensional (4-D) ultrasound is 3-D ultrasound in motion. A Doppler ultrasound study may be part of an ultrasound examination. Doppler ultrasound is a special ultrasound technique that evaluates blood flow through a blood vessel, including the body's major arteries and veins in the abdomen, arms, legs and neck. There are three types of Doppler ultrasound: Color Doppler uses a computer to convert Doppler measurements into an array of colors to visualize the speed and direction of blood flow through a blood vessel. Power Doppler is a newer technique that is more sensitive than color Doppler and capable of providing greater detail of blood flow, especially when blood flow is little or minimal. Power Doppler, however, does not help the radiologist determine the direction of blood flow, which may be important in some situations.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT Spectral Doppler. Instead of displaying Doppler measurements visually, Spectral Doppler displays blood flow measurements graphically, in terms of the distance traveled per unit of time.
ULTRASOUND MACHINE Ultrasound scanners consist of a console containing a computer and electronics, a video display screen and a transducer that is used to scan the body and blood vessels. The transducer is a small hand-held device that resembles a microphone, attached to the scanner by a cord. The transducer sends out high frequency sound waves into the body and then listens for the returning echoes from the tissues in the body. The principles are similar to sonar used by boats and submarines. The ultrasound image is immediately visible on a nearby video display screen that looks much like a computer or television monitor. The image is created based on the amplitude (strength), frequency and time it takes for the sound signal to return from the patient to the transducer and the type of body structure the sound travels through. PROCEDURE Ultrasound imaging is based on the same principles involved in the sonar used by bats, ships and fishermen. When a sound wave strikes an object, it bounces back, or echoes. By measuring these echo waves it is possible to determine how far away the object is and its size, shape, and consistency (whether the object is solid, filled with fluid, or both). In medicine, ultrasound is used to detect changes in appearance of organs, tissues, and vessels or detect abnormal masses, such as tumors.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT In an ultrasound examination, a transducer both sends the sound waves and records the echoing waves. When the transducer is pressed against the skin, it directs small pulses of inaudible, high-frequency sound waves into the body. As the sound waves bounce off of internal organs, fluids and tissues, the sensitive microphone in the transducer records tiny changes in the sound's pitch and direction. These signature waves are instantly measured and displayed by a computer, which in turn creates a real-time picture on the monitor. One or more frames of the moving pictures are typically captured as still images. Doppler ultrasound, a special application of ultrasound, measures the direction and speed of blood cells as they move through vessels. The movement of blood cells causes a change in pitch of the reflected sound waves (called the Doppler effect). A computer collects and processes the sounds and creates graphs or color pictures that represent the flow of blood through the blood vessels. For most ultrasound exams, the patient is positioned lying face-up on an examination table that can be tilted or moved. A clear water-based gel is applied to the area of the body being studied to help the transducer make secure contact with the body and eliminate air pockets between the transducer and the skin. The sonographer (ultrasound technologist) or radiologist then presses the transducer firmly against the skin in various locations, sweeping over the area of interest or angling the sound beam from a farther location to better see an area of concern. Doppler sonography is performed using the same transducer. When the examination is complete, the patient may be asked to dress and wait while the ultrasound images are reviewed. However, the sonographer or radiologist is often able to review the ultrasound images in real-time as they are acquired and the patient can be released immediately. In some ultrasound studies, the transducer is attached to a probe and inserted into a natural opening in the body. These exams include: Transesophageal echocardiogram. The transducer is inserted into the esophagus to obtain images of the heart. Transrectal ultrasound. The transducer is inserted into a man's rectum to view the prostate. Transvaginal ultrasound. The transducer is inserted into a woman's vagina to view the uterus and ovaries. Most ultrasound examinations are completed within 30 minutes to an hour.
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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING CSSD EQUIPMENT
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Sterilizers: We manufacture a wide array of medical sterilizer and hospital sterilizer that are available with different features to facilitate the process of sterilizing which is one of the most important aspects of medical practice. These are made of superior quality material like stainless steel that makes them hygienic by preventing them from being prey to rust. The different variety includes, Triple Chamber Autoclave, Double Drum Autoclave SS, Single Drum Autoclave Aluminum etc. Horizontal Rectangular High Pressure Steam Sterilizer In our medical sterilizer horizontal autoclave is available in triple-walled (jacketed). Triple-walled execution is preferably used in hospitals for sterilization of all goods, suitable for the dressing drums size up to 12x15 Inches especially of infectious garbage & laboratory waste. The garbage sacks are sterilized in buckets, which are placed one above the other. Our medical sterilizer hasinner and outer wall made of heavy gauge of stainless steel and Construction of the unit totally made of 304 stainless steel heavy gauge sheet middle jacket made of brass or stainless steel and gun metal Technical Data: Steam Working Pressure sterilizer Steam Working Temperature Operating Voltage 121oC 240, single phase, AC supplies, 50 Hz. 1.26 kgf/cm2 (2.2 kgf/cm2 in case High speed
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MINI PROJECT Sterilization Period
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 45 to 50 minutes.
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Radiant locking system, cold water drainage system Steam Exhaust: 5 to 7 provided with timer from 1 to 60 Min with double safety valve, steam releasing valve, pressure gauge for the pressure inside the chamber, and one pressure gauge to show the pressure of outer chamber both the chamber made of stainless steel lid of the unit made of heavy duty gun metal piece for extra safety, gasket, water level indicator to see the water inside, heavy duty power plug with socket provided with the unit, Accessories: one spare element, and two gasket, our Regular sizes are 900X500, and 1050X750 other sizes are available on request. The Sterile Supply Department within a hospital receives stores,sterilizes and distributes to all departments including the wards, outpatient department [OPD] and other special units such as operating theatre [OT]. Major responsibilities of CSSD include processing and sterilization of syringes, rubber goods [catheters, tubing], surgical instruments, treatment trays and sets, dressings etc. it is also responsible for economic and effective utilization of equipment resources of the Hospital under controlled supervision
Horizontal Cylinderical Sterilizer In our hospital sterilizer horizontal autoclave is available in triple-walled (jacketed). Triple-walled execution is preferably used in hospitals for sterilization of all goods, especially of infectious garbage & laboratory waste. The garbage sacks are sterilized in buckets, which are placed one
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING above the other. In hospital sterilizer inner and outer wall made of heavy gauge of stainless steel and middle jacket made of brass and gun metal Technical Data: Steam Working Pressure sterilizer Steam Working Temperature Operating Voltage Sterilization Period 121oC 240, single phase, AC supply, 50 Hz. 45 to 50 minutes. 1.26 kgf/cm2 (2.2 kgf/cm2 in case High speed
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Radiant locking system, cold water drainage system Steam Exhaust: 5 to 7 provided with timer from 1 to 60 Min with double safety valve, steam releasing valve, pressure gauge for the pressure inside the chamber, and one pressure gauge to show the pressure of outer chamber both the chamber made of stainless steel lid of the unit made of heavy duty gun metal piece for extra safety, gasket, water level indicator to see the water inside, heavy duty power plug with socket provided with the unit Accessories: One spare element, and two gaskets, our common size 400x1200 mm
Vertical Sterilizer
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MINI PROJECT Sterilization accessories: Auto claves Ultra sonic cleaners Autoclave racks Instrument Trays Autoclave Chemicals
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Autoclave supplies and testing
The main objectives of the Central Sterile Supply Department are: To provide sterilized material from a central department where sterilizing practice is conducted under conditions, which are controlled, thereby contributing to a reduction in the incidence of hospital infection. To take some of the work of the Nursing staff so that they can devote more time to their patients. To maintain record of effectiveness of cleaning disinfections and sterilization process. To monitor and enforce controls necessary to prevent cross infection according to infection control policy. To maintain an inventory of supplies and equipment. To stay updated regarding developments in the field in the interest of efficiency, economy, accuracy and provision of better patient care. To provide a safe environment for the patients and staff.
Technical Data:
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MINI PROJECT Steam Working Pressure Steam Working Temp Hyd. Tested at
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 1.26 kgf/cm2 (2.2 kgf/cm2 in case High speed sterilizer 121oC (134o in case of High speed sterilizer) Jacket-Twice the working pressure. Chamber-One & half time the working pressure.
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Operating Voltage Sterilization Period Steam Exhaust
400/440, 3 phase, AC supply, 50c/s. 20 to 25 minutes(in case of High speed sterilizer 5 to 7 minutes). 5 to 7 minutes (in case of High speed sterilizer 1 minute)
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INDICATORS In the process of sterilization of medical instruments a indicator is used by the operator to find out weather the material in the sterilizer is completely sterile or not. A paper like substance which is applied with some chemical is used as an indicator. Initially the tape will be yellow in color, after sterilization it turns black. It is called AUTO CLAVE. This indicator is attached to the material to be sterilized and verified after sterilization process.
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GAS PLANT A gas plant is essential component of a hospital. It provides all the necessary medical gases which are used in medical treatment such as pure oxygen, nitrous oxide, compressed air, etc. It also generates vacuum from vacuum pumps. The vacuum generated sucks out the unnecessary gases and liquids generated during a medical treatment.
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Uses: Oxygen: Medical Oxygen is used to restore the tissue oxygen tension towards normal by improving oxygen availability in: Cardiac and respiratory arrest; Resuscitation of critically ill when circulation is impaired; Cyanosis of recent origin as a result of cardio-pulmonary disease Surgical trauma, chest wounds and rib fractures; Hyperpyrexia and Carbon Monoxide poisoning; Shock, severe hemorrhage and coronary occlusion. Modern anesthesia techniques as well as pre and post operative management. Vacuum: Although vacuum is not a medical gas, it is an essential part of medical gas system. It is widely used throughout hospital facilities in patient treatment and in laboratory. Vacuum systems are normally designed to provide 15-20 of Hg at the furthest point from the central vacuum system. Its most commonly used for Vacuum-assisted biopsy, to remove fluids from incisions, suction aspiration to remove the contents of uterus and assists vital post- operative drainage. Compressed Air: Compressed air is one of the best sources of energy and has numerous applications in modern engineering. It can be used while operating on teeth and for operating pneumatic hand tools.
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING Advantages of liquid medical oxygen:
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Holds large volumes, since 1ltr of liquid medical oxygen if converted to gaseous state, increases by approximately 840 times. Ensures security of supply by providing approximately 10 days stock level as against 1 day from cylinders. It can absorb fluctuating hospital demands. No noise pollution since there are no cylinders to move. Reduces manning and labor costs since BOC gases manage the vessel and supply. Major cost reduction since no cylinder record management/documentation is needed. No manning is required since the liquid medical oxygen installation is a low pressure facility which is safer than high pressure cylinders. Liquid oxygen tank (LOX): Oxygen is stored in the tank in liquid state and the tank is decanted or filled with the help of a road tanker. Pressure in road tanker is much more than that in the LOX tank. Top filling is preferred to bottom filling as it is a much safer procedure. Liquid oxygen exists in the range of -183 to -196 degrees Celsius. It is a pale blue liquid & is converted to gaseous oxygen by passing it through an evaporating tray. Lines carrying oxygen are made of copper as its corrosion resistant & low friction with gases. This is important as combustible gases might catch fire due to frictional heat. Quantity gauge shows liquid quantity in the vessel with a maximum of 2700 millimeter of water column and Pressure gauge shows the pressure maintained in tank within the range of 7kg/cm 2 to 15.5kg/cm2. A liquid control regulator controls the liquid flow and stops the flow if maximum pressure is exceeded. The gas is sent back to vessel for it to reach the required pressure of 4.5 kg/cm2. Thus the tank also stores gaseous oxygen. Vent valve is used to eject the gaseous oxygen in case the tank pressure exceeds the maximum admissible pressure. Thus it prevents the rupture disk and the safety valve from getting damaged. Trycock valve can be manually opened if the tank is filled over 2700mmwc and the liquid ejects out. Another evaporating tray converts any traces of
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MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING BVRIT LO if present & up to 99% pure liquid oxygen is obtained. Thereafter it is passed through an outgoing regulator from which complete supply to the hospital will be regulated. VIE (Vacuum Insulated Evaporator): It is designed to store in liquid form oxygen, nitrogen or other liquefied gases and supply the gas at a preset pressure to the distribution pipeline. The unit consists of an inner vessel made of stainless steel securely supported into an outer vessel made of carbon steel with evacuated inter space. It mainly consists of gas phase isolating valve, top Filling Valve, Liquid Phase Isolating Valve, Bottom Filling Valve, Bursting Disc, Pressure Gauge, Pressurizing Valve, Liquid Level Gauge, Safety Valves, Liquid over flow/Full try cock, Vacuum Valve, Jacket Relief Valve and Thermocouple Head.
Vacuum Pumps: Types of vacuum pumps include: 1. Single stage vacuum pumps 2. Two Stage vacuum pump These are either single cylinder machines or multiple cylinder machines with the inlet side of each cylinder connected to a common manifold.
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Air Compressor: Depending on design and principles of operation, all compressors can be divided into Reciprocating compressor or Rotary compressor. In reciprocating compressor, the compression is carried out by containing air between container walls and the piston and reducing the volume by the movement of the piston. Reciprocating compressors are used where high pressures are required. In rotary compressor, the compression is achieved by revolution of a rotor about its axis, the air being trapped in a number of compartments and acquiring pressure and velocity. They are used where large volumes are to be dealt at medium pressures. A reciprocating air compressor consists of a cylinder which piston reciprocated by means of an external source of work. The cylinder cover accommodates two valves one is intake valve and the other discharge valve. Both valves are opened and closed automatically due to pressure difference.
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By Dinesh Gannerlla

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MINI PROJECT

HOSPITAL TRAINING REPORT To be submitted To CARE HOSPITALS

Computer Electroencephalograph Neurovisor-BMM 40

MINI PROJECT Laplacian montage

Comparison table Comparison of EEG bands Frequency (Hz)

Normally adults slow wave sleep

Pathologically subcortical lesions diffuse lesions metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus

frontally in adults, posterior in children; high

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING amplitude waves

drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults

some instances of hydrocephalus

Closing the eyes and by relaxation.

active, busy or anxious thinking, active concentration

MINI PROJECT waves

certain cognitive or motor functions

MINI PROJECT Cystoscope

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING Urethra Urinary bladder Cystoscopy, cystourethroscopy

Esophagogastroduode- Mouth noscope

Esophagus, stomach duodenum

Esophagogastroand uodenoscopy (EGD), panendoscopy, upper endoscopy gastroscopy

in Space abdomen pelvis

inside Laproscopy, and peritoneal endoscopy

above Mediastinum lungs) Rectum sigmoid

sternum (breast (space between

and Sigmoidoscopy, colon flexible

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING (lower part of sigmoidoscopy, large intestine)

lungs and chest pleuroscopy

MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AFTER THE ENDOSCOPY PROCEDURE:

MINI PROJECT An endoscope can consist of

MINI PROJECT GASTROSCOPE

MINI PROJECT Quadrature Detector

MINI PROJECT Slice selection

MINI PROJECT Risks

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING CSSD EQUIPMENT

MINI PROJECT Sterilization Period

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 45 to 50 minutes.

Autoclave supplies and testing

Operating Voltage Sterilization Period Steam Exhaust

MINI PROJECT BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING Advantages of liquid medical oxygen:

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