Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
P
R
PROject Based SCHOOL Management
Training Modules
for managers and other managerial staff
written by experts within the project
Education and Culture DG
Lifelong Learning Programme
Project Based School Management
Project Based School Management (PRO-SCHOOL) is a Comenius
Multilateral project, financed under the framework of the Lifelong Learning
Programme in 2008-2010. The aims of the project are, first, to develop a new
management methodology for High Schools by adopting a project-based
management methodology. This is in order to improve the leadership qualities
and competences of the management team. The second aim is to improve the
effectiveness of schools, regarding the demands of a knowledge-based society.
The main activities of the project are research (case studies) on effective
school indicators, and designing and testing training materials to improve the
management skills and competences of school managers, deputy managers and
other managerial staff. One of the main outputs, and the means to exploit this
project, is an in-service training course which will be held in Izmir in September
2010.
This publication contains methodology, training modules and the
curriculum which will be used in in-service training. These training modules
and curriculum are designed by project partners who represent diverse
institutional profiles. The Menderes Town National Education Directorate is a
responsible public institution with a wide range of educational activities. The
County School Inspectorate, Braov, is a district authority which provides
teaching staff and personnel for the educational institutions. The Lombardia
National Agency for the Development of School Autonomy is a public national
agency that supports schools in their autonomous processes. The Transilvania
University of Braov has broad experience in developing methodologies for in-
service training and project management. The University of Peloponnisos,
Department of Social and Educational Policy, offers training on social and
education policy. The Czech University of Life Sciences has broad experience in
teacher training; and the University College, Ghent, has considerable experience
in quality assurance.
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We hope that these Training Modules, Curriculum and Methodology
will be a source of reference in the training of school managers.
More information on the PRO-SCHOOL project is available on the
project website: http://www.pro-school.eu/
M. Emin BAKAY
Project Coordinator
Training Modules developed by experts from the partner
institutions and tested during the national sessions organised for
managers of secondary schools in six partner countries:
TURKEY
Coordinating organisation of the project
Menderes Town National Education Directorate Izmir
M. Emin Bakay, Gldan Kalem
www.menderes.meb.gov.tr
BELGIUM
University College Ghent
Isabelle Joos, Liesbet Gevaert
http://english.hogent.be/
CZECH REPUBLIC
Institute of Education and Communication, Czech University of Life Sciences
Prague
Prof. Milan Slavk, Ing. Emil K, PhD., Mgr. Ji Votava,
Ing. Barbora Jordnov
http://www.ivp.czu.cz
GREECE
University of the Peloponnese, Department of Social and Educational Policy
Corinth
Assosiate Prof. Despina Karakatsani, Assosiate Prof. Anthi K. Provata
http://pelopas.uop.gr/UK/
www.uop.gr
ITALY
ANSAS - National Agency for the Development of School Autonomy
Lombardia
Patrizia Gelmetti, Tiziana Pedrizzi
http://www.irrelombardia.it
ROMANIA
Brasov Country School Inspectorate
Mirela Blemovici, Cornelia Iliescu, Monica Lupu, Lavinia Butnariu
http://www.isjbrasov.ro
Transilvania University of Brasov
Prof. dr. eng. Anca Duta, Prof. dr. eng. Ion Visa, Assoc. prof. dr. Dana Perniu
http://www.unitbv.ro
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Project-Based School Management Philosophy and
Training Methodology.............................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................2
1. PROJECT, PROJECT MANAGEMENT, PROJECT-BASED
ORGANIZATIONS and MANAGEMENT........................................................4
1.1. Project ...........................................................................................................4
1.2. Project Management ...................................................................................5
1.3. History of Project Management ................................................................7
1.4. Project-Based Management?......................................................................9
1.5. Project-Based Organizations ...................................................................10
2. A NEW APPROACH TO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT:..............................11
PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT..............................................11
2.1. Why Project-Based School Management? .............................................11
2.2. Project-Based School Management Model............................................13
2.3. Key Management Skills for Project Based Management ....................17
3. TRAINING METHODOLOGY for PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT.................................................................................................18
3.1. Adult Learning Principles........................................................................19
3.2. The Role of the Trainer ............................................................................20
3.3. Suggested Training Methods ..................................................................21
3.3.1. Group Work........................................................................................21
3.3.2. Case Study...........................................................................................23
3.3.3. Discussion...........................................................................................24
3.3.4. Brainstorming.....................................................................................25
3.3.5. Role play..............................................................................................26
3.3.6. Icebreakers ..........................................................................................26
3.3.7. Buzzgroups..........................................................................................27
3.4. Evaluation of Training .............................................................................28
3.5. Sample Activities and Introductory Questions for Trainers...............29
4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................31
5. RESOURCES & LINKS...................................................................................31
Training Modules.......................................................... 33
Effective School Indicators and In-Service
Training Needs of School Managers .............................. 34
1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................35
2. PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT PROJECT........................35
2.1. Summary of the Project............................................................................35
2.2. Aims and objectives of the PRO-SCHOOL project..............................36
3. EFFECTIVE SCHOOL INDICATORS and IN-SERVICE TRAINING
NEEDS OF SCHOOL MANAGERS IN SOME EU COUNTRIES................37
3.1. Aim of the Research..................................................................................37
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3.2. Methodology..............................................................................................37
3.3. Findings......................................................................................................39
a) Personal Data............................................................................................39
b) Effective school indicators .....................................................................39
c) In-service training needs of school managers......................................45
4. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY..................................................................46
5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................46
6. RESOURCES & LINKS...................................................................................48
Lifecycle of The Project............................................ 49
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................50
2. HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT..................................................50
3. WHY PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS?.....................................53
4. SETTING UP A PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN..................................55
4.1. Identification setting up the goal, objectives.....................................55
4.2. Expected outcomes: indicators ................................................................58
5. APPRAISAL .....................................................................................................58
5.1. Identifying the funding programme ......................................................59
5.2. Identifying the resources .........................................................................61
5.2.1. Internal resources: ........................................................................62
5.2.2. External Resources:.......................................................................62
5.3. Developing the project proposal.............................................................63
5.4. Correlation: Objectives Activities Results.......................................65
5.5. Project time frame: the Gantt chart.........................................................69
5.6. Developing the Financial plan correlating activities with financing
............................................................................................................................71
6. FINANCING....................................................................................................75
6.1. Contracting.................................................................................................76
6.2. Project financing criteria..........................................................................78
7. IMPLEMENTATION......................................................................................79
7.1. Monitoring.................................................................................................80
7.2. Reporting....................................................................................................83
8. PROJECT EVALUATION: EXTERNAL EVALUATION AND AUDIT...84
9. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................86
10. RESOURCES & LINKS.................................................................................87
Tools for Project-Based School Management...... 88
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................89
2. TERMINOLOGY.............................................................................................90
3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS............................................................91
3.1. SWOT Analysis.........................................................................................93
3.2. PEST Analysis ...........................................................................................96
3.3. Managing Stakeholders ...........................................................................98
3.4. Logical Framework Approach...............................................................100
3.5. PERT Chart ..............................................................................................104
3.6. GANTT Charts .........................................................................................105
4. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY................................................................105
5. CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................106
6. RESOURCES & LINKS.................................................................................107
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Management Theories and School Management
Styles.................................................................................. 108
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................109
2. TERMINOLOGY...........................................................................................110
3. MANAGEMENT THEORIES........................................................................110
3.1 Scientific Management Theory..............................................................110
3.2. Human Relations Theories..................................................................111
4. LEADERSHIP STYLES.................................................................................114
4.1. Transformational and Transactional Leadership ...............................114
4.2. Total Quality Management....................................................................115
4.3. Servant Leadership.................................................................................117
4.4. Situational Leadership...........................................................................118
4.5. Instructional Leadership........................................................................119
5. COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................120
6. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY................................................................123
7. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................124
8. RESOURCES & LINKS.................................................................................124
Methods of Quality Management in Schools..... 126
1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................127
1.1. Objectives ................................................................................................127
1.2. Preliminary assignments........................................................................127
2. TERMINOLOGY BASIC CONCEPTS.................................................128
3. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEGRATED QUALITY
MANAGEMENT...............................................................................................129
4. METHODS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT.........................................130
4.1. PDCA Cycle.............................................................................................130
4.2. European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) and
Transnational Institutional Cooperation (TRIS) .......................................134
5. THE SELF EVALUATION PROCESS.........................................................138
6. SELF EVALUATION TOOLS......................................................................141
5.3. Instrument for self evaluation in secondary education (IZES)....141
6.2. Quality plan/Annual Report of Faculty of Social Work and Welfare
Studies of University College Ghent ..........................................................142
6.3. Quality assurance tool PRO-SCHOOL................................................143
7. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY................................................................145
8. CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................145
9. RESOURCES, SUGGESTED READINGS & LINKS................................146
Evaluation of School Effectiveness ...................... 149
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................150
2. TERMINOLOGY BASIC CONCEPTS.....................................................151
3. DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS RESEARCH............151
4. SETTING OUT THE CRITERIA .................................................................153
a. Selection of criteria....................................................................................153
b. Checking quality of selected criteria ......................................................155
c. Operational definition of each criteria/ Defining indicators ...............157
5. CLASSIFICATION OF CRITERIA.............................................................160
6. CONCLUSION................................................................................................163
7. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY..................................................................164
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8. RESOURCES & LINKS....................................................................................164
School Managers and Learning Achievements............ 166
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................167
3. NATIONAL TESTING OF STUDENTS IN EUROPE..............................168
4. SCHOOL MANAGERS and SCHOOL RESULTS....................................170
5. TRAINING METHODOLOGY...................................................................172
5.1. Case study................................................................................................173
5.2 Case Study Grid.......................................................................................174
5.3 Discussion on Best Practices and Guidelines ......................................176
6. PROJECT FORMULATION by USING PBSM.........................................177
In-Service Training Curriculum.................................. 180
PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY AND
TRAINING METHODOLOGY.......................................................................181
EFFECTIVE SCHOOL INDICATORS AND IN-SERVICE TRAINING
NEEDS OF SCHOOL MANAGERS ...............................................................183
LIFECYCLE OF THE PROJECT.......................................................................185
TOOLS FOR PROJECT BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.....................187
MANAGEMENT THEORIES AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT STYLES
..............................................................................................................................190
METHODS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS......................192
EVALUATION OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS..........................................194
SCHOOL MANAGERS AND LEARNING ACHIEVEMENTS..................196
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PREFACE
OPEN MANAGEMENT and THE PROSCHOOL Project
The effective functioning of every institution largely depends on the
quality of its management. This applies to both commercial companies as well
as educational institutions. On the one hand management is a scientific
discipline, which has its own clear rules, but on the other hand leadership is
also the ability to achieve optimal situations in which plans will be realized,
ideas become real forms, and processes will begin to operate.
School management is a specific issue for several reasons. One is that
education is a public good and also a process, which should always be directed
to the achievement of general and specific functions in a particular country. It
should therefore be funded by government and controlled and monitored to
some extent. This specified situation gives a few restrictions, but also the
priorities to school management.
Significant attention is paid to the school management of human
resources. The structure of school personnel in an educational institution
involves very different social and professional structures and consists mainly of
students, teachers and non-pedagogic staff. In terms of the high school
students, the manager of the school needs to deal not only with students of
different ages but also with developmentally the rapidly changing personalities
of students and very often with their parents or their legal representatives. The
pedagogic staff includes not only teachers of both the theoretical and vocational
subjects but also teachers of the practical training (formerly called foremen),
and also preceptors, educational advisors and school psychologists. The non-
teaching staff includes professionals from a wide variety of administrative staff,
from the managers of libraries and study centres, to school canteen workers and
service workers (school porter, cleaners). The most important task of the school
manager is to harmonize this heterogeneous orchestra in order to achieve
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good functioning of the school. Then the school can provide a positive
educational environment, which is crucial for students and staff and other
school members.
One of the most important tools for effective management is the open
management strategy. The principle, which very often rationalizes the
leadership, but sometimes also complicates it, is the involvement of all the
above-mentioned categories of staff in decision-making processes, of course
some staff more, and others less. The top manager the headmaster - has to
cope with this tool skillfully and purposefully, in order to motivate his staff and
encourage cooperation without wasting time with an endless, ineffective, and
unconstructive discussion.
The basic skill is the leaders competence to combine the needs of the
institution with the individual interests of individuals. There are various
managerial techniques and strategies to achieve what is mutually beneficial; the
firmly accountable collaboration of managers with their subordinates. However
the fulfillment of tasks agreed during the cooperation between both sides will
require to be checked by leaders.
An example can be the involvement of staff in the process of self-
education, which contributes to the improvement of the qualification structure
of employees and increases the self-confidence of the individuals and their
value in the labor market.
The educational environment already described will cope with another
essential feature of the institutions, namely When teachers do not educate
themselves, the students do not learn.
If a manager is able to address the issues of effective functioning of the
particular educational institution as demonstrated by a well prepared and
constructed SWOT analysis, with special attention to opportunities and threats,
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there will be opportunities to point out situations which have not been
perceived by others.
For open management, it is also necessary that it operates with a
delegation of authority, which is not often used by managers. They do not have
the courage and strength to delegate competence to others. Of course
monitoring is necessary, but it must have its limits.
In the management structures of high schools there has appeared a new
position that of project manager. For the effective running of a modern
school, these become key players in the management team, because the
institution depends on the existence of projects, time and again.
Also in this case, project managers have to be highly qualified, accurate
and responsible professionals. If the heads and school managers give them
appropriate space, their skills, competencies and outputs will be utilized for the
common development and well being of the school.
Prof. Milan Slavk
Director of the Institute of Education and Communication
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Project-Based School
Management Philosophy and
Training Methodology
Authors:
M. Emin Bakay
Gldan Kalem
Developed by:
Menderes Town National Education Directorate, Izmir, Turkey
1
INTRODUCTION
This methodology is an output of a Comenius Multilateral Project called
PRO-SCHOOL (142320-LLP-1-2008-1-TR-COMENIUS-CMP). The aim of the
project is to develop a new school management methodology based on the
project-based management approach in order to improve effectiveness of high
schools in Europe. This methodology is designed to explain the underlying
principles and philosophy behind project-based school management and to
provide a training manual which is expected to be used in in-service trainings
of school managers in European countries.
The Aim of each training module is explained at the beginning of each
module, however the general aim of this methodology and training modules is
to introduce Project-Based School Management (PBSM) approach to school
managers. In the end, school managers are expected to learn the rationale
behind the PBSM and be able to use this new management approach in their
schools.
We believe that this methodology and accompanying training modules
will be a good source of reference for the academic community who work in
both development of in-service training and the adult education area. It will
also be very useful for high school managers who want to implement project-
based school management in their schools.
Delivering good effective training is a skill which has to be acquired
through a learning process and then developed by experience, irrespective of
the subject matter. Modern training methods focus on the active participation in
the training of trainees, rather than relying on passive listening to an expert. To
use these methods successfully requires an understanding of training
methodology.
This document is therefore designed to help trainers to:
understand the rationale behind the project-based school management,
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identify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which are necessary
for successful project-based management,
understand the importance of ensuring participation in training.
The first part of the document covers information about project, project-
based management and organizations and continues with the rationale behind
the project-based school management. The second part provides a training
methodology for future trainers of school managers and suggests some training
methods.
Definitions of basic concepts:
Project:
1. A project is a work effort made over a finite period of time with a start
and a finish to create a unique product, service, or result. Because a
project has a start and an end, it is also called a temporary effort or
endeavor (Sanghera, 2006:2).
2- A project is a series of activities aimed at bringing about clearly specified
objectives within a defined time-period and with a defined budget (European
Commission, 2004:8).
Project Management:
Project management is the usage of knowledge, skills, and tools to manage a
project from start to finish with the goal of meeting the project requirements
(Sanghera, 2006:3).
Project-Based management:
Project-based management is arrangement of activities within an
organization to achieve its goals. Project-based management promotes
distributed and project-specific responsibilities in the organization.
Project-Based Organization:
A project-based organisation is an organisation, which defines
Management by Projects as an organizational strategy, applies temporary
3
organisations for the performance of complex processes, manages a project
portfolio of different project types, has specific permanent organisations to
provide integrative functions, has an explicit project management culture, and
perceives itself as project-based (Gareis and Huemann, 2000).
Project-Based School Management:
Project Based School Management is characterized by the existence of an
explicit pm-culture, i.e. by a set of pm-related values and norms. In the school
the project management is considered as a process, for which there are specific
procedures and a common understanding of the performance of this process
(Gareis & Huemann, 2000).
Stakeholders:
Any individuals, groups of people, institutions or firms that may have a
relationship with the project are defined as stakeholders. They may directly or
indirectly, positively or negatively affect or be affected by the process and the
outcomes of projects (EC, 2004: 146).
1. PROJECT, PROJECT MANAGEMENT, PROJECT-BASED
ORGANIZATIONS and MANAGEMENT
1.1. Project
A project is an endeavour in which human, financial, and material
resources are organized in a novel way to undertake a unique scope of work, of
given specification, within constraints of cost and time, so as to achieve
beneficial change defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives (Turner,
2009: 2). A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique
product, service, or result. The temporary nature of projects indicates a definite
beginning and end. The end is reached when the projects objectives have been
achieved or when the project is terminated because its objectives will not or
cannot be met, or when the need for the project no longer exists. Temporary
does not necessarily mean short in duration. Temporary does not generally
4
apply to the product, service, or result created by the project; most projects are
undertaken to create lasting outcomes (PMI, 2000:5).
At any organization there are many activities being executed every day.
Most of these activities are organized into groups of interrelated activities.
These groups fall into two categories: projects and operations. An operation is
an ongoing and repetitive set of tasks, whereas a project has a lifecycle a
beginning and an end (Sanghera, 2006:3)
1.2. Project Management
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, and tools to
project activities to meet the project requirements. Project management is
accomplished through use of project cycles such as initiating, planning,
executing, controlling and closing (PMI, 2000:6).
Projects involve a degree of uncertainty. Thus organisations performing
projects usually divide each project into project phases to improve management
and control. Project phases are known as the project cycle.The project cycle
generally defines what technical work should be done in each phase and who
should be involved in each phase (PMI, 2000:12).
The first step in the project cycle is to identify an issue that a project
could address. This usually involves a needs assessment which finds out what
organization needs are. The needs assessment is followed by a capacity
assessment to see what strengths the organization has which it can use to
address its problems. The project should seek to strengthen any weaknesses. It
is important to use the organizations own capacities and resources to address
the problems they face. It is therefore important to carry out a capacity
assessment after needs assessment to identify strengths that the organization
could use to address the problems they identified earlier. The project, if needed,
should focus on strengthening the organizations capacities to address their
5
problems. Once a priority need has been identified, we can start to think about
how it can be addressed.
The second step of the project cycle is stakeholder analysis. Stakeholder
analysis helps to improve the projects understanding of the needs of those
affected by a problem, identify potential winners and losers as a result of the
project, and reduce, or remove, potential negative project impacts. If
stakeholders are not identified at the project planning stage, the project is at risk
of failure. This is because the project cannot take into account the needs and
aims of those who will be affected by it.
The next stage of the project cycle is problem analysis. Before we start to
design the project, we need to analyze the problem identified during project
identification. Problem analysis helps primary stakeholders to identify the
causes and effects of the problems they face.
After the problem analysis, the risk analysis is the next step. Risk is the
potential for unwanted happenings. Every activity involves risks. If they
happen, some risks will affect the activity more than others. Risk assessment
helps to identify them and consider the likelihood of them happening and their
likely impact. The risks can then be managed by changing the project plans to
ensure the risks are minimised.
The next step is the action planning. Action planning includes the details
of how the project will take shape in terms of timing, resources, budgeting and
personnel. This is done by activity plan. The activity planning is to help us
consider; who will do what, when this will happen and what types of inputs,
besides people, will be needed.
The next project cycle phase is budgeting. A budget is necessary for
transparent financial management. After all these steps, the project
implementation and evaluation phases start. It is important to measure our
performance during the project. Evaluation provides accountability which
6
shows that we are using the resources wisely. By measuring, analysing and
reflecting on our performance, we can learn lessons that will enable us to either
change our project plans or change our approach to other projects. By using
indicators to measure progress, we will know whether or not we have achieved
our objectives (Blackman, 2003).
All of these project cycle phases will be explained in detail in the
following modules.
1.3. History of Project Management
Project management, in its modern form, began to grow only a few
decades ago. Starting in the early 1960s, businesses and other organizations
began to see the benefit of organizing work in project format. This project-
centric view of the organization evolved further as organizations began to
understand the critical need for their employees to communicate and
collaborate while integrating their work across multiple departments and
professions and, in some cases, whole industries.
During the early years, in the second half of the nineteenth century,
when the business world was becoming increasingly complex, large-scale
government projects were the impetus for making important decisions that
became the basis for project management methodology.
Near the turn of the twentieth century, Frederick Taylor (18561915)
applied scientific reasoning to work by showing that labour can be analyzed
and improved by focusing on its elementary parts. Before then, the only way to
improve productivity was to demand harder work and longer hours from
workers. Taylor introduced the concept of working more efficiently, rather than
working harder and longer. Taylor's associate, Henry Gantt (18611919),
studied in great detail the order of operations in work. Gantt chart diagrams
proved to be such a powerful analytical tool for managers that they remained
virtually unchanged for almost a hundred years.
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Taylor, Gantt, and others significantly contributed to make project
management a distinct business function that requires study, planning and
discipline. In the next decades, marketing approaches, industrial psychology,
and human relations began to take hold as integral parts of project
management.
During World War II, complex government and military projects and a
shrinking war-time labour supply demanded new organizational structures.
Complex network diagrams (Network Diagram: A diagram that shows
dependencies between project tasks. Tasks are represented by boxes, or nodes,
and task dependencies are represented by lines that connect the boxes. In
Project, the Network Diagram view is a network diagram.), called PERT (PERT
analysis: PERT [Program, Evaluation, and Review Technique] analysis is a
process by which you evaluate a probable outcome based on three scenarios:
best-case, expected-case, and worst-case.) charts and the critical path (critical
path: The series of tasks that must be completed on schedule for a project to
finish on schedule. Each task on the critical path is a critical task.) method were
introduced, giving managers more control over massively engineered and very
complex projects. Soon, these techniques spread to all kinds of industries as
business leaders sought new management strategies and tools to handle their
growth in a quickly changing and competitive world. In the early 1960s,
businesses began to apply general system theories to business interactions.
Today the view of business as a human organism implies that for a
business to survive and prosper, all its functional parts must work in concert
toward specific goals, or projects. While various business models evolved
during this period, they all shared a common underlying structure: a project
manager manages the project, puts together and coordinates a team, and
ensures the integration and communication of the workflow horizontally
across different departments. Over the past ten years, project management has
8
been continuing to evolving and is spreading to different sectors other than
business such as the education sector (Microsoft).
1.4. Project-Based Management?
Global social, economic and technological changes have affected the way
organizations are managed. Companies and business have become more
competitive and flexible to adapt to a constantly changing environment.
Administration of the organizations and management of organizational
activities has also changed. The project-oriented organization is now more
common; project-based management is the new general management; thirty
percent of the global economy is project-based. Project management is now a
skill required of all managers (Turner, 2009:1).
Project-based management is the arrangement of activities within an
organization to achieve specific goals. Project-based management promotes
distributed and project-specific responsibilities in the organization. Projects can
be in many different sizes. There are major projects from engineering or
industry such as water, energy, transport. However the projects with which
most of us are involved are smaller. Projects at work include engineering or
construction projects to build new facilities; maintenance of existing facilities;
implementation of new technologies or computer systems; research,
development, and product launches; or management development or training
programs. Projects from our social lives include moving to a new house; or
going on a holiday.
Project management is about converting vision into reality. We have a
vision of some future state we would like to achieve. Project-based management
is the structured process by which we successfully deliver that future state
(Turner, 2009: 2). The following part briefly explains the basic characteristics of
project-based organizations.
9
1.5. Project-Based Organizations
A Project-based Organisation is an organisation, which defines
Management by Projects as an organizational strategy, applies temporary
organisations for the performance of complex processes, manages a project
portfolio of different project types, has specific permanent organisations to
provide integrative functions, has an explicit project management culture, and
perceives itself as project-based (Gareis and Huemann, 2000).
Project-Based
Organisation
Strategy: Management by projects
Structure: Temporary and
permanent organisations
Culture: Project
management and new
management paradigm
Source: Gareis and Huemann, 2000
Figure 1: Project-Based Organisation
Project-based organisations consider projects not only as tools to perform
complex processes, but as a strategic option for the organizational design of the
company. Management by Projects is the organizational strategy of
companies dealing with an increasingly complex work environment. By
applying Management by Projects the following organizational objectives are
pursued:
Organizational differentiation and decentralization of management
responsibility,
Quality assurance by project team work and holistic project definitions,
Goal orientation and personnel development, and
Organizational learning by projects.
10
Project-based organisations perceive projects and programmes as
temporary organisations for the performance of complex processes. Further, in
a Project-based organisation the application of a New Management Paradigm
is required. Traditional management approaches are emphasizing detailed
planning methods, focusing on the assignment of clear defined work packages
to individuals, relying on contractual agreements with clients and suppliers and
using the hierarchy as central integration instrument.
Compared with this traditional management approach the major
concepts common to new management paradigm are;
Consideration of organisation as competitive advantage,
Empowerment of employees,
Process-orientation,
Team work in flat organisations,
Continuous organizational change,
Customer-orientation, and
Networking with clients and suppliers (Gareis, 2001).
2. A NEW APPROACH TO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT:
PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
2.1. Why Project-Based School Management?
Changing, evolving, globalizing and complex business and economic
conditions are strongly affecting schools. Schools have to keep pace with the
changing world in order to survive. Many countries are now looking for new
ways to improve their education system and the success of their students.
School managers play a vital role in setting the direction for successful schools.
Schools are also becoming Project-based organisations because of these global
changes. There are many projects running in schools and each project is run by
a temporary organization. The main problem is that there are no defined
procedures to manage these organizations in schools. By applying PBSM
11
approach to rearrange structure of organization schools will become more
effective organizations.
When we closely examine educational systems, we can see that schools
have to carry out many projects besides their routine tasks. These projects are
sometimes their own projects, and sometimes projects of ministries,
governorates, local authorities and NGOs. Schools use their own human and
material resources for these projects. Management of these projects along with
regular activities and responsibilities of schools creates serious problems most
of the time. Working for these projects creates extra workload for managers and
school personnel in addition to their routine tasks. Many project teams are
established just for the implementation of these projects, for a limited time
period. However, cooperation and coordination between these teams can not be
successfully achieved in many cases. Lack of coordination and connection
between projects and schools objectives not only creates extra workload but
also causes diversion in achieving educational objectives. For example, in
Turkey schools carry out projects about subjects such as reducing violence in
schools, energy-saving, disability awareness, scientific project fairs, arts
and sports projects etc., meanwhile teachers have to continue their usual
teaching activities and administrative tasks. This situation does not differ much
in other European countries. In none of the partner countries do specifically
trained school personnel on project management exist except for Belgium.
There is also no formal structure to maintain coordination among projects
within schools.
A project team has to be established for each project; however most of
the time none of the team members has any project management training or
background. Furthermore, while all these projects are carried out by teachers, in
most of the cases they do not get any motivating awards or payment for their
extra workload. For example in Turkey, Romania and Greece school managers
and teachers do not get any extra payment or reduced hours in exchange for
their extra workload. Among the partner countries, only in Belgium and Italy
do teachers get reduced working hours and extra payment in exchange for
12
project work. Even if teachers and managers are willing to carry out such
projects, it is hard for them to manage projects effectively and in accordance
with the schools objectives since they do not have the necessary project
management qualifications. These multitudinous projects which are not
associated with the schools objectives are not good either for schools or for
projects. While these projects cause excessive workload, the lack of coordination
and project management skills creates unsuccessful projects. In the long run,
this situation disrupts the schools work discipline and causes failure of
projects.
School managers generally complain about the number of projects they
have to deal with and the difficulty of coordinating them. Thus, it is very
important to provide school managers good project management skills to
achieve successful projects. In order to overcome these kinds of difficulties and
put an end to the chaos in schools, the project-based school management
method is created. The application of this method will enable schools to manage
these complex processes and achieve successful results. Project-based school
management is created in order to assure more regular and systematic
structures of the processes which already exist within schools.
2.2. Project-Based School Management Model
Project-based school management is the adaptation of project
management approach to school management. It is difficult to monitor
activities in educational organisations because most of the objectives are general
and difficult to measure. The Project-Based School Management (PBSM)
method can be widely used as a mean of improving schools. By using project-
based management school managers will be able to consider all dimensions of
schools. School activities and development plans will become more traceable
and measurable. PBSM will help school managers in monitoring and assessing
the processes within the school. Using PBSM in school management activities
will help managers to: 1) clarify the purposes and current situation, 2) clearly
13
define the key elements 3) facilitate communication between all parties
involved 4) identify how the success or failure of schools should be measured.
Within every school there are permanent structures which are necessary
for the realization of schools vital functions. These permanent structures are
the formal side of schools and they are necessary for continuity of the school's
main functions. School managers and other administrative staff, teachers,
students and other school personnel are part of these permanent structures. The
routine operations of the schools are carried out by these permanent structures.
However there are other temporary structures exist within schools. These
temporary structures are usually put together to perform certain tasks
(projects). As described in previous sections, in order to deal with the complex
structure of the schools, the organizational structure and relations between
these units in schools can be organized as shown in the following figure:
Manager
DeputyManagers
Teachers
Students
Staff
Project A
Project
Manager
Project B
Project
Manager
Project C
Project
Manager
Project D
Project
Manager
Parents
Market
NGOs
Etc.
Permanent Organization
TemporaryOrganizations
Stakeholders
Figure 2: Project-Based School Management Model
(Developed by M. Emin Bakay adapted from Gareis & Huemann, 2000)
The temporary structures are the group of people and resources which
put together in order to achive certain projects. For each project, the temporary
structures should gain a formal status as permanent structures. Otherwise,
14
coordination, management and control of the activities and achievement of the
objectives of the school become difficult. Project-Based School Management
provides this coordination and control.
Project-based management enables school managers to achieve more
effective resource, time, quality, and risk management in their schools. The
project-based management approach also help school managers to identify
problems and stakeholders more clearly. This helps them improve schools with
the participation, support and commitment of all parties.
In the following section, the management processes in project-based
schools will be discussed. Based on Fayols management theory, the functions
of project-based school management can be explained as follows:
I- Planning: Planning means examine the future and drawing up plans
of action.
Objectives: the strategic planning method should be used in determining
the school's objectives and the planning process should include all stakeholders
and senior management.
Plans: Schools short, medium and long term plans should be prepared
with the active participation and contribution of all stakeholders.
Decision-making: Decision-making process should be participatory and
school managers should distribute some portion of the administrative
powers/authority. In schools, teachers must be trained as project managers,
and project managers should take active role in decision-making.
II- Organizing: Building up the structure, material and human resources
to achieve the objectives.
The organizational structure is presented in above chart. The most
important aspect is to give a formal status to temporary units. It is also
important to compensate project managers and team members according to
their effort and time spent in project activities.
15
III- Commanding: Commanding means maintain activity among the
personnel.
Leadership: It is very important to assume leadership role for school
managers in project-based schools. School managers should maintain a
democratic leadership. Project managers should also be trained as leaders in
order to achieve successful management of the projects. Project managers
should have necessary leadership skills. Leadership styles will be explained in
the following modules.
Motivation: Gaining project manager status improves motivation and job
satisfaction of teachers. Furthermore, the power, authority and competences
gained through project manager status and extra payments also affect the
motivation and the organizational commitment.
Communication: The communication between each project manager will
be horizontal which creates more effective communication.
IV- Coordinating: Coordinating means binding together, unifying and
harmonizing activity and effort.
One of the most important jobs of school manager is to create an
environment which enables the coordination and cooperation among
independently functioning project teams. In order to create this efficient
environment, project managers should meet regularly, inform other project
managers about their own projects, cooperate and work together when
necessary.
V- Controlling: Controlling means seeing that everything is occurring in
conformity with the policy and the practice.
School manager should monitor and control the milestones and activities
of each project and create a controlling and evaluation system. More detailed
information about controlling and monitoring can be found in the Evaluation
module.
16
2.3. Key Management Skills for Project Based Management
General management skills provide a foundation for project based
management skills. However there are other important skills which are
required achieving successful project-based management such as leading,
communicating, negotiating, problem solving, and influencing the organisation
(PMI, 2000:21-24).
Organizational
Learning
Individual
Organization Team
Individual
Learning
Team
Learning
Source: Gareis and Huemann, 2000
Figure 3: Team and Organizational Learning Process in the Project-Based
Organizations
The PBSM is also a tool for organizational learning. During the
organizational learning process individual learning and organizational learning
occurs simultaneously. When organizing and implementing a project there are
some factors needs to be considered by project managers:
Obtaining cooperation: Cooperation of the all parties involved and
stakeholders is necessary for successful projects.
Ensuring resources are available when required: Successful completion of
project activities relies on availability of resources on time.
Defining management responsibility: When defining roles in the project
consider both work and management roles, because usually
management roles cause delays in the process. Define who will do what
and who will make the decisions.
Ensuring good communication: Project manager must define who needs
what kind of information. Channels of communication into a project
must be clearly defined and limited (Turner, 2009).
17
Turner (2009: 93) identifies seven traits of effective project leaders:
Problem solving: The purpose of every project is to solve a problem for the
organization. But also projects entail risk, and so during every project
managers are highly likely to encounter problems. Project managers
must be able to solve them.
Results orientation. Projects are about delivering beneficial change. Thus
project managers need to be focused on the results of their project.
Self-confidence. This is part of the emotional intelligence of project
managers. They must believe in themselves and their ability to deliver.
Perspective. Project managers must keep their projects in perspective.
Communication. The project manager must be able to talk to everybody
from the managing director down to the janitor. Sometimes the janitor
knows more about project progress than anybody else.
Negotiating ability. Project planning is a constant process of negotiation.
Project manager asks people to work for the project. Project manager
must convince them that it is worthwhile and beneficial for them to do
that.
Energy and initiative. When the project gets into trouble, the project
manager must be able to lift everybody else onto their back and get them
out of the hole.
Many other management skills can be added to this list, however it is
important to bear in mind that management skills can be improved by
training and practice.
3. TRAINING METHODOLOGY for PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT
The following part of the document provides brief information on basics
of adult training and gives concise explanation of some well-known training
methods.
18
3.1. Adult Learning Principles
Andragogy is the science of teaching adults. It takes into account that
adults have already acquired knowledge and experience. In andragogy, the
importance of building on already existing knowledge and skills is the main
focus. Adults want to be involved in identifying learning needs. As training
mostly takes place in the professional life of an adult, he/she will be interested
in practical results and knowledge that can be applied immediately.
In order to activate and build on already existing knowledge, the trainer
should make an enquiry as to what the trainees already know, what their
experience is, what problems they encounter, what they would like to learn. To
ensure active contribution, the trainer should allow them to speak, ask
questions, discuss, do something practical, and not just make them listen.
Participation enhances the value of training for learners.
Learners will be more involved in training when they can see the
relevance of the training and the opportunity to apply the training in practice.
But training is not only about exploring and absorbing new knowledge but also
about digesting it. Therefore the trainer must include something into the
training programme to ensure digestion of the new theory presented, for
example role play or case study.
To transfer theoretical knowledge, presentations are the most obvious
technique. However, lectures will never be sufficient: interaction and sharing
what is already there will help people who are not into listening to abstract
theory. Case studies and role playing can be carried out to train on practical
skills, diges information or test new situations. In order to change attitudes and
perceptions, exercises or discussions that will touch on feelings and opinions
should be included. Discussion is also an important tool for giving guidance
and introducing new concepts in a way that is acceptable for the trainees
(Adapted and summarized from Council of Europe, Training Manual on
European Convention of Human Rights).
19
3.2. The Role of the Trainer
In small group teaching situations, the role of the trainer is that of
facilitator of learning: leading discussions, asking open-ended questions,
guiding process and task, and enabling active participation of learners and
engagement with ideas. However, small groups function and behave in various
ways and have different purposes. Trainers therefore need to be able to adopt a
range of roles and skills to suit specific situations (London Deanery). Therefore
adult learning principles are important for trainer or training facilitator. If the
trainer uses adult learning principles both to develop training designs and to
facilitate groups, it will increase the likelihood that adult learners will learn, be
committed to the groups goals, and generate more solutions to problems.
Trainers should focus on the following eight adult learning principles to
evaluate if they are applied to their workshop design:
Focus on real world problems.
Emphasize how group members can apply what happens in the group.
Relate the group activities to member goals.
Relate the materials to their past experiences.
Allow debate and challenge of ideas.
Listen to and respect the opinions of group members.
Encourage members to share resources.
Treat everyone in an adult-like manner (Hart and Crisps, 1991:22).
Making the shift from trainer as expert to facilitator is sometimes seen as
diminishing a trainers power and authority, but this should not be the case.
Facilitating learning is empowering for both the learner and the trainer and
frees the trainer from many of the burdens that having to be an expert might
entail. It would traditionally have been seen as a weakness for a trainer to say I
dont know, lets find out or I dont know, do any of you students know the
answer? but every field of science is changing so rapidly that no one can know
everything (London Deanery). Therefore, it is important to facilitate group
learning using adult learning principles and using appropriate training
methods.
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3.3. Suggested Training Methods
Establishing clear aims and learning outcomes and making sure these
are communicated to trainees - is of considerable assistance to trainers in
determining their choice of training techniques or formats. Some methods are
more effective than others in achieving particular objectives and some
techniques are more resource-efficient than others. It is important to remember
that the acquisition of knowledge is different from the acquisition of skills. It is
generally accepted that:
People acquire skills:
10% by hearing
25% by seeing
65% by doing
People acquire knowledge:
10% by doing
15% by hearing
75% by seeing
There is another key reason for ensuring careful choice of method:
variety in training method keeps learners interested. In short, in planning
training sessions, not only the provision of knowledge, but also addressing the
acquisition of skills allowing application of project-based management concepts
should be considered.
The following part of the methodology contains useful information on
facilitating group work during the training of school managers. Trainers may
use one or more of these methods. They may also use other methods according
to characteristics of trainees and availability of time and resources.
3.3.1. Group Work
Learning in groups involves to some extent cooperative or collaborative
learning. Cooperative learning is learning in interaction with other participants.
Group dynamics and group tasks are vital in this learning style. Small groups
21
allow using cooperative learning techniques such as tasks and responsibilities
which should be accomplished together with the other members of the group.
Other elements of cooperative learning are discussion, explanation, exchange of
opinions and asking for help. Participants need safe surroundings to ask
questions or to give their opinion. They feel more at ease in homogeneous
groups and interact more easily with each other, whereas heterogeneous groups
might hamper collaborative learning.
Working with groups requires specific skills of the trainer, in order to
deal with co-operation and communication in a group, to guide the
participants in their learning process and to be a source of information and a
role model in his/her way of thinking and reasoning. Group work can be used
in a variety of situations and for a variety of tasks:
Discussion of a certain topic: Here, the group is asked to discuss a given
topic or topics within a given timescale (usually no more than 60
minutes), and report back to the rest of the group via a spokesperson or
rapporteur (by highlighting the key conclusions of the group, possibly
with the aid of a sheet or flipchart paper).
Discussion of case study: groups may also be asked to discuss realistic
scenarios involving no more than 3 main points (and normally based
upon an earlier presentation in which the key issues have been
highlighted). Again, it is usual for groups to be asked to report back to
whole group session.
Simulation or role-play involves the allocation of a particular role to a
group or sub-group. Participants will then be asked to discharge a task
from this perspective. The simulation exercise may be presented as a
whole at the outset of the problem, or handed out issue by issue as the
exercise progresses to try to replicate the notion of a developing
situation. (Council of Europe).
22
Group membership can be decided at random to provide as wide a
variety of views as possible, or selected according to a chosen criterion, such as
background, or experience. Either way, pre-selection is preferable to allowing
participants to choose their own groups, which can create confusion for
participants. The composition of small groups could remain constant
throughout the event, or be varied each time they are convened. However, it is
important to be aware that of particularly knowledgeable and assertive group
members who may attempt to dominate the discussion and impose their own
views. Reticent group members may need encouragement to participate,
particularly where there are domineering members. Firm facilitation may be
required to prevent discussion wandering off the point and to manage
members who perhaps are reluctant participators and are inclined to be
disruptive.
For these reasons it is important to use trainers who have been trained in
the dynamics of small groups and their management (Judicial Studies Board,
2004).
3.3.2. Case Study
A case study is the presentation of a specific incident, or scenario, with
relevant background information, that is analyzed in detail with a view to the
identification of a solution. It creates the opportunity to understand and apply
principles and rules to a real or imaginary scenario. Case studies are intended
to raise questions and allow participants to work through the decision-making
process to find their preferred solutions (Judicial Studies Board, 2004: 45). The
case study simulates reality, draws upon participants experiences and
knowledge, involves them more actively in the learning process and forces
them to apply theory to practice. Usually, the trainer prepares the case study;
however, participants may be involved in determining the content (Hart and
Crisp, 1991: 67).
23
The following guidelines may help conducting a case study:
Trainer should review sources for an appropriate case study that fits
training objectives. As needed, the details of the case study should be
adapted or written a case that fits participants problems.
The participants should be divided into groups of four to six.
The purpose of using a case study should be explained and the directions
should be given beforehand.
Individuals follow the directions, read each case and rank the alternative
responses.
In small groups, participants hold a discussion of their rankings. Trainer
may want them to reach consensus on a group ranking or only hold a
discussion on their rationale for their rankings.
In the end the trainer should conduct a discussion with the total group,
polling information from each group, perhaps tallying group rankings
on the flipchart. The trainer should tie questions to the objectives of the
training (Hart and Crisp, 1991:73).
3.3.3. Discussion
Discussion is probably the most frequently used method by trainers,
however, it isnt easy. The art of questioning takes lots of preparation and
practice. Discussions between the trainer and participants and those among
participants are a useful experience because the learners can take a more active
role, help to determine more of the content to be discussed, and utilize more of
their senses. Discussions can be grouped under two titles; structured
discussions and free discussions. In structured discussions, trainer prepares a
list of questions to be discussed based on defined objectives for holding this
discussion. The content is more carefully controlled by the questions asked. In
free discussions, the trainer announces the purpose of the discussion, explain
ground-rules and carefully monitor the process. Here the participants take
more control of the content of the discussion (Hart and Crisp, 1991: 63).
24
3.3.4. Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a popular tool that helps trainees generate creative
solutions to a problem. It is particularly useful when a trainer wants to break
out of established patterns of thinking, so new ways of looking at things can be
developed. Used with a team, it helps to bring the diverse experience of all
team members into play during problem solving. This increases the richness of
ideas explored, meaning that better solutions can be found to the problem
(Mindtools).
Brainstorming is a creative and cost-effective tool. It requires no more
than a flipchart and some thick marker pens. Brainstorming is based on the
principle that it is possible to generate more ideas collectively than the sum of
the ideas that would be produced individually, as interaction enables one
member to trigger new ideas in another. The trainer asks a question, adresses a
problem or topic to the group and records the responses on the flipchart.
Alternatively, each participant could record their ideas on Post-it notes, which
can then be displayed collectively; this enables individual contributions to be
evaluated and categorized afterwards.
Brainstorming works best when members of the group are expressly
invited to call out the first thing that comes into their heads. Those who are
willing to do this may be less inhibited and will come up with ideas and
suggestions that can be full of insight and that may not have been reached by
way of a more rational, logical approach. Individual ideas are initially
committed to paper without analysis. The contributions are then evaluated by
the whole group or taken into smaller groups to be used as prompts or catalysts
for discussion. They can also be hung on the wall of the main training room and
used throughout the remainder of the course as a focus for reflection and
review.
25
The trainer should be aware of the fact that the session may need to be
facilitated with firmness in order to overcome the temptation to pass judgment
on ideas as soon as they are revealed. Some participants may be inhibited by
concerns about having their ideas ridiculed (Judicial Studies Board, 2004).
3.3.5. Role play
Role plays are another hands-on method for simulating real life. Role-
play is a means of demonstrating or acting out a scenario whose content is
relevant to a particular learning outcome, to provide a context for evaluation
and discussion. The role play enacts an event (case) and gives participants a
chance to re-examine their behaviour. It allows them the opportunity to practice
and experiment with new behaviours, to emphasize different iewpoints, and to
receive feedback on their behaviour. A role play draws upon the participants
experiences and knowledge and forces them to apply theory to practice (Hart
and Crisp, 1991: 78).
Role plays may be scripted or unscripted. The scripted role-play is of
particular value to observers as it constitutes, in effect, a case study brought to
life. The unscripted role-play can be used to confront participants with a
situation similar to one they would probably encounter in real life. Usually,
role-play will involve two or more participants who are given some briefing
beforehand, although the briefings will not be identical. The purpose should be
to give the participant the opportunity to experience, in a safe and supportive
context, something that they would be likely to experience in their work
(Judicial Studies Board, 2004: 47).
3.3.6. Icebreakers
Icebreakers are valuable short exercises that can be given to participants
at the beginning of a training event to enable them to feel more at ease and to
get to know each other quickly before the main work of the training begins.
They also enable the trainer and facilitators to identify members of the group
(Judicial Studies Board, 2004: 45).
26
Getting a workshop off on the right foot is essential. Using structured
activities at the beginning of the training design ensures that the participants
get involved right away, increases their energy and interest, and perhaps gives
an early introduction to a key idea or skill that will be developed later.
Icebreakers actively involve participants they enjoy these hands on
experiences (Hart and Crisp, 1991). There are many small games and activities
to use as icebreakers. These games are widely available in training handbooks.
The trainer may also create his/her own games.
3.3.7. Buzzgroups
Buzz groups are small groups two or three people who are asked to
discuss a particular topic and then report back. They are by their very nature
informal and it is usually enough to ask participants to discuss the topic with
the person next to them. This is a useful method to have available where it is
not appropriate to break from big group to undertake a full-scale small-group
exercise and can be effectively used with larger groups to maintain
concentration.
Buzz groups should be given a clear, straightforward topic to address
and allowed five minutes at the maximum or until such time as the buzz of
conversation has died down. They are particularly effective in the early stages
of a training course when participants may still be experiencing some
inhibitions. After the discussion, a selected number of groups can be asked to
feed back to the whole group so that views or thoughts can be shared and,
where appropriate, this may be recorded on a flipchart. The trainer should be
aware of that unclear directions will lead to unfocused discussion and that if
too much time is allocated to the discussion participants may lose interest and
become bored (Judicial Studies Board, 2004).
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3.4. Evaluation of Training
Evaluation means a system of judging the benefit of teaching or training
to participants. Training is always done with specific objectives. With more time
and money spent on designing training programmes, training organizers would
need to ensure its success. Hence, evaluation of training is very important.
The most commonly used evaluation model is Kirkpatricks four level of
evaluation model. Kirkpatricks framework suggests that it is useful to look at
evaluation in four stages. These are usually described as Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Each succeeding level builds on information obtained at the preceding stage to
build a full picture:
Level 1: Reaction Level 1 is about the event. This level looks at what is
happening during and at the end of an event. This level is really about how the
participants enjoyed it and found it useful. Participants are evaluating the
teaching, not the learning. To a large extent, they are evaluating the trainer. At
Level 1, trainees asked for opinions on areas such as: Did you enjoy it? Was it
useful? What do you think you have learnt? What comments do you have on
the tutor(s)? How was the level of participation for you? What did you feel
about the training methods? What do you think of the venue? How did you feel
about the joining instructions? This type of evaluation is inexpensive and easy
to administer using interaction with the participants, paper forms and online
forms.
Level 2: Personal learning Level 2 is about learning. It happens during the
event, at the end and sometimes immediately after it. Essentially, Level 2 moves
from whether or not people have enjoyed the event (Level 1) to whether they
believe they have learnt from it. The formal way to assess learning is to apply
some kind of test of achievement. Can participants now do something they
couldnt do before? Level 2 evaluation methods range from self-assessment to
team assessment to informal to formal assessment.
28
Level 3: Applied learning At Level 3 the longer term results are looked at.
Can people actually transfer what they have learnt to the real world? Do their
knowledge and skill stay with them after the course is over? Was there some
kind of measurable change in what they can do? Could this person reliably
train someone else in the skills they have now acquired? Individual pre- and
post-training tests or surveys, face-to-face interviews, observations and
feedback from others, or focus groups to gather information and share
knowledge can be used as evaluation tools at this level.
Level 4: Results At this level, the longest-term impact on peoples lives,
and in work settings, on the organization is looked at. This kind of evaluation is
rarely attempted because it is difficult, if not impossible, to disentangle the
effects of learning from many other factors (Rogers, 2007).
Evaluation is an important part of the trainings no matter what
methodology or tool is used. Evaluation helps improving the content and
process of training as well as trainers themselves. It is important to remember
that evaluating the elements of the training course itself gives little about
whether the trainee will apply what theyve learnt back in the schools. Using
behaviour based training methods where the trainees work on real situations
will boost their self-efficacythat is, increase their belief that they will be able
to use a particular influencing style in a particular situation back in their
schools.
3.5. Sample Activities and Introductory Questions for Trainers
The following sample introductory questions can be asked before the
PBSM subject introduced:
Introductory Questions:
Give an example of an activity which you routinely do in your schools.
Give an example of an activity of your school which is not routinely
performed.
29
Before introducing the subject on key management skills following
sample introductory questions can be asked:
The following three sample activity can be used before or after related
subjects are introduced:
Activity-1: Needs Assessment
Think of an area which needs to be improved in your school. What is the
problem? Are there any other related problems? Write down the main problem
and list all related problems under it according to their relations with each
other. Change your problem statement into a positive sentence which will be
the objective of your project.
WARNING: In real situations, when defining problem do not forget to ask the
opinions of the stakeholders who are directly affected by the problem.
Activity -2: Capacity Assessment
Think of the problem which you identified in Activity-1 and make a scaling
grid which shows capacity of your school in terms of following aspects.
Management
Human resources (knowledge, skills & motivation)
Infrastructure (physical/technological, etc)
Financial resources
Relationship with environment (partnership, networking, etc)
Activity- 3: Management Skills & Competences
List the skills and competences of effective project managers (your opinion)
Personal Competences:
Social competences: ...
Managerial competences:
Introductory Questions:
Which management skills do you think school managers need to apply
project-based management?
Is there any in-service training courses offered in your country about
project management?
30
4. CONCLUSION
This methodology covered the project-based management, project-based
school management approach and training methodology for in-service training
of school managers. As stated earlier a project is a series of activities aimed to
achieve clearly specified objectives within a defined time-period and with a
defined budget. Project management is the usage of knowledge, skills, and tools
to manage a project from start to finish with the goal of meeting the project
requirements. Project-based management is arrangement of activities within an
organization to achieve its goals. The Project-based School Management
approach uses project portfolio management within the schools in order to
coordinate and successfully complete various complex tasks (projects).
The social, economic and technological developments have affected in
many sectors as well as education. Many countries are now looking for new
ways to improve their educational systems. Schools are now becoming project-
based organisations since project-based management enables school managers
to achieve more effective resource, time, quality, and risk management in
schools.
In conclusion it is important for school managers to learn what project is,
how they are managed. This new project-based school management approach
will help them achieve educational objectives more effectively and increase
their schools success.
5. RESOURCES & LINKS
Blackman, R. (2003). Project Cycle Management. Teddington, UK: Tearfund.
Council of Europe: Training Manual on European Convention of Human Rights
http://www.coehelp.org/course/view.php?id=47
European Commission (2004). Project Cycle Management Guidelines.
EuropeAid Cooperation Office, Vol.1.
31
Gareis, R. (2001). Competences in the Project-oriented Organization.
Projektmanagement Group, University of Economics and Business
Administration, Vienna. http://www.wu.ac.at/pmg/fs/pub/cpoo.pdf
Gareis, R, and Huemann, M. (2000). Project Management Competences in
Project-Oriented Organization. University of Economics and Business
Administration Vienna Projektmanagement Group, Franz Klein-Gasse 1,
A-1190 Vienna, Austria.
http://www.pm4dev.com/documents/links/Links-
4/Project_Management_Competencies-PMA.pdf
Hart, Lois B. and Crisp, Michael G. (Eds). (1991). Training Methods That Work :
A Handbook for Trainers. Menlo Park, CA, USA: Course Technology
Crisp, 1991. p 63.
Judicial Studies Board (2004). The Tribunal Training Handbook of the Judicial
Studies Board of England and Wales
http://www.jsboard.co.uk/downloads/handbook_070105.pdf
Kodama, M. (2007). Project-Based Organization in the Knowledge-Based
Society. London: Imperial College Press.
London Deanery, Faculty Development: The Role of the Teacher
http://www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/small-group-
teaching/the-role-of-the-teacher
Microsoft Office: A Quick History of Project Management
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/project/HA011353421033.aspx
Mindtools, Essential Skills for Excellent Career: Brainstorming
http://www.mindtools.com/brainstm.html
Project Management Institute (2000). A Guide to the Project Management Body
of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). Pennsylvania:Project Management
Institute Inc.
Rogers, Jenny. (2007). Adults Learning (5th Edition). Buckingham, , GBR: Open
University Press.
Sanghera, P. (2006). PMP in Depth: Project Management Professional Study
Guide for PMP and CAPM Exams Course PTR Development Staff.
Course Technology, Incorporated.
Turner, R.J. (2009). Handbook of Project-Based Management, Leading Strategic
Change in Organisations. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. London.
32
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Training Modules
Developed by:
Menderes Town National Education Directorate Izmir, Turkey
Country School Inspectorate, Brasov, Romania
Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
University of the Peloponnese, Greece
Institute of Education and Communication,
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
Faculty of Teacher Training and Faculty of Social Work and Welfare
Studies, University College Ghent, Belgium
ANSAS National Agency for the Development of School Autonomy
Lombardia, Italy
33
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Effective School Indicators and In-Service
Training Needs of School Managers
Authors:
M. Emin BAKAY
Gldan KALEM
Developed by:
Menderes Town National Education Directorate Izmir, Turkey
34
1. INTRODUCTION
The PRO-SCHOOL is a Comenius Multilateral Project started in
December 2008 with the aim of developing a new management approach in
order to improve the effectiveness of schools in Europe. Effectiveness can be
defined as the extent to which actual performance compares with targeted
performance (Oxford Dictionary). Partners from six countries (Belgium, Czech
Republic, Greece, Italy, Romania and Turkey) conducted a preliminary case
study research in order to find out about the school managers, teachers and
parents opinions on school effectiveness. The results of this research are limited
to the case study countries and cannot be generalized to the entire Europe;
however we believe that the results can at least shed light on the school
effectiveness indicators according to perceptions of managers, teachers and
parents.
The aims of this chapter are to give brief information about the PRO-
SCHOOL project, to give a picture of effective school indicators according to
perceptions of high school managers, teachers and parents from partner
countries, to share the in-service training needs of school managers and to
disseminate the project outputs with target groups.
2. PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT PROJECT
2.1. Summary of the Project
Schools have to change in order to adapt themselves to a changing
environment and to prepare students for a knowledge based society. However
some schools are losing students because they are considered unsuccessful by
parents and society. It is a well-known fact that school managers who are
capable of adapting schools to a changing environment and who are equipped
with good leadership skills are the main components of an effective school.
Increased management abilities of school managers will improve the
effectiveness of schools. Effective schools will produce more successful
students. Successful students will be a contribution to society.
35
In this project by adapting Project Based Management to school
management a new school management method is developed. The project
based management method has been widely used and its success has been
proved. By adapting this method into school management, schools will be
improved, they will become more effective and successful.
2.2. Aims and objectives of the PRO-SCHOOL project
The aims of this project are to develop a school management
methodology which is applicable to high schools in all partner countries and to
improve the effectiveness of schools according to the demands of the
knowledge-based society.
The concrete objectives are:
1. To provide a new management methodology for school managers to
improve their management skills and competences.
2. To develop innovative methods and materials for school management.
3. To contribute and support the implementation of in-service training
methods and practices for school managers.
4. To highlight and disseminate examples of best practices in school
management across Europe and the project results as well.
In order to achieve these objectives and to address the specific needs of
the target groups, the partners first conducted a research on indicators of
effective schools in terms of school managers, parents and teachers between
February and June 2009. Through the research, the partnership investigated the
in-service training needs of the target groups. According to the research results
a new school management method has been developed. Educational materials
developed during the project include a training curriculum for the target
groups (school managers and management staff). In all partner countries, local
training sessions are organized and 90 school managers participated in these
activities. During local training sessions, the effectiveness of the educational
materials are tested. In the end, the results will be exploited in the Comenius in-
36
service training course involving at least 20 school managers at 26 September -1
October 2010 in Izmir Turkey. All materials produced during the project life
cycle are available on www.pro-school.eu web page. Project outputs are
prepared in 7 languages (English, Turkish, Romanian, Italian, Czech, Dutch and
Greek).
3. EFFECTIVE SCHOOL INDICATORS and IN-SERVICE TRAINING
NEEDS OF SCHOOL MANAGERS IN SOME EU COUNTRIES
3.1. Aim of the Research
The aim of the research is to conduct a comparative analysis of effective
school indicators in order to identify best practices at national and trans-
national level and to obtain a clearer picture of the target group needs and
expectations.
We intended to answer two important questions:
1. What are the effectiveness indicators of the schools in each
participating countries in terms of managers, teachers and parents?
2. What are the in-service training needs of school managers in each
participating country?
3.2. Methodology
The research has two main stages. In the first stage a report template is
prepared and filled out by partners. This report template is covered: the
structure of national education system; a classification of high schools; the
number of secondary schools, classes and students; a list of theoretical and
methodological references related with school effectiveness; a list of indicators
used for the evaluation of schools and school managers. At the end of first stage
a list of effective school indicators is created. Total 219 indicators are listed in
six main dimensions. The dimensions were:
37
1. Physical conditions
2. Management and planning
3. Education and training
4. Social life
5. Financial aspects
6. Relations with environment.
The indicators are grouped in 23 sub-dimensions (see Table-1 for sub-
dimensions) A questionnaire consists of those 23 sub-dimension developed to
measure the importance of indicators according to managers, teachers and
parents. The questionnaire for teachers and parents consists of two parts. The
first part consist of personal data (gender, age, years of experience, level of
education) and the second part is represented by the 1-5 scale questionnaire.
The means are evaluated as;
Unimportant : 1.00-1.79
Of Little importance : 1.80-2.59
Moderately important : 2.60-3.39
Important : 3.40-4.19
Very important : 4.20-5.00
Example 1:
Indicator
Importance
(1 = not important :
5 = maximum importance)
Infrastructure, classes and laboratories (adequacy of
school in terms of classes, buildings, activity rooms,
conference halls, laboratories and auxiliary areas).
1 2 3 4 5
The questionnaires were used to measure the perceptions of parents,
teachers and school managers about school effectiveness indicators. A total of
234 managers, 368 teachers and 343 parents completed the questionnaires.
Another part was used to find out about the in-service training needs of school
managers. This part is added to the questionnaire for school managers.
38
Example 2:
Areas Explanation Do you need in-service
training in this area?
1.Physical
conditions
How to improve the infrastructure,
hygiene, safety and security systems
of the school?
Yes No
3.3. Findings
a) Personal Data
Regarding personal data of school managers, there was difference
between the high number of female manager group in Romania, to an almost
balanced sample in Belgium, to a strong male prevalence in Italy that is even
higher in Greece, the Czech Republic and Turkey.
Samples also differ in age distribution. It is interesting to underline that
the younger national groups are the Turkish and the Czech Republic, followed
by Belgium and Romania. The older groups are the Greek and the Italian ones,
whose largest part is composed of managers over fifty years old.
The differences in educational levels are interesting, too. All managers in
the Czech Republic have an MA degree or higher education level. Most of the
managers from Belgium and Italy have an MA degree or higher education,
while a small percent have a BA degree. Lower degrees of education are
observed in Turkey and Greece. The Romanian group is the only one that
includes some managers without any university degree.
b) Effective school indicators
In the first stage of research the effective school indicators derived from
national reports collected and listed below.
39
Table 1: Effective School Indicators
Dimensi
on
Summary Indicators
N of
national
indicators
synthesize
d
Hygiene, safety and security system
(hygiene standards, health-policy, medical care, precautions
in case of a fire or natural disasters, youth protection, safety
and security of work environment)
10
Infrastructure, classes and laboratories
(adequacy of school in terms of classes, buildings, activity
rooms, conference halls, laboratories and auxiliary areas)
11
ICT and the Internet
(adequacy of ITC equipment, computer network and
internet connection, availability of Internet access for
students and staff)
3
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
Documentation
(development of the school library, up-to-date books,
information and documentation resources)
3
Quality system
(existence, structure, content and standardization of
projective documents and procedures, organizational chart,
job descriptions, data management and quality indexes)
7
Effectiveness of school operations
(sufficiency of teachers for all disciplines, didactic
continuity, transfers and shifts, number of students in
relation to teachers and potential students)
13
Curricular offer
(school time in relation to needs of society, number and
kind of lesson hours)
5
Extra-curricular offer
(extra training courses, activities outside school time and
outside school)
4
Staff and human resources management (carrying out the
management of teaching and non-teaching staff -
recruitment, selection, work loads, use, motivation, -
development of human capital, competencies and skills)
7
Absenteeism of teachers and staff
(absenteeism rates and short absences)
3
M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
a
n
d
p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g
School climate
(to create a cosy living-and-learning climate within the
school, to care well-being of the staff and of students, to
survey students, families, staffs and other stakeholders
satisfaction)
13
40
Management style and participated decision making
(information and participation of students and teachers to
decisions, involvement of teachers in management and
delegated functions, leadership style)
15
Guidance
(tutorship and guidance for staff, tutorship and counselling
services for students)
4
Teaching activities
(teaching styles, use of materials and tools, focus on general
education or specialization, homework)
9
School results in terms of output
(testing sessions, achievement levels for main subjects as
Literature, Math, Science, Civics - class promotion and
repetition rates, age regularity, abandoning and drop outs,
graduation rates)
School results in terms of outcome
(success of students in university and higher education
admission, students employed after some years from
graduation, access to the labor market coherent with
studies)
42
E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
Students behavior coherent with students role
(sufficient use of educational tools and equipments,
engagement towards school tasks, disciplinary situation
and corrective measures, rate of absenteeism, attires)
17
S
o
c
i
a
l
L
i
f
e
Participation in social life
(community, athletic, cultural and environmental activities,
celebratory events, clubs)
14
Effective use of budget
(budget control, ability to decide expense promptly, ability
to meet educational aims using available financial
resources, suitability to the development project)
13
F
i
n
a
n
c
i
a
l
A
s
p
e
c
t
s
Ability to attract financial resources
(donations from parents and other sectors, project
financing, school nets, other takings)
6
Parents involvement
(school parents associations, cooperation with school
management)
10
Relations with community
(relations with other institutions, promoting the schools
image, relations with media)
7
R
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
w
i
t
h
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
Other services to community
(adult and continuing education, public use of school
spaces)
3
41
It can be seen that the highest numbers of indicators are related to
School results in terms of outputs and outcomes. The other high numbers of
indicators are related to Students behaviour coherent with students role and
Management style and participated decision making.
From the analysis of data, it is very clear that in all partner countries,
managers, teachers and parents give importance to all listed indicators shown
in Table 1. The means of indicators are evaluated in between 4.5 and 3.5. This
means that all listed indicators are important or very important to them.
A table of indicators according to perceptions of managers, teachers and
parents is given below.
42
Table 2: The list of the indicators according to importance for school managers,
teachers and parents
School Managers Teachers Parents
1
School climate Effectiveness of school
operations
Hygiene, safety and
security system
2
Effectiveness of school
operations
Hygiene, safety and security
system
Effectiveness of school
operations
3
Infrastructure, classes and
laboratories
School climate School climate
4
ICT and the Internet ICT and the Internet School results in terms of
outcome
5
Staff and human resources
management
Staff and human resources
management
Staff and human
resources management
6
Teaching activities Infrastructure, classes and
laboratories
Students' behaviour
coherent with student's
role
7
Hygiene, safety and security
system
Curricular offer ICT and the Internet
8
Effective use of budget Teaching activities Infrastructure, classes
and laboratories
9
Management style and
participated decision making
Guidance Absenteeism of teachers
and staff
10
Curricular offer Effective use of budget Guidance
11
Guidance Students' behaviour coherent
with student's role
Curricular offer
12
School results in terms of
outcome
School results in terms of
outcome
Teaching activities
13
Students' behaviour coherent
with student's role
Management style and
participated decision making
School results in terms of
output
14
Absenteeism of teachers and
staff
Documentation Effective use of budget
15
Documentation School results in terms of
output
Documentation
16
Quality system Quality system Management style and
participated decision
making
17
School results in terms of
output
Absenteeism of teachers and
staff
Participation in social
life
18
Relations with community Parents involvement Quality system
19
Parents involvement Participation in social life Parents involvement
20
Participation in social life Extra-curricular offer Ability to attract
financial resources
21
Ability to attract financial
resources
Relations with community Relations with
community
22
Extra-curricular offer Ability to attract financial
resources
Extra-curricular offer
23
Other services to community Other services to community Other services to
community
43
Research results for each country and more detailed information can be
found on the project web site (http://www.pro-school.eu). It is also important
to analyze the difference among managers, teachers and parents perception
about effective school indicators. The analysis of the most important top ten
indicators is given below.
Table 3: Comparative list of indicators according to managers, teachers and parents
Dimension Summary Indicators
Manager
s
Teache
rs
Parents
Hygiene, safety and security system X X X
Infrastructure, classes and laboratories X X X
ICT and the Internet
X X X
Physical
conditions
Documentation
Quality system
Effectiveness of school operations X X X
Curricular offer X X
Extra-curricular offer
Staff and human resources
management
X X X
Absenteeism of teachers and staff X
School climate
X X X
Management style and participated
decision making
X
Management
and planning
Guidance
X X
Teaching activities X X
School results in terms of output
School results in terms of outcome X
Education
and
Training
Students behaviour coherent with
students role
X
Social Life Participation in social life
Effective use of budget X X
Financial
Aspects
Ability to attract financial resources
Parents involvement
Relations with community
Relations
with
Environment Other services to community
It can be concluded that all stake holders give more importance to the
Physical conditions, Management and planning and Education and
training dimensions. This result is also coherent with the in-service training
needs of school managers that we are going to discuss in the next section.
44
c) In-service training needs of school managers
The following step in the analysis of manager questionnaire responses
was to select the areas in which managers think that they need in service
training. To the question: Do you need in-service training in this area?
managers answered as in the following table.
Table 4: Training needs (percent of Yes) by country
Area BE
CZ GR IT RO TR Mean
1 1. Physical conditions 38,70 75,0 82,14 36,70 45,20 33,30 47,21
2 2. Management and planning 64,50 62,5 78,57 63,30 80,60 69,70 71,33
3 3. Education and training 71,00 12,5 89,28 86,70 61,30 69,70 75,60
4 4. Social life 45,20 50,0 64,28 10,00 35,50 30,30 37,06
5 5. Financial aspects 32,30 0,0 46,42 66,70 83,90 51,50 56,16
6 6. Relations with environment 35,50 75,0 89,28 46,70 71,00 42,40 56,98
If we do not consider the areas where national samples indicate a lower
request for training, only two areas are considered as relevant by all national
samples Education and training and Management and planning. While the
Czech managers need a low level for education and training (12.5%) they
emphasise a need in Physical conditions (75%) and Relations with
environment (75%).
The next step was to integrate the two parts of the questionnaires, to
choose the indicators on which to focus during the training course. The
following table synthesizes the dimensions, and connects the indicators as
illustrated in the most important indicators list for each country.
45
Table 5: Dimensions and the most important indicators for countries
Dimension Indicators Countries top ten
1
Education and
training
Teaching activities
School results in terms of outcome
School results in terms of output
GR, CZ, IT, RO, TR
GR, IT, RO
--
2
Management and
planning
School climate
Effectiveness of school operations
Staff and human resources management
Management style and participated
decision making
Guidance
Curricular offer
Absenteeism of teachers and staff
Quality system
BE, CZ, GR, IT, RO,
TR,
BE, CZ, GR, IT, RO,
TR
BE, CZ, GR, IT, RO
BE, CZ, IT, TR
BE, GR
CZ, IT, RO, TR
RO, TR
GR
3
Relations with
environment Relations with community CZ
4 Financial aspects 5.1 Effective use of budget BE, IT
5 Physical conditions
1.1 Infrastructure, classes and laboratories
1.2 ICT and the Internet
1.4 Hygiene, safety and security system
BE, GR, IT, RO, TR
GR, IT, RO, TR
BE, GR, RO, TR
6 Social life 4.1 Participation in social life TR
4. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY
The content of this module can be introduced in an interactive way.
Structured discussions and presentation methods can be used. First, the
participants are asked to talk about what effective school means, afterwards,
based on the results of the discussion, the summary of the project and the
research results can be introduced.
5. CONCLUSION
We can summarize the research results about training needs as follows:
The Education and training Area: This area of indicators is the one that gained
the highest level of interest from the school managers as far as the school
efficacy is concerned. The highest percentage refers to the Greek school
managers (89. 28%) followed by Italy (86. 7%), Belgium (71%), Turkey (69. 7%),
46
and Romania (61,3) while Czech Republic expressed the lowest (12.5). The main
indicators in this area are considered to be the Teaching activities and the
School results in terms of outcome.
The Management and Planning Area: This area gained the second
position but the percentages attributed by the partner countries differ from the
previous ones. Greece and Romania expressed a high and similar level of
interest (78.57% and 80.6%) followed by Turkey (69.7%), Belgium (64.5%) and
the Czech Republic (62.5). Italy came last (63.3%). The main indicators in this
area are School climate, Effectiveness of school operations and Staff and
human resources management.
The Relations with environment Area: In fact the area Relations with
environment received a far lower interest, even if still significant, with Greece
showing 89% and the Czech Republic 75%, followed by Romania 71% whose
school managers expressed a high level of interest for these issues. Italy, Turkey
and Belgium (that attributed 46.7%, 42.4% and 46.7% respectively), did not
show a special interest for these issues, maybe because they focused on them
for many years in the last decades.
The Social Life and Physical Conditions Areas: These areas are
considered as interesting by Greece and the Czech Republic. In fact less than
half of the school managers in all other partner countries do not think that these
two areas are relevant. Physical conditions obtained 45.2% in Romania, 38.7%
in Belgium, 36.7% in Italy and in Turkey 33.3%, while issues connected with
Social Life scored 64.28% in Greece, 50.0% in the Czech Republic,
45.2% in Belgium, about 30% in Turkey and Romania, and only 10% in Italy.
The Financial Aspects Area: Financial aspects are considered as most
relevant by all partners, except for Greece due to its particular context
characterised by the centralisation of the national system as detailed in its
national report. These issues are considered as extremely relevant by Romania
47
(83.9%) even if to the detriment of the first two areas. The other partners are
generally ready to consider these issues as central but with a different level of
interest (Italy 66.7%, Turkey 51.5% and Belgium 32.3%). There is no interest at
all in this area in the Czech Republic. A first analytical study of the partners
school systems would certainly show the significant differences existing at
legislative level in the different countries, a fact that binds the school managers
to very different laws and norms, thus making it almost impossible to find a
common framework of financial aspects for the course design and plan.
6. RESOURCES & LINKS
www.pro-school.eu
www.eurydice.org
48
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Lifecycle of The Project
Authors:
Prof. dr. eng. Anca Duta
Prof. dr. eng. Ion Visa
Assoc. prof. dr. Dana Perniu
Developed by:
Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
49
1. INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this module consist in developing the knowledge and tools for
understanding project management and its benefits in view of ensuring the
quality of the processes in an educational institution and in various sections of
it, and of preparing school managers for accessing national and European
funding opportunities by developing coherent and structured projects for the
school or for needs within the school. Thus, school managers and heads of
working teams will be supported in preparing, delivering and assessing the
knowledge, by valorizing the resources and avoiding overlapping.
The module starts with the brief history of project management and
continues with stages of the project management with a special attention to
school context and with practical lessons.
This module can be taught by using interactive teaching methods whichs
are covered at the beginning of this publication.
Assessment of the training can be done by asking trainess to develop an
Activity Plan for a project to be implemented in their educational institution.
2. HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Project management rises as a need for developing instruments able to
support reaching a goal within an organization, team, or even at an individual
level.
Project management in its present form is strongly linked with the
industrial revolution, in the XIX century when the need for budget
management, workforce utilization, demand and supply scaling, required the
development of a management system that was methodological and goal
oriented. Still, large scale projects developed before are proof that sound
50
organizing allows for great achievements; it is almost impossible to imagine
building the pyramids, the large cathedrals, temples or mosques without a
resource management (Bista).
The initiators of modern project management are Frederick Taylor and
Henry L. Gantt (the Gantt chart), followed by Admiral Raborn of the U.S. Navy
who introduced the PERT project management tool (Program Evaluation and
Review Technique). Details on the XIXth century developments in Project
Management are presented in the Chapter Project-Based School Management
Philosophy And Training Methodology.
Still, traditional 'on time/on budget' measures can fail; the traditional
metrics are incorrectly treated as early warning indicators, with impending
trouble unforeseen.
In 1997, Dr. Eli Goldratt published a book about a new way of looking at
Project Management through TOC: Critical Chain, developing the Theory of
Constraints that gives a realistic view of the real limits in project development
and implementation, by re-programming, fine tuning and shifting priorities,
before it is too late (Process Quality Associates).
Project management solutions represent nowadays a set of tools to
complete projects within a defined scope, time, and within cost constraints. It is
important to notice that these three factors can never be maximally fulfilled at
the same time, and it is the task of the project manager to decide upon the
importance of each during the projects stages and in the project considered as a
whole.
51
Figure 1: Constraints in project development
Over the past decade project management software has been developed,
with many features and options, (tools for risk management, activity based
costing analysis, earned value management, planning, budgeting and other
tracking tools). Apart from their significant support in developing reports, the
software tools for project management are important because they offer a clear
view (usually via diagrams and charts) on the activities time-resource
correlations, and allow calculating the cost scenarios, thus minimizing risk of
failure. But, it is the project manager who delivers the correct input data and
project management software is not a guarantee for success if it is not correctly
handled.
With this history behind, problems are still being raised. A survey
developed by the Standish group in 2006, (Standish Group, 1995) for the US IT
large projects showed that:
Only 66% of all the projects finish in time or before schedule;
Most of the projects exceed their initial budget with an average of 156%;
Over 70% of the projects do not fulfill the entire quality indicators, in the
initial time frame.
The consequences are direct (in terms of progress and financing) and
indirect (in terms of lack of confidence toward the developers). Real-time
corrective actions, on correct forecast studies, represent a key to overcome these
consequences. Therefore, applying rigorous project management, careful
52
Quality
Time
Scope Costs
monitoring and risk assessment is compulsory for real success. Therefore,
while the 1980's were about Quality, the 1990's about Globalization, the 2000's
are targeting Velocity, for facing competition.
There is a set of stages in developing and implementing a project, known
as Project Lifecycle. In 2002, The European Commission - EuropeAid developed
a Handbook for Project Cycle Management (EC, 2002), which is the
fundamental tool in running European projects and can be used as a reference
for project management, Fig. 2:
Figure 2: Project cycle management,
Source: European Commission, 2002.
The steps mentioned in this diagram will be further detailed in this
course module, along with concrete ways to handle various project
management problems in education institutions.
3. WHY PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS?
Initiated by engineers, project management is now a tool developed by
interdisciplinary groups and applied in all the activity fields.
Schools, either primary, secondary or tertiary are entities having as their
main goal to deliver quality education to their students, thus fulfilling their part
as designed by the society. But, what does quality education mean? Usually
there is a set of national standards and indicators that assess the didactical
activities.
53
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s
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|
q
S
c
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3.5. PERT Chart
PERT chart is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, and
coordinate tasks within a project. PERT stands for Program Evaluation Review
Technique, a methodology developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s to manage
the Polaris submarine missile program. A similar methodology, the Critical Path
Method (CPM) was developed for project management in the private sector at
about the same time.
It can be applied in school project management too, but it is a rather
complicated and complex tool for school needs.
PERT diagrams reflect dependence relationships between tasks in a
project. Here is a general example:
Tasks Precedence
A
B
C A
D B,C
E D
Figure 7: Example of PERT Diagrams
a. Activity-on-Node Diagram
b. Activity-on-Arrow Diagram
1. Activity-on-Node Diagram
Nodes represent activities
Arrows represent precedence
Maybe more than one single start and end node
2. Activity-on-Arrow Diagram
Nodes indicate beginning/end of activities
Arrows represent precedence
One single start and one single end node
A C D E
B
A
B
C
D E
b
b)
a)
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A PERT chart presents a graphic illustration of a project as a network
diagram consisting of numbered nodes (either circles or rectangles) representing
events, or milestones in the project linked by labelled vectors (directional lines)
representing tasks in the project. The direction of the arrows on the lines
indicates the sequence of tasks.
The PERT chart is sometimes preferred over the Gantt Chart, another
popular project management charting method, because it clearly illustrates task
dependencies. On the other hand, the PERT chart can be much more difficult to
interpret, especially on complex projects. Frequently, project managers use both
techniques.
3.6. GANTT Charts
Gantt Charts are extremely useful project management tools. The Gantt
Chart is named after US engineer and consultant Henry Gantt (1861-1919) who
devised the technique in the 1910s.
Gantt charts are excellent models for scheduling budgeting and for
reporting, presenting and communicating project plans and progress easily and
quickly; as a rule, Gantt Charts are not as good as a Critical Path Analysis Flow
Diagram for identifying and showing interdependent factors, or for 'mapping' a
plan from and/or into all of its detailed causal or contributing elements.
More information on the Gantt Chart and a filled out example can be found on
the module Lifecycle of the Project.
4. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY
Instructional strategies are as important as the content. The training
methods and strategies should address and meet the demands of different
learning styles of the audience, ensure an active participation of the trainees in
the learning process, facilitate their interaction with the trainer, with the
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training materials and with the other colleagues, so as to allow the participants
to analyse and understand the contents, consequently providing the necessary
feedback in order to make learning effective and optimise it. A diversified
methodology will therefore be used aiming at motivating and actively
involving the participants during the course in the progress of their own
learning achievements.
We suggest that the presentations of the theoretical concepts should be
concise and alternate with case studies, practical applications and examples
taken from the participants own experience.
It is equally important that participants should practise the actual use of
the presented tools in order to solve concrete problems they are confronted with
in their activity, in order to better understand their utility.
As to organizing the participants during the course we recommend
presentation, pair work, small group activity, independent-individual work.
Open discussions and questionnaires will assess the quality and the
utility of the module content, of the materials used by the trainers, their
performance, and last but not least, the overall impact of the module on
participants.
5. CONCLUSION
A good school manager should master and be in permanent control of all
the necessary tools, so as to ensure an efficient management and organisation of
the school unit, namely: tools for the needs and existing resources analysis, for
the planning and monitoring of the whole activity and for evaluation and
dissemination.
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The present module presents these instruments very concisely, allowing
the school managers to select, apply, and practise them while developing
projects in their own schools to optimize the whole activity, synchronise and
adapt them, so as to meet the ever increasing demands of a knowledge-based
society.
6. RESOURCES & LINKS
McNamara, C. Field Guide to Non-profit Strategic Planning and Facilitation
and Field Guide to Non-profit Program Design. Marketing and Evaluation.
Iosifescu, S. (2001). Educational Management for educational institutions. Bucharest.
Voiculescu, F. (2006). Needs-Resources analysis strategic management in education.
Aramis Publishing.
Ministry of Education and Research. (2001). Guidelines for training of trainers-
Educational Management. Bucharest.
http://www.projectmanager.com/index.php
http://www.businessballs.com/index.htm
http://www.ltcsbooks.com/Articles/
http://www.mindtools.com/
http://www.ceismc.gatech.edu/MM_tools/evaluation.html
www.marketingteacher.com
http:// www.businessballs.com/project.htm
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PROject based SCHOOL
management
Management Theories and School
Management Styles
Authors:
Anthi K. Provata
Myrto Tourgeli-Provata
Developed by:
Peloponnesus University Greece
109
1. INTRODUCTION
The school does not have the characteristics of a typical business or
organization. The products of this organization are human beings. A school
manager has to manage people. Managing people is not a matter of
manipulation. It is about working with staff and colleagues on a partnership
basis to achieve the strategic goals of the organisation. To achieve this he/she
needs to know and use management theories. Also, a school manager has to
realise the importance of the skill of managing people, and that this skill needs
to be sharpened on a continuous basis. The effectiveness of the school
management depends on the leadership style brought forward by the school
manager.
The school manager should be able to motivate the teaching staff, to
encourage creativity, to promote innovation, to communicate actively with the
staff and the social surrounding of the school, to identify the human needs, to
find solutions and to possess self-knowledge. Communication, along with
leadership and decision-making is one of the top three attributes a successful
manager needs. To achieve this, the school manager needs to define his
business role and know what what it takes to achieve a successful outcome
(Adair, 2004).
The aim of this module is to give participants basic information about
management theories and leadership styles and to help them understand the
importance of management and communication skills for effective school
management.
110
2. TERMINOLOGY
Management: The act of getting people together to accomplish desired
goals and objectives.
School management: The process of coordinating people (students,
teachers, supporting staff), activities and available means in the most effective
way.
Motivation: The activation of goal-oriented behaviour.
Communication: A process of transferring information from one entity to
another and sharing thoughts and opinions. The science of managements advocates
communication as the means to achieve unanimity in decision-making,
responsiveness to administrative rules and agreeable individual conduct within the
working environment.
3. MANAGEMENT THEORIES
3.1 Scientific Management Theory
At the turn of the century, most of the organizations that manufactured a
variety of products were dealing with ongoing, routine tasks . Frederick Taylor
developed the scientific management theory which espoused careful
specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were
standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This
approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and
other mechanistic, routinized activities (McNamara). Taylor advocated the
development of science management with clearly stated rules and laws,
scientific selection and training of workers, and the division of tasks and
responsibilities between workers and management.
Taylor recommended that there should be a detailed analysis of each job,
using the techniques of method study and time study in order to find the
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method of working that would bring about the largest average rate of
production, that so called one best way. He also advocated issuing written
instructions, training and incentive payments in order to ensure that jobs were
performed in the approved manner.
Taylors theory focused on managing work and workers. He drew
attention to the importance of selection, training, compensation and motivation,
the areas directly relevant to managing people in todays environment.
3.2. Human Relations Theories
Unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing
effects of scientific management theories. More attention was given to
individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief
included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well.
Human Resource departments were added to organizations. Behavioral
sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and
how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned
(McNamara).
Founder of the Human Relations Movement Elton Mayos reminded us
that employees are human beings and they have needs and expectations. His
studies shoved that organizations have a human element and there is a strong
relationship between worker morale and the quality of supervision. There are
factors other than the work environment which affect worker motivation.
Workers develop informal groups within the organization and these
informal groups play significant roles in influencing group members
behaviour.
Maslow is also focused on human motivation. His theory, with some
modification, is valid today in understanding human motivation and forms the
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basis of human motivation training. The theory provides insights for managers
into what makes people tick and what motivates them. According to Maslow
each of us is motivated by needs. The needs are hierarchically structured and
they act as motivators. Air, food, drink, shelter, warmth and sex all come under
physiological needs. All individuals have these needs and they have to be met.
Once physiological needs are satisfied then safety needs become predominant.
Maslows theory also directs our attention to another question; what happens if
the needs are not met? Within the organizational context, in order to manage
people effectively, we have to consider the consequences of unmet needs and
learn how to handle such situations.
Another human relations theorist McGregor put forward two sets of
assumptions in relation to human behaviour. These sets of assumptions are
presented as theory X and theory Y. McGregor's ideas suggest that there are
two fundamental approaches to managing people. This theory of motivation
has a significant impact in the field of managing people. He presents two
approaches to managing people. The theory X approach, with its associated
assumptions, generally produces poor results and the theory Y approach with
its associated assumptions, produces better performance and results (Everard
and Geoffr, 1999). Basic assumptions of theory X and Y are as follows:
Theory x ('authoritarian management' style)
The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if he/she can.
Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to
work towards organisational objectives.
The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is
relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else.
Theory y ('participative management' style)
Effort in work is as natural as work and play.
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People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of
organisational objectives, without external control or the threat of
punishment.
Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their
achievement.
People usually accept and often seek responsibility.
In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only partly
utilised.
So, how these assumptions work in management practices?
In a situation where they make theory X assumptions they will manage
people by directing and controlling them.
In a situation where they make theory Y assumptions they will manage
people by involvement and by delegating responsibility.
Chris Argyris also contributed to human relations theory. He focused on
the relationships between individuals and organizations. Argyris put forward a
theory which suggests that people tend to behave in a way explained by theory
X, not because they are lazy, but because in practice organizations treat them
like immature individuals. This is the basic principle of the Immaturity-
Maturity Theory. According to Argyris, many organizations still adhere to a
bureaucratic/pyramidal value system. This type of system leads to false
presumptions within the organization, as a result of which workers are not seen
as mature individuals. According to this theory, the human personality
develops from immaturity to maturity within a continuum, where a number of
key changes take place.
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4. LEADERSHIP STYLES
Many theories of leadership have been influential in guiding school
managers. A few of these theories are examined here.
4.1. Transformational and Transactional Leadership
In general terms, transactional leadership is defined as trading one thing
for another (quid pro quo), whereas transformational leadership is more
focused on change. In more specific terms, Bass and Avolio (1994) describe
three forms of transactional leadership: management-by-exception-passive,
management- by- exception-active, and constructive transactional.
Transactional Leadership Styles:
1-Management-by-exception-passive: Involves setting standards but waiting
for major problems to occur before exerting leadership behaviour. Followers of
this leadership style typically believe that their job is to maintain the status quo.
2-Management-by -exception- active: Leaders who demonstrate
management by exception -active pay attention to issues that arise, set
standards, and carefully monitor behaviour. In fact, they are so aggressive in
their management behaviour that followers of this leadership style believe that
they should not take risks or demonstrate initiative.
3-Constructive transactional leadership is the most effective and active of
the transactional leadership styles. This type of transactional leader sets goals,
clarifies desired outcomes, exchanges rewards and recognition for
accomplishments, suggests or consults, provides feedback, and gives
employees praise when it is deserved. The distinguishing feature of this
transactional leadership style is that followers are invited into the management
process more than is the case with the other two styles. Followers generally
react by focusing on and achieving expected performance goals.
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Transformational leadership is the favoured style of leadership given that it
is assumed to produce results beyond expectations. As articulated by Bass
(1985), four factors characterize the behaviour of transformational leaders:
individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and
idealized influence. Individual consideration is characterized by giving personal
attention to members who seem neglected. Intellectual stimulation is
characterized by enabling followers to think of old problems in new ways.
Inspirational motivation is characterized by communicating high performance
expectations through the projection of a powerful, confident, dynamic
presence that invigorates followers. Finally, idealized influence is characterized
by modelling behaviour through exemplary personal achievements, character,
and behaviour.
These four factors of transformational leadership identified by Bass and
Avolio (1994) are necessary skills for school managers if they are to meet the
challenges of the 21st century. For example, the school leader must attend to the
needs of and provide personal attention to individual staff members,
particularly those who seem left out (individual consideration). The effective
school manager must help staff members think of old problems in new ways
(intellectual stimulation). Through a powerful and dynamic presence the
effective school manager must communicate high expectations for teachers and
students alike (inspirational motivation). Finally, through personal
accomplishments and demonstrated character, the effective manager must
provide a model for the behaviour of teachers (idealized influence) (Marzano,
Waters and McNulty, 2005:13-15)
4.2. Total Quality Management
Edward Deming (1986) is generally considered the founder of total
quality management (TQM). Although TQM was created for the world of
business, it has had a strong influence on leadership practices in education.
Waldman (1993) proposed five basic factors that more specifically define the
116
actions of an effective leader: change agency, teamwork, continuous improvement,
trust building, and eradication of short-term goals.
Change Agency is defined as the leaders ability to stimulate change in an
organization. The leader does so by analyzing the organizations need for
change, isolating and eliminating structures and routines that work against
change, creating a shared vision and sense of urgency, implanting plans and
structures that enable change, and fostering open communication.
Teamwork: One of the distinguishing features of TQM is the importance
of teams within an organization. The effective leader is not only involved in
establishing teams, but also sees to their viability by providing necessary
resources and support.
Continuous Improvement: This is a concept that is derived from the
Japanese term kaizen, which means (roughly) the continual and incremental
improvement of the critical aspects of the organization by all members of the
organization. A leader must invite continuous improvement into the
organization and keep it alive by keeping the goals of the organization up front
in the minds of employees and judging the effectiveness of the organization in
terms of these goals.
Trust Building: As the term implies, trust building involves creating a
climate in which employer and employees perceive the organization as a win-
win environment. Trust building can be described as the process of
establishing respect and instilling faith into followers based on leader integrity,
honesty, and openness. Leaders establish an atmosphere of trust by their daily
actions. Specific actions leaders must exhibit include knowing the concerns of
employees, knowing what motivates employees, and knowing the necessary
conditions for employees to operate at levels of maximum effectiveness.
117
Eradication of Short-Term Goals: This term refers to the eradication of the
types of goals traditionally set within an MBO (management by objectives)
model. Specifically, this means the elimination of goals that are based on
quotas, are highly numerical, and are short term. The goals should be focused
more on process and the long-term perspective. The effective leader not only
helps establish the criteria around which goals are established, but also
participates in the goals design and implementation (Marzano, Waters and
McNulty, 2005:15-16)
4.3. Servant Leadership
The term servant leadership first appeared in the leadership literature in
the 1970s. It is attributed to Robert Greenleaf (1970, 1977), who believed that
effective leadership emerges from a desire to help others. This perspective
stands in sharp contrast to those theories (such as transactional leadership) that
emphasize control or overseeing those within the organization.
Servant leadership also has a unique perspective on the position of the
leader within the organization. Instead of occupying a position at the top of a
hierarchy, the servant leader is positioned at the center of the organization. This
implies that the servant leader is in contact with all aspects of the organization
and the individuals within it as opposed to interacting with a few high-level
managers who also occupy positions in the upper strata of the hierarchy.
Although servant leadership is typically not embraced as a
comprehensive theory of leadership as are some other theories (such as TQM),
it has become a key component of the thinking of many leadership theorists
(Marzano, Waters and McNulty, 2005:16).
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4.4. Situational Leadership
The theory of situational leadership is typically associated with the work
of Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard. The basic principle underlying
situational leadership is that the leader adapts her leadership behaviour to
followers maturity, based on their willingness and ability to perform a
specific task. Four leadership styles match high and low willingness and ability
to perform a task:
When followers are unable and unwilling to perform a given task, the
leader directs the followers actions without much concern for personal
relationships. This style is referred to as high task low relationship
focus, or the telling style.
When followers are unable but willing to perform the task, the leader
interacts with followers in a friendly manner but still provides concrete
direction and guidance. This style is referred to as high task high
relationship focus, or the participating style.
When followers are able but unwilling to perform the task, the leader
does not have to provide much direction or guidance but must persuade
followers to engage in the task. This style is referred to as low task low
relationship focus, or the selling style.
When followers are able and willing to perform the task, the leader
leaves the execution of the task to the followers with little or no
interference, basically trusting followers to accomplish the task on their
own. This style is referred to as low task high relationship focus, or the
delegating style.
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The effective leader is skilled in all four styles and knows the ability level
of followers along with their willingness to perform specific tasks. The effective
leader realizes that no one leadership style is appropriate for all followers and
all situations and accurately discerns which styles are appropriate for which
followers in which situations (Marzano, Waters and McNulty, 2005: 17-18).
4.5. Instructional Leadership
One major emphasis in the educational arena in the early 21st century
has been the continuing demand for greater accountability to increase student
performance. National and state expectations require schools to ensure that all
students achieve mastery of curriculum objectives, and local schools focus on
implementing those requirements to the best of their ability. As a result, leading
instructional efforts in a school has evolved into a primary role for school
managers.
In order to meet the challenges associated with national and state
expectations, managers must focus on teaching and learning especially in
terms of measurable student progress to a greater degree than heretofore.
Consequently, todays managers concentrate on building a vision for their
schools, sharing leadership with teachers, and influencing schools to operate as
learning communities. Accomplishing these essential school improvement
efforts requires gathering and assessing data to determine needs, and
monitoring instruction and curriculum to determine if the identified needs are
addressed (Richard and Catano, 2008:4).
Instructional leadership can be defined as "those actions that a principal
takes, or delegates to others, to promote growth in student learning." In
practice, this means that the manager encourages educational achievement by
making instructional quality the top priority of the school and brings that vision
to realization. The role of an instructional leader differs from that of traditional
120
school administrator in a number of meaningful ways. Whereas a conventional
principal spends the majority of his/her time dealing with strictly
administrative duties, a principal who is an instructional leader is charged with
redefining his/her role to become the primary learner in a community striving
for excellence in education. As such, it becomes the principals responsibility to
work with teachers to define educational objectives and set school-wide or
district wide goals, provide the necessary resources for learning, and create new
learning opportunities for students and staff (e-lead)
The instructional leadership will require knowledge and frameworks to
guide leaders in creating schools that systematically improve student learning.
School managers can affect student success by helping teachers be the best they
can be. If we want students to grow and develop their skills, then we must want
the same for teachers. Beginning with their first day on the job, managers must
send a message of instructional support (Robbins and Alvy 2004: 89).
5. COMMUNICATION
The manager is responsible for the creation and the advancement of the
schools culture. However, this process engages the activity of other educational
agents as well, such as the teaching staff, the administrative personnel, the
school counsellors, the social surroundings and not least the location of the
school.
The competence of the manager is assessed by his ability to create a
positive climate for work within the school. In order to achieve this, it is
essential that he manages effectively the human resources of his unit, a
challenging task due to the volatile nature of human behaviour. (Saitis, 2002)
The inequality caused by the differences in age, gender or education may
hinder the progress of interpersonal relations within a school community. To
maintain a productive atmosphere within the school, then, the manager must be
vigilant over such disparities and prompt to overcome them.
121
The actions of the manager should be directed toward three ends:
the communication and cooperation with the teaching staff,
the communication with students and
the communication and cooperation with parents.
In the communication process, the manager should be impartial, setting
targets and encouraging expectations, assigning tasks and discussing further
actions with the members of staff, allowing them the possibility to participate in
the decision making, being, finally, supportive to the staff whenever they are
faced with extraordinary challenges.
The communication and cooperation with the teaching staff: Unofficial
discussions are an effective means of communication. A competent manager
should not hesitate to discuss with the school staff the issues that arise with
respect to the functioning of the school. His/her attitude in this discussion,
however, should be defined by certain rules: he ought to give his colleagues the
opportunity to express their opinion on any matter but at the same time to
maintain the relevance of the discussion to the school affairs, to listen carefully
to the suggestions of his colleagues but also to direct conversations towards
solving the issues that are at stake. The satisfactory outcome of such
discussions, which will have encouraged understanding, appreciation and
familiarity between colleagues, promotes the establishment of good relations
within the working environment. This development, which, moreover,
facilitates the communication of ideas and allows creative initiative to take
place, becomes the foundation for a consistent school management.
Unofficial meetings of the teaching staff help reduce the tension and
encourage cordial relations between colleagues. Such friendly meetings may
take place during break-time, in the classroom or the teachers lunching room,
but they may also be scheduled on an extracurricular basis for special occasions.
122
The communication with students: The manager, always in coordination
with the members of staff, is above all responsible for the achievement of
educational objectives. He is expected to achieve by putting into effect all of his
personal qualities: sincere awareness, pedagogical proficiency, flexibility,
communicative authority, fair judgment.
Communication between teachers and students, however, is a matter
that deserves particular attention, especially in the requirement of disciplinary
measures against student misconduct, a fact which occurs often due to student
conflicts and frictions within the crowded school environment. Since conflicts
are inevitable and the opinions of teachers on the subject of punishment
diverge, disciplinary issues arising within the school should be dealt with
extraordinary caution and provisions should be ensured for the steady
advancement of the student. In the process, it should be seen that the smooth
functioning of the school is not interrupted. The achievement of these tasks
relies once more on the goodwill and motivation of a proficient manager and
his colleagues.
The communication and cooperation with parents: Systematic cooperation
between the school and the family is a basic precondition for the development
of a well-organized school. The accurate and punctual notification of parents
prevents the rise of misunderstandings which lead to inconvenience and
conflict.
It has become clear, by now, that the cooperation between the school and
the family is rendered advantageous through the skilful mediation of the
manager. On the one hand, the effectiveness of the administration depends on
the working conditions in general, but on the other hand, it is the manager, as
an outstanding teacher with a distinguished personality, who sets up
exemplary conditions for cooperation. This means that the manager should not
only make an effort to accommodate the viewpoints of the parents, but he
123
should also be perceptive of unreasonable demands and distressed situations
which result from unstable relations within the students family. The manager
will only be able to cope with this stressful and time-consuming task by being
thoroughly organized, compiling lists of responsibility and keeping a record of
all actions, making a rational use of his time and being assiduous in his duties
(Saitis, 2002).
6. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY
This section begins with an introduction to the teaching of the most
useful points of management theories and leadership styles. The theoretical part
of the course will be supported by Power Point presentation; the practical part
will consist of discussion, case studies, and other exercises and activities.
Leadership Style & Communication Strategy-Activity:
Identify the leadership style and communication strategy that you would
adopt in following situation:
Situation: You have to introduce a new student club (e.g. theatre club) in
your school (required by decree). Discuss and present; what leadership styles
and communication strategy would you use if;
(a) Some of the teachers are objecting to the establishment of this new
club?
(b) None of the students are interested in joining the club?
(c) Parents are objecting to the establishment of this new club?
Leadership Styles: (small group discussion & presentation of discussion results)
Communication strategy: (small group discussion & presentation of discussion
results)
124
7. CONCLUSION
The effectiveness of the school management depends on the leadership
style brought forward by the manager, which in turn is subject to his
personality traits, his professional expertise and his degree of devotion. The
position of the school manager is highly significant for the achievement of
targets set by the school or for the successful implementation of educational
changes within the school. It is important for school managers to have basic
knowledge of management theories in order to adopt appropriate leadership
style in appropriate situations. In this module we discussed some of the well-
known management theories and leadership styles and we presented the school
managers communication role with staff, students and parents.
There is no magic formula of leadership in managing schools. The
Project-based school management approach does not prescribe a certain style of
management of leadership. On the contrary we believe that the important thing
is to adopt a flexible and participative approach in school management in order
to improve school effectiveness.
8. RESOURCES & LINKS
Adair, J. (2004). Handbook of Management and Leadership, Thorogood.
E-lead: http://www.e-lead.org/resources/resources.asp?ResourceID=14
Development Staff (Contributor) (2004). New Principal's Fieldbook: Strategies
for Success. Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum
Development.
Everard, B., & Geoffry, M. (1999). Effective School Management. translated by D.
Kikizas. Patras: Hellenic Open University.
Marzano, R. J., & Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School Leadership That
Works: From Research to Results. Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for
Supervision & Curriculum Development.
McNamara, C. Very Brief History of Management Theories:
125
http://managementhelp.org/mgmnt/history.htm
Richard, H. B., & Catano, N. (2008). Qualities of Effective Principals.
Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.
Robbins, P.; & Alvy, H.Association for Supervision and Curriculum.
Saitis, C. (2002). Organizationand Administration of Education. Athens.
126
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Methods of Quality Management in
Schools
Authors:
Isabelle Joos
Liesbet Gevaert
Developed by:
University College Ghent, Belgium
127
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Objectives
The participants:
enumerate the basic characteristics of integrated quality management;
explain the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle, the European Foundation
for Quality Management (EFQM) model with the nine fields of interests
and the TRIS method;
display their insight in the various phases of a self evaluation process;
are aware of good practices in internal evaluation;
are capable of judging self evaluation tools.
1.2. Preliminary assignments
Prepare the following three questions, at least two days before the
module. Send your preparation by mail to the module trainer.
1. Describe how quality management and internal evaluation within your
school is tested. Please make sure to include the following items in your
description:
How do you approach quality management and internal evaluation?
Which model do you adhere to?
Which areas do you involve?
What happens to the results of your activities concerning quality
management and internal evaluation?
2. What are the strengths of your assessment method?
3. Which obstacles have you already experienced when assessing your
school?
128
2. TERMINOLOGY BASIC CONCEPTS
Introductory questions:
What is quality assurance?
What is quality management?
What is meant by internal and external evaluation?
Quality assurance
Quality assurance, or QA for short, refers to a program for the systematic
monitoring and evaluation of the various aspects of a project, service, or facility
to ensure that standards of quality are being met (Wikipedia).
Quality assurance is the maintenance of a desired level of quality in a service
or a manufactured product, esp. by means of attention to every stage of the
process of delivery or manufacture (The Oxford English Dictionary).
Quality improvement
Quality improvement covers product improvement, process
improvement and people based improvement (Wikipedia).
Quality management
Quality management can be considered to have three main components:
quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality
management is focused not only on product quality, but also the means to
achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control of
processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality (The Oxford
English Dictionary).
Internal and external evaluation
Self evaluation -or an internal evaluation- can occur with a view to
responsibility in preparation for an external evaluation. In using the self
evaluation, the educational organization makes a state of affairs, with regard to
the quality of the input, the processes and the results (TRIS, 2003).
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The self evaluation process
The self evaluation process allows the organization to discern clearly its
strengths and areas in which improvements can be made and culminates in
planned improvement actions which are then monitored for progress
(Wikipedia).
3. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEGRATED QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
Introductory question:
How do you see 'integrated' quality management?
Integrated quality management, first and foremost, means that all of the
organizations levels will be involved in the quality management process.
Management and personnel feel the need to ensure and improve quality and
also cooperate in the quality management process.
Integrated should also be taken to mean that the various phases of the
educational process have to be taken into account. In practice, however, the
preliminary phase and after-care are often glossed over in order to save time.
Finally we also note that if a school is permanently working on quality
management this is also considered a basic characteristic of integrated quality
management. Quality management, however, entails more than just one
initiative, one activity, etc. Every day there are various opportunities to work
towards ensuring educational quality or, by extension, quality management
within an educational institution. Integrated quality management presupposes
a constant assessment of oneself.
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Practical examples:
General director Jan De Maeyer (Flanders-Belgium) developed a Three Mirror
Method. In his method De Maeyer claims that secondary schools must be aware of
the importance of the objectives a school defines. The first Mirror (1. Perspective-
Objectives, a preparatory phase, takes a lot of time but cant be left out in the
perspective of integrated quality management.
The Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies has created various committees in
order to ensure that quality management becomes a subject for discussion within
the institution. There is now an (alumni) students committee, an activity
committee, a policy group, a training committee, a consultative committee that
focuses on the course, a department, etc.
4. METHODS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT
4.1. PDCA Cycle
Introductory questions:
Does your institution take the time to draw up a real planning schedule as
regards quality management?
Which data are gathered in your institution in the frame of quality
management?
How are these data assessed in your institution?
What about the results?
In integrated quality management, the emphasis is on quality
guarantees on the one hand and quality improvement on the other hand.
Initiatives in the frame of these two processes always need to rely on a given
system. If one undertakes individual actions, this will probably generate
results, but this will not always contribute to the objectives of the institution's
quality policy.
The PDCA cycle meets this requirement by providing for four stages,
i.e., PLAN DO - CHECK ACT.
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Figure 1: PDCA Cycle
Source: TRIS, 2004
PLAN (prepare and plan):
The quality improvement process starts with the formulation of quality
objectives in the most concrete manner possible. The SMART principle is often
used to do this; the acronym SMART stands for:
Specific: the objective is formulated in a uniform and clear manner;
Measurable: the objective can be reached under measurable, observable
conditions;
Acceptable/Demonstrable/Provable: the objective is accepted by the
persons involved/it is clear who is in charge of the objective;
Realistic/Relevant: the objective is realistic/relevant;
Limited in Time: the objective needs to be reached within a given time
frame;
3. CHECK
2. DO
4. ACT
1. PLAN
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Writing out objectives in terms of concrete behavioural terms will result
in an efficient assessment of the actions undertaken. Please ensure that the
writing out of objectives does not become an objective per se. Otherwise the
planning becomes a necessary formality and nothing more. The employees of
an educational institution have to be involved in the quality planning process
and always need to bear the organization's underlying vision in mind. This is
then written out in a policy plan.
Practical example:
The self evaluation working committee organizes meetings to inform the
teachers and the staff about the decisions made and the progress of the self
evaluation process every month until December 2010.
The school manager updates the procedures of the quality manual in
January 2011.
DO (implement):
The next step entails the carrying out of objectives. It is important to
keep in mind systematic data gathering at this stage. Moreover you should
ensure that all of the parties concerned have been briefed as to the use of
registration systems so that they continue to be motivated to keep a correct
inventory of facts and figures. Always provide feedback about the processing
of results to the parties concerned, so that they will also be able to review the
result of their actions and will be able to use these results to move to the next
planning stage.
Often a quality system is developed in educational institutions. In
writing this can become a quality manual. This manual encompasses a
transparent ensemble of norms, procedures and resources within the
organization.
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CHECK (follow-up and assess):
The gathered data including perception data, satisfaction
measurements, objective figures and inflow data - will be analyzed in a
subsequent stage. The real situation is then compared with the desired data
and concrete actions to be undertaken are reviewed based on strengths and
weaknesses.
ACT (adapt and anchor):
An inherent element of the assessment is the re-operationalization of
the objectives and the adaptation of activities. This can entail guaranteeing
quality but the institution should also take advantage of the opportunity to
follow up on societal developments and thus recognize activities aimed at
improving quality.
Practical examples:
General director Jan De Maeyer (Flanders-Belgium) developed a Three Mirror
Method based on the PDCA Cycle (Plan-Do-Check-Act). The first mirror
emphasizes the planning phase, namely the perspectives of the stakeholders and the
schools objectives. The second mirror looks into the instruments and resources
available at the secondary school. After implementing the schools objectives by
actions, a report is written based on the results of the evaluation activities (Mirror
3). Mirror 3 takes also notice of planning the necessary actions to improve the
schools functioning.
Every year the Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies of University College
Ghent draws up a quality plan based on systematically gathered data as regards
the institutions primary processes. The departmental Educational Quality Unit
defines the objectives, which tie in with the institution's vision and mission, the
strategic policy plan and the results of the visit. These objectives are then
communicated to employees, among others through the electronic platform.
Throughout the year, data are gathered pertaining to alumni and students, school
leaver surveys, etc. as well as inflow and throughput data of students in given
disciplines. After these data have been analyzed by the departmental Educational
Quality Unit, these results are discussed in various consultative bodies and
quality days are organized annually to define points for action and to follow up on
the results.
134
4.2. European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) and
Transnational Institutional Cooperation (TRIS)
Introductory questions:
Does your institution use a model to organize the quality management
process?
Which aspects of your organization are mapped when assuring quality?
In 1999 the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM)
developed a model with nine fields of interest or aspects that are related to
quality and which are necessary to tackle quality in an integrated manner. The
model was adjusted in 2003.
The manner in which the organization functions is set against these
fields of interest, which have been subdivided into subareas and subcriteria.
EFQM states that the organizational conditions and processes are the
conditions for achieving results.
Figure 2 illustrates how area 1, Leadership, controls the nearby areas,
i.e., area 2 Policy and strategy, area 3 Employees, and area 4 Partners and
resources. These are the preliminary conditions for being able to carry out
area 5 Processes. The model has four results areas: Customers, 'Employees,
Society, and Desired End Results. The figure below also shows how the
PDCA cycle can be integrated in the EFQM model.
Innovation and improvement is inherent to the EFQM model. A school
and its teachers/staff grow towards excellence by implementing the PDCA
cycle. In Project based school management Philosophy and Training
Methodology the organizational learning was illustrated. Training of the
leadership competences (area 1) and informing about policy and strategy (area
2) leads to schools innovation and growth.
135
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Education experts have also applied this European model, which was
mainly used in the profit sector to education. The outcome was a Transnational
Institutional Cooperation or a TRIS working committee. This cooperation gave
rise to a method that was already adapted to the new developments in the
frame of quality management, more specifically with regard to internal and
external evaluation.
The TRIS method retains the explanation of the subcriteria as integrated
in the EFQM model. Within the TRIS method, the conditional areas, processes
and result areas each have five levels or developmental stages. A formulation
from a higher stage (excepting stage 1) always implies that the criteria from a
lower phase have been acquired. Scores are attributed based on the
development levels.
The use of the TRIS tool is explained in the following source: TRIS-groep
(2004). TRIS-instrument versie 5.0. Kwaliteitsverbetering voor het
professioneel hoger onderwijs (Quality improvement for professional
higher education) Geel, TRIS-groep.
After scoring of the areas for attention, Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats analysis (SWOT, see module Tools for project based
school management) has to be drawn up, followed by proposals to obtain the
desired results within the defined time-frame anyhow.
137
Figure 3: Spider web chart
Source: TRIS-group, 2004
At the same time, the status quo is represented graphically in a spider
web chart using the development levels.
A practical example:
The Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies of University College Ghent wrote the
following in its self evaluation report for 2009-2010 as regards the degree of
Professional Bachelor in Social Work and Welfare Studies:
In its quality declaration, the Board of Governors has indicated a general frame in
which the quality policy of University College Ghent has to be shaped.
A first pillar of this policy declaration is based on systematic self evaluations of each
course, department, service or sector, which will result in improvement goals. The
European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) model is used as a reference
frame for these self evaluations, translated into Transnationale Institutionele
Samenwerking (TRIS) for education.
A second important pillar is made up of the systematic surveys of parties concerned, of
which the results are integrated in the self evaluation.
A last pillar entails working with improvement goals and improvement plans, which are
laid down in a departmental annual action plan and annual report and which are
submitted to the board of governors by way of the Departmental Council. The quality
system imposed by the non-university college thus guarantees the cyclical system of
plan-do-check-act (P-D-C-A), with a view to achieving improved quality and provides
for a classification of priorities.
138
5. THE SELF EVALUATION PROCESS
Introductory questions:
Which obstacles have you experienced when carrying out an internal
evaluation of your institution?
Which positive experiences did you have when carrying out an internal
evaluation of your institution?
Recent developments contribute to schools increasing assessing their
internal functioning, much like companies, in view of the fact that they are
holding more responsibility for tasks such as drawing up the scheduling of
school policy, laying down objectives, etc.
In view of the fact that self evaluation does not exclusively consist of
filling out instruments - a number of examples will be dealt with at the end of
this reader -, but that it has to start from a development perspective, we will be
listing the different stages of a self evaluation process, as described in
Handboek zelfevaluatie in het secundair onderwijs (Geert Devos e.a., 2002, 7-
51).
Step 1: The start-up situation at school
Before launching a self evaluation, it is good to know which experiences
a school can draw on for setting up self evaluations, which level was used (a
descriptive, problem-solving or policy-oriented approach) and which factors
can foster/obstruct this assessment.
There is a fixed template within a group of schools to prepare inspections
(external evaluation).
Setting up a working committee can help including tasks in first instance
and then making them open for discussion.
139
Step 2. Tasks during the self evaluation
In an ideal situation everyone is an actor in the self evaluation process.
An educational institution will, however, have to make choices as to who will
initiate, undergo, implement, coordinate, support, control, influence, etc. the
process. It is important to determine who will be involved in which phase
(when) of the process and to which extent. An answer needs to be found to the
following questions:
Who will carry out the evaluation?
Who will be surveyed?
Who will receive feedback about this?
Who will undertake action based on the results?
Geert Devos e.a. (2002) write that the parties concerned are the director, a
self evaluation working committee and the schools employees. It is also worth
looking at whether it is desirable or necessary to request external support. The
parties concerned and their tasks can alternate stage by stage and the tasks can
also overlap.
Step 3. Preparation of the self evaluation
Before kicking off the actual self evaluation, a number of important
decisions have to be made. The following items have to most certainly be on the
agenda of the preparatory meetings:
The objectives of the self evaluation (see module Evaluation of School
Effectiveness)
What exactly needs to be assessed;
Who will be surveyed;
Which resources the organization will make available;
How the parties concerned will be informed and motivated;
Which timing will be effectively maintained.
140
Step 4. The self evaluation itself: gathering data and reporting
The choices made in step 3. Preparation of the self evaluation will
determine the content and form of the self evaluation to an important extent,
i.e., the choice of certain data gathering methods and data analysis.
Before starting to gather data, the choice has to be made between written
or verbal data gathering, qualitative or quantitative research such as, e.g.,
working with questionnaires, interviews, gathering figures, etc. Each method
has its benefits and disadvantages; it is recommended that these be reviewed
beforehand.
Finally, a report will summarize the results of the self evaluation. It is a
useful tool during the school development process in view of the fact that it
provides a status quo of the school's functioning and, what's more, it can serve
as a foundation for drawing up further developments and actions.
Step 5: Discussion of the results and drawing up an action plan
After undertaking self evaluation actions, one should not forget feedback
with regard to the results of the survey to all the parties concerned. This can be
prepared in small groups, such as, for example, in the self evaluation working
committee. Subsequently the concrete actions/points for action need to be laid
down and monitored.
Finally, it can be concluded that self evaluation is a process that can be
set up by the organization itself among carefully selected participants. Self
evaluation is also always systematic, using a number of instruments, with the
aim of describing and evaluating the organizations functioning. A number of
improvement initiatives will subsequently be taken in the frame of the entire
organizations development.
141
Practical example:
General director Jan De Maeyer developed a Three Mirror Method for self-
evaluation. This model consists of three major mirrors (Mirror 1. Perspective
Objectives; Mirror 2. Instruments Resources; Mirror 3. Report- Plan of action) to
carry out an internal evaluation at schools.
The Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies of University College Ghent wrote
the following as regards the degree of Professional Bachelor in Social Work and
Welfare Studies in its 2009-2010 self evaluation report:
The Faculty has made considerable investments in quality management as regards
structure and content. An external quality management coordinator, with expertise in
the field of quality management, was appointed. A departmental Quality Unit
coordinates the activities as regards content and provides policy-related advice for the
policy team and training committees.
[]
University College Ghent has chosen to use TRIS as a self evaluation tool. The course
structurally integrates the TRIS tool in its policy by carrying out an internal self
evaluation every six years. Consensus groups are made up of members of the
educational staff and students.
The results are submitted to the quality management student and alumni committee
and the disciplinary committee and the priorities are integrated in the courses annual
action plan. A similar analysis will be carried out in the meantime in preparation of an
external evaluation, directed by the course committee. Next to this all operational
activities (projects and daily operations) will be registered in the departmental annual
report in order to justify achievements.
Next to the aforementioned initiatives, the results of satisfaction surveys, education
assessments, study yield, etc. are an important input for improvement objectives. The
strategic policy plan and the related annual action plan are the synthesis and amalgam
of the various analyses.
6. SELF EVALUATION TOOLS
5.3. Instrument for self evaluation in secondary education (IZES)
IZES was developed by Prof. dr. Peter Van Petegem (University of
Antwerp) and draws inspiration from school effectiveness surveys. Five
domains at school level and five domains at class level are differentiated in this
tool. These domains are surveyed individually, the answers can be processed
electronically.
142
IZES SCHOOL LEVEL IZES CLASS LEVEL
Performance-oriented policy Effective learning time
Educational leadership Structured education
An orderly and positively learning
climate
Adequate subject material and
opportunity to learn
Quality of the curriculum Expectations as regards students
Cooperation between teachers Evaluate and monitor students progress
Confirmation of students
Figure 4: Table IZES school and class level
Source: Van Petegem, 2002
It is not always easy to integrate an existing instrument in the
organizations own school context. Often it requires some retranslating to
the schools own climate. At the same time, one needs to stay informed
about new - societal - developments in order to be able to integrate them
in the existing instruments after examination.
6.2. Quality plan/Annual Report of Faculty of Social Work and Welfare
Studies of University College Ghent
Every service within the Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies of
University College Ghent has to draw up an annual plan of activities,
formulated in effective actions and linked to the long-term objectives or
strategic objectives of the organization (cf. Annual Action Plan). Every service
works on strategic projects, and besides the description of these actions that
relate to these projects needs to include indicators that indicate which
requirements these actions need to comply with. The position and name of the
manager of each project is indicated in the overview.At the end of an academic
year, the actions (Results) are assessed and the phase in which a project finds
itself becomes clear:Start-up phase exploratory phase development phase
operational assessment phase improvement phase or completed (cf. Annual
Report).
143
An illustrative overview of the first four projects is given below.
Figure 5 : Quality plan Annual Report
Source: University College Ghent
6.3. Quality assurance tool PRO-SCHOOL
Figure 6: Hierarchy of the planning processes
Source: Frhlichs, 2000
Mission
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
- Long-term objectives
- Medium to long-term objectives
- Annual budgets
- Programme
- Short-term objectives
- Projects and activities
Vision
144
Projects have to be seen in the frame of the organizations medium to
long-term objectives and long-term objectives, i.e., the strategic objectives.
The ensemble of projects within an organization is known as the project
portfolio. The coordination of ongoing projects and the management of new
projects also require the necessary competences of the school manager. The
school manager and the teachers/staff involved in the projects can use specific
software to monitor the portfolio of projects to work effectively.
For the PRO-SCHOOL project a quality assurance tool was developed.
Deadlines, periods of time, people who are responsible are listed to monitor all
the workpackages of the project.
Figure 7 : Quality assurance tool PRO-SCHOOL
Source: University College Ghent
When the data from the QA-tool is gathered the quality assurance
progress report can be written. It illustrates the contribution of each partner in
the project and reports the strengths and weaknesses of the project.
145
Figure 8: Quality assurance progress report
Source: University College Ghent
7. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY
The module Methods of Quality Management is an interactive course.
Trainees clarify their own experiences in the field of quality assurance and
quality improvement based on their preparation of the module (cfr 1.2.
Preliminary assignments).
Theoretical knowledge will be transferred by a presentation and
discussed further in exercises.
In the module there will be interaction and knowledge sharing by means
of a structured discussion.
8. CONCLUSION
Integrated quality management involves all the organizations levels in the
quality management process. Due to a systematic approach, following the PDCA
cycle for instance, a school can work permanently on quality management.
In the self evaluation process data is gathered concerning the components
of quality, illustrated by the EFQM model, and described in a report. A good
preparation and its communication to the personnel of the school are very
important aspects in the self evaluation process.
146
Finally, to monitor a project-based school management three tools are
illustrated: Instrument for self evaluation in secondary education, Quality plan
and annual report of University College Ghent and the Quality assurance tool of
PRO-School.
9. RESOURCES, SUGGESTED READINGS & LINKS
Resources
Faculty of Social Work and Welfare Studies. (2009). Zelfevaluatierapport van de
opleiding professionele bachelor in het Sociaal Werk. Ghent: Faculty of Social Work
and Welfare Studies.
Devos, G., & Verhoeven, J.C., & Opdebrouck, W., & Verbeeck B. (2002). Handboek
zelfevaluatie in het secundair onderwijs. Mechelen: Wolters Plantyn.
Dulmers, R.J., & Brekelmans, P.T.J.M., & Dietvorst, C., &Giesbers, J.H.G.I., &
Mahieu, P.W.M., & Satter, J.M.G. (1988). Marketing voor scholen. Alphen aan den
Rijn, Vlaardingen: Samson, Nederlands Studie Centrum.
Freeman, R. (1993). Quality Assurance in Training and Education. How to apply
BS5750 (ISO 9000) Standards. London: Kogan Page.
Frhlichs R.C., & Platje, A. (2000). Project based management. Inrichting en
beheersing van de multiprojectorganisatie. Deventer: Kluwer.
Onderwijs Vlaanderen (2009). Schooldoorlichting. Retrieved December 8, 2009
from http://taalunieversum.org/onderwijs/termen/term/61/
TRIS-groep Kwaliteit in internationalisering (2001). Methode voor
kwaliteitsverbetering van het hoger onderwijs naar het EFQM-model versie 1.2. Geel:
TRIS-groep.
TRIS-groep (2004). TRIS- instrument versie 5.0. Kwaliteitsverbetering voor het
professioneel hoger onderwijs. Geel: TRIS-groep.
Van Petegem, P. et al. (2002). IZES Secundair onderwijs. Instrument voor
zelfevaluatie. Leuven: Acco.
147
Suggested Readings
Quality Management
Bosker, R. J. (2001). Kwaliteitszorg. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer.
Cuyvers, G. (2002). Kwaliteitsontwikkeling in het onderwijs. Antwerpen/Apeldoorn:
Garant.
Cuyvers, G. (2007). Zorgen voor kwaliteit. Handboek kwaliteitsontwikkeling voor non-
profit organisaties. Tielt: Lannoo.
Foks, M., & Moonen, B., & Odenthal, L. (2007). Kwaliteit maak je met elkaar:
handreikingen voor het stimuleren en implementeren van gelaagde kwaliteitszorg op
school. Amersfoort: CPS.
Grek, S., & Lawn, M. e.a. (2009). North by northwest: quality assurance and
evaluation processes in European education. Journal of Education Policy. 24 (2009).
Gvaramadze, I. (2008). From Quality Assurance to Quality Enhancement in the
European Higher Education Area, European Journal of Education. 43 (2008), 4.
HM Inspectorate of Education (2007). How good is our school: the journey to
excellence. Livingston: HMIE.
Hofman, O. (1996). Onderwijs is geen machine: echte discussie over
kwaliteitsbeleid ontbreekt. Didactief. 26(1996), 8.
Peeters, R. (2000). Beleidsvisie; naar een integratie van interne en externe
kwaliteitszorg. Persoon & Gemeenschap. 52(2000), 3.
Van Damme, D. (2005). Quality Assurance and Accreditation in the Flemish
Community of Belgium In: S. Schwarz, Don F. Westerheijden (2005).
Accreditation and Evaluation in the European Higher Education Area. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Self evaluation
Devos, G., & Verhoeven, J. (2002). Handboek zelfevaluatie in het secundair onderwijs.
Diegem: Kluwer.
Devos, G., & Verhoeven, J.C. (2003). School Self-Evaluation-Conditions and
Caveats. The Case of Secondary Schools. Educational Management Administration
& Leadership. 31(2003), 4.
148
MacBeath, J., & Schratz, M., & Meuret, D., & Jakobsen, L. (2000). Self-evaluation in
European schools: a story of change. London: Routledge.
TRIS-groep. (2004). TRIS- instrument versie 5.0. Kwaliteitsverbetering voor het
professioneel hoger onderwijs. Geel: TRIS-groep.
Vanhoof, J. & Van Petegem, P. (2009). Zelfevaluatie als motor voor
schoolontwikkeling: succesfactoren en valkuilen. Mechelen: Plantyn.
Van Petegem, P. (1998). Vormgeven aan schoolbeleid: effectieve-scholenonderzoek als
inspiratiebron voor de zelfevaluatie van scholen. Leuven: Acco.
Van Petegem, P., & Brandt, W., & Jacobs, D. (2003). IZES Secundair onderwijs.
Instrument voor zelfevaluatie van secundaire scholen. Leuven: Acco.
Links
PRO-SCHOOL project: http://www.pro-school.eu/
Goal setting (SMART):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uThBb3kGf4k&NR=1
SWOT - analysis:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNXYI10Po6A&feature=related
EFQM: http://ww1.efqm.org/en/
TRIS: http://www.epok.org/default.asp
EduBROn: http://www.edubron.be
149
PROject based SCHOOL
management
Evaluation of School Effectiveness
Authors
Prof. Milan Slavk
J Votava
Developed by:
Institute of Education and Communication, Czech University of Life Sciences
Prague, Czech Republic
150
1. INTRODUCTION
Growth in the use of standardized testing in this century reflects
continuing interest in the outcomes of education. Tests were most frequently
used to assess the performance of individual students. However, Coleman and
Karweit (1972) proposed that they could also be used to provide measures of
school performance in evaluating educational environments. Over the past
three decades, standardized tests have been used increasingly as instruments of
national education reform (Stufflebeam, Madaus and Kellaghan:, 2000: 113). In
order to improve the quality of education it is important to measure the
effectiveness of schools with all all components.
As a part of the PRO-SCHOOL project, partners gathered their countries
school evaluation criteria, and cross examination of these criteria showed us that,
apart from minor differences, all partner countries use similar criteria. Detailed
results of this research can be found on the Research Results module of this
publication.
This training module aims to enhance understanding of the educational
evaluation process. Evaluation process is closely related to the quality assurance
which is covered by the module Methods of Quality Management in Schools.
The module 'Methods of Quality Management' gives basic information about
setting out quality management in schools. This module focuses on one specific
area, namely the standards for assessing quality, i.e. the criteria and its
indicators. We would like to present an approach based on which the school
management would be able to use the already established sets of evaluation
criteria effectively, and be able to create its own criteria in a methodologically
appropriate manner, and to apply them in practice.
In short, this module aims to train school managers on;
Learning and understanding good examples of school effectiveness
evaluation criteria and processes and
Learning how to choose appropriate evaluation criteria according to a
schools objectives and strategy
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2. TERMINOLOGY BASIC CONCEPTS
Criterion (pl. criteria): A standard or principle by which something is
judged, or with the help of which a decision is made. (Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary)
Standard: A level of quality, especially one that people think is
acceptable or a level of quality that is normal or acceptable for a particular
person or in a particular situation.
Indicator: (indicate = to point out, show) a sign that shows what
something is like or how a situation is changing.
Indicator: is a variable that allows the verification of effects of educational
processes.
Quality: the standard of something when it is compared to other things
like it; how good or bad something is.
Quality of educational processes/educational institution/ educational
systems is a desired level of processes and results which is prescribed in
educational standards and could be objectively measured and evaluated.
School effectiveness: The process of articulating the mission, setting
goals, and using data to form assessments in an ongoing cycle of goal setting
through and planning.
3. DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS RESEARCH
School effectiveness research has made many developments in the USA
and UK during the twentieth century. These changes in the concept of school
effectiveness (illustrated in Figure 1) have a great impact on the criteria used for
internal or external school evaluations.
The stages in Figure 1 illustrate the shift in focus of the school effectiveness
research. In the second half of the twentieth century the school products were
assessed towards the input data, such as books in the library or specific teacher
characteristics (cfr School effects research, stage 1)
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Stage 1:
Stage 2:
Stage 3:
Figure 1: Stages of development of the concept of school effectiveness
Source: Tedlie, Reynolds 2000
The figure explains the short historical development of school
effectiveness research in western countries, especially in the USA and the UK.
Overall, there have been three major strands in the school effectiveness research:
school effects research (see Stage 1) this studies evolved from simple inputs-
outputs to multilevel model analyses, effective school research (see Stage 2): in
this section there were simple case studies on the beginning, currently this stage
consists of mixed qualitative and quantitative studies and collateral classroom
and school examinations, school improvement research (see Stage 3): it is
examination of processes which could contribute to school change, it goes
beyond simple school effectiveness knowledge and it demands multilevel
approach. The researchers realized that not only the input but also the processes
within a school influence the output of a school. Instructional leadership or
giving attention to student's progress is examples of processes within a school
(cfr Effective school research and school improvement studies). Stage 3 clearly
shows that the internal and external evaluation of education should take into
account the input, process, output and context data. Nowadays researches prefer
to include another variable, namely 'context' in their analyses (e.g. demographic
data of the school).
Inputs
Outputs Process
Context
Inputs
Outputs Process
Inputs
Outputs
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4. SETTING OUT THE CRITERIA
In the process of internal evaluation and, to a lesser degree, also in the
process of external evaluation the school managers can set out the criteria to be
used in the evaluation. There is a plethora of ready-made systems which can
either be applied as a whole (e.g. EFQM model) or used as a catalogue of tools
available when working with specific standards.
Selection and use of suitable evaluation criteria is a complex exercise. The
text below will give a description of some generally valid recommendations. The
procedure that we propose consists of the following steps:
a. Selection of criteria
b. Checking quality of selected criteria (reliability, validity)
c. Operational definition of each criteria/defining indicators
a. Selection of criteria
As a school manager it is important to evaluate the school on a structured
way. Based on literature or research models a school manager can define his own
criteria and indicators within a specific school context.
An evaluation against the criteria involves making a judgement after
considering the available evidence. The evidence may be drawn from many
sources; direct observation in the classroom of teaching and learning and of
samples of students work, or examination of documentation, ranging from
policy documents to minutes of meetings or teachers records. Direct observation
can be supplemented by discussions with staff, students and parents (Blacknell
Forest, 1999: 4).
The module 'Methods of Quality Management in schools' illustrates the
EFQM- model. EFQM consists of 9 criteria, 32 subcriteria and more descriptors.
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The 9 EFQM criteria are:
1. Leadership
2. Policy and Strategy
3. People
4. Partnerships and Resources
5. Processes
6. Customer Results
7. People Results
8. Society Results
9. Key Performance Results
It is useful to evaluate all the areas of the EFQM model within a defined
timespan. Not every year a school has to measure all the areas at once, instead
the school manager makes up a time schedule including several years to
interrogate every area.
Within the PRO-SCHOOL project each partner made a research report on
school effectiveness indicators of their own country. Turkey, Greece, Romania,
Italy, Czech Republic and Belgium - Flanders - listed up the criteria and
indicators used in each partner country to evaluate schools.
For example Belgium (Flanders)
In Flanders the educational inspectorate uses the CIPO model as a
reference frame for its school inspections. The model offers an overview of the
following aspects but also represents the relations between the components:
Context
Gathering all of the elements of the schools functioning, on which a
school has little or no influence.
Input
Gathering all of the elements of the schools functioning which can be
changed by the school itself to a certain extent (cf. human availability,
educational offering, and material resources).
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Process
Gathering all of the elements of the schools functioning which are
completely controlled by the school itself. No distinction is made between the
educational policy and the educational support policy.
Output
Gathering all of the elements that are directly and indirectly related to the
quality that a school achieves. This quality pertains to educational performance
as well as to personality forming aspects, in the short and the long term.
(See Figure 2 in 'Methods of Quality Management' module)
The selection of criteria is largely influenced by the purpose of the
evaluation and the nature of the evaluated phenomenon. Nonetheless, it is not
sufficient to enlist the criteria; our decision has to be justified. The aim of the
evaluation can be e.g. a description of current situation, an attempt to precisely
set out the objectives and subsequently to express the extent of their
accomplishment or to get a deeper knowledge and understanding of
relationships between the conditions of education and its outputs. When
assessing e.g. the exploitation of ICT at schools, the following criteria can be set
out:
Hardware availability
Software availability
Availability of school computers for students
Availability of school computers for teachers
ICT competence of teachers
...
b. Checking quality of selected criteria
The criteria of an evaluation determine the questions that the evaluation
aims to answer. Hence they decide the data to be collected and the use that is
made of it. Obviously, therefore, they must be stated clearly and in detail. It is
perhaps too easy, however, to emphasize only the need for a detailed list of
clearly stated criteria. The evaluation will be a valid one only when (i) the criteria
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included in the list are appropriate and relevant, and (ii) the list is complete in
that it consists of all the appropriate and relevant criteria. To meet these
conditions, it is hardly sufficient simply to list the criteria that come to mind. To
meet the first, it might be possible to argue the appropriateness of relevance of
each item in the list. This would be satisfactory up to a point but the more the
emphasis is laid on defending the criteria without having a basis for their
inclusion in the first place, the less satisfactory it would be. So far as the second
condition is concerned completeness of the list would presumably be defined in
terms of an inability to think of any other item to include (Hodgsona and
Whalley, 1985:44)
Criteria should also be expressed as plain statements of the practice
considered to be critical to success and, therefore, what effective schools do.
Phrased in this way, the criteria can be used as targets when a school is planning
its development and considering what it might want to achieve (Blacknell
Forest, 1999:3).
Good evaluation requires minimizing factors that could lead to
misinterpretation of results. The criteria for meeting this requirement are
reliability and validity of the evaluation criteria. Reliability is defined as an
indication of the consistency of scores across evaluators or over time. An
evaluation is considered reliable when the same results occur regardless of when
the evaluation occurs or who does the scoring. There should be compelling
evidence to show that results are consistent across raters and across scoring
occasions. Validity is defined as an indication of how well an evaluation actually
measures what it is supposed to measure.
When selecting and defining criteria for evaluation, it is important to
ensure both the validity and reliability. The data collected during a school
evaluation must in some way accurately reflect the actions being assessed. To the
extent that this is so, the assessment is valid. Reliability relates to whether or not
the findings can be replicated. Validity does not ensure reliability, and reliability
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does not ensure validity. For instance, a study can be valid, but lack reliability,
and vice versa.
An example might help one understand the meaning of and relationship
between validity and reliability. Imagine a scale. If you weigh five kilogram of
potatoes in the morning, and the scale is reliable, the same scale should register
five kilogram of potatoes an hour later (unless, of course, you peeled and cooked
them). Likewise, when evaluating Use of school computers for teaching the
students (see next section) your tool should be reliable it should not make any
difference whether the assessment is done today or the next day. However, even
if a tool is reliable, it may not provide a valid measure. Lets imagine same scale
that consistently tells you that you weigh 75 kilogram. The reliability
(consistency) of this scale is very good, but it is not accurate (valid) because you
actually weigh 80 kilogram! In this case you need to ensure validity of your
evaluation tool by guaranteeing content validity (which deals with whether the
assessment content and composition are appropriate, given what is being
measured), construct validity (which is essentially how closely
the assessment relates to the domain that you wish to assess) and predictive
validity (which suggests that predictions made on the basis of
the assessment results will be valid).
c. Operational definition of each criteria/ Defining indicators
Each criterion should be operationalised, i.e. such a definition should be
coined that will cover its empirical verification. The term of operationalisation
means proceeding from the primary, intuitively created idea of a concept to its
specification, namely by means of direct or indirect variables and values acquired
by these variables.
The dimension is usually a precise quantity, a value that immediately
corresponds to the given variable. The weight is measured in grams, time in
seconds, and length of a paper in the number of words. Some criteria, however,
cannot be quantified in such a simple way. Therefore we look for other, partial
variables or manifestations thereof. A positive social climate can thus be
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monitored through questions on whether a student feels safe, whether he/she
has friends in the class, whether he/she witnesses conflicts among his/her peers,
etc. Differences in the concept of an indicator and a dimension are demonstrated
in the following example:
Criterion: Use of school computers for teaching students
Operationalisation by means of a dimension: Use of school computers
for teaching students = time spent by students at school computers
Operationalisation by means of an indicator: Use of school computers for
teaching students = URL addresses visited by students and activities
performed on the computer (e.g. what applications were used)
The above referred to information clearly indicates that both the selection
of criteria and the selection of their variables and particularly the criterion
variable relationships must be meaningful. Does it make sense for the evaluation
to e.g. monitor how many minutes the students spent on computers? What is the
reporting value of this information?
Practical exercises
Define two indicators to measure 'School Climate'.
Define two indicators to measure ' Staff Communication'
Practical example Turkey
The table below illustrates 6 dimensions of school effectiveness defined by
the PRO-school group and the corresponding indicators of Turkey.
Table 1: Practical example of school effectiveness in Turkey
Dimensions Indicators
1. Physical
conditions
The school (classes, buildings, activity rooms, laboratories,
library, and canteen) and annexes are clean
The precautions have been taken in case of a fire
The precautions taken for students security
The school has enough laboratories
The school has enough ICT facilities
There is enough and up-to-date books in library
There are enough space and facilities for spare time of
students
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2. Management
and planning
There are enough teachers for all lessons
School provides extra training courses for students
The absenteeism rates of teachers
Regularity of teachers shifts
Students attires
Participation of students and teachers for decision making
Sharing concerned information with students
Informing students about school rules and regulations
Rewarding students achievements
Giving adequate guidance services
Monitoring students developments
Guiding students according to their affinities and skills
Organising seminars to protect students from harmful habits
3. Education
and Training
Teachers are using necessary materials and tools in lessons
Achievement levels of the students are regularly measured
There are joint testing sessions in school
Homework encourages students to do research
Students are successful in (National) university admission
exams
Students are using library sufficiently
Students are using ICT facilities sufficiently
Students are using laboratories sufficiently
Class repetition rates
Access to higher education
The rate of absenteeism of students
4. Social Life
Students are supported in their social activities
Commemorative and celebration ceremonies are regarded
Students are actively participating in social and cultural
activities and competitions
Student clubs are actively running
There are volunteer community works
Students are informed about the natural disasters such as
earthquake, fire and flood
Students are taken to field trips such as museums, exhibitions,
etc.
5..Financial
aspects
School budget is used effectively
Parents and other sectors are supported school with donations
6. Relations
with
Environment
School Parent Association is actively participating school
activities
Parents are regularly informed about childrens academic and
general level
There are cooperation between school management, guidance
service and parents
School has good relations with other institutions
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5. CLASSIFICATION OF CRITERIA
In the introduction of this module we stated that a criterion is a standard
or a benchmark we use to measure phenomena that we wish to assess and
evaluate. Just as in real life, what is to be measured is essential since it is based on
it the measure is selected.
When measuring connecting materials, the measurement accuracy shall be
of one tenth of a millimeter and a workshop calliper will do, whereas when
determining the area of land we shall use a measuring tape. Crucial is also
accuracy when preparing meals at home a 5 % deviation of measurement does
not make any difference, but in a laboratory or in the course of drug preparation
such a deviation is inadmissible. Therefore, in the first case, it is sufficient to use
an ordinary kitchen scale, while in the latter case a high precision laboratory scale
shall be used. From another perspective, it will be important to distinguish the
measuring tools in dependence on the quantity they are to measure.
Let us apply a similar approach to the educational systems and
educational processes. How can we classify the evaluation criteria?
The classification may depend first of all on the area of education and
functioning of the school or the whole educational system that we need to
evaluate. The point is what model of evaluation is used e.g. the above referred
to EFQM system outlines nine areas, i.e. nine groups of criteria.
Another generally applied set of criteria was included in the publications
of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. In OECD
reports (Education at a Glance 2007), school systems are described with
indicators organized thematically within a framework. It consists of three
dimensions:
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Actors in educational systems (individual learners, instructional settings
and learning environments, educational service providers, and the
education system as a whole)
Groups of indicators according to whether they deal with the learning
outcomes of individuals or countries, policy levers or circumstances
Policy issues to which the indicators relate, with three major categories
distinguishing between the quality of educational outcomes and
educational provision, issues of equity in educational outcomes and
educational opportunities, and the adequacy and effectiveness of resource
management.
The following Table combines the first and the second dimension:
Table 3: Classification of criteria
Education and
learning outputs
and outcomes
Policy levers and
contexts shaping
educational
outcomes
Antecedents or
constraints that
contextualise policy
Individual
participants in
education and
Learning
The quality and
distribution of
individual
educational
outcomes
Individual attitudes,
engagement and
behaviour
Background
characteristics of the
individual learners
Instructional
Settings
The quality of
instructional
delivery
Pedagogy and
learning practices
and classroom
climate
Student learning
conditions and
teacher
working conditions
Providers of
educational
Services
The output of
educational
institutions
and institutional
performance
School environment
and organisation
Characteristics of the
service providers and
their communities
The education
system as a
whole
The overall
performance of the
education system
System-wide
institutional settings,
resource allocations
and policies
The national
educational, social,
economic and
demographic contexts
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Another classification of criteria reflects the manner of measuring we are
performing, or the type of the variable. There are two main groups of criteria
numerical criteria and categorical criteria. Numerical criteria, however, are
further sub-grouped into ordinal, cardinal and metric criteria. The ordinal criteria
express the rank order, the cardinal criteria express the rank order with equal
intervals and the metric criteria assign to the phenomena numerical values that
can be used in common mathematical operations. Examples are given in the table
below:
Table 4: Types of criteria
Nominal criteria Distribution of students in school by sex
Number of students admitted to medical schools
Fields of study offered by a school
School provides information on the admission procedure
on its website
Ordinal and
cardinal criteria
Year of school attendance
Level of qualification of teaching staff
Ranking of school subjects by popularity among students
Evaluation of classroom climate using a 6-point scale
Students' ratings - school report
Metric criteria Test scores
Age of teachers
Number of lessons of a subject taught
Absence of students expressed in the number of missed
lessons
Expenditure on continuing education of teaching staff
Another way of classifying the evaluation criteria proceeds from the scope
of their impact, i.e. the scale. Sometimes the evaluation focuses solely on the local
level e.g. on the evaluation of a single teacher or a class, on the evaluation of a
single school e.g. throughout an ongoing project. A smaller evaluation unit
allows for a more detailed approach in the course of a self-assessment carried
out by the school, most likely every teacher as well as every student will have an
opportunity to express his/her opinion. The very opposite is represented by the
global evaluation, i.e. to a smaller degree. Such evaluations make use of basic,
critical, numerical and often aggregated information; their purpose is to reflect
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the functioning of the entire system and its individual parts. Subject to
comparisons can be e.g. the quality of instruction according to PISA tests, cost-
effectiveness or success rate of graduates/school leavers in their transfer to
higher level of education or transition to work.
Another classification generally relates to methodology. For gathering
data on social reality and their processing two main strategies are brought
forward for consideration quantitative and qualitative. The first one is rooted in
positivism it seeks to obtain objective, measurable and descriptive data. It
employs such data gathering methods which cover a large number of
investigated units at low costs (money, time), for example; a uniform testing of
students in some countries, uniform final examinations, etc. Qualitative methods
are close to phenomenology, they thoroughly explore the relevant problem,
study it in context, they strive for understanding, or interpretation. The
qualitative strategy in the evaluation is manifested by the use of research
methods such as interviews, observations, analysis of school documents,
comprehensive case studies. external
The last aspect to be mentioned is the classification of criteria depending
on whether it is an internal and external evaluation. In the event of external
evaluation the room for maneuvering tends to be limited, it usually applies the so
called ready to use assessment systems (e.g. EFQM). Conversely, the internal
evaluation makes it possible (to a larger or smaller extent) to select the criteria to
be used.
6. CONCLUSION
In this module we tried to employ efficient methods which could help to
create, find out or choose good, e.g. objective and effective criteria for evaluation
of school effectiveness and especially to bring them into practice.
Setting out criteria and corresponding indicators to evaluate schools takes
a lot of time and effort of a school manager and his staff. Within schools for
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example it is hard to make qualitative criteria ready for use. The selected criteria
and indicators have to correspond with the policy of the school and its mission
and vision. Within project based school management specific indicators for each
project have to be defined before getting started with a project.
At least one should always be aware of the fact that 'what we measures is
what we shall see'.
7. SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY
Presentation of basic concepts
Case studies of criteria construction and use
Problem solving approaches discussion on model situation and practical
experience of participants
Practical work preparation of own criteria and indicators in accordance
with practical demand and needs of concrete school leadership system
8. RESOURCES & LINKS
Bracknell Forest Education Department Curriculum Quality and Achievement
Branch (1999). Criteria for School Evaluation and Development.
http://www.bracknell-forest.gov.uk/criteria-for-school-evaluation-and-
development.pdf
Hodgsona F. and Whalley, G. (1985) Evaluation of In-Service Education: the
Question of Criteria, Professional Development in Education, Volume 12,
Issue 1 Winter 1985 , pages 44 47.
Michek, S. (2007). Manual for self-assessment of vocational education and training
providers. Prague: National Institute of Technical and Vocational
Education, 2007. ISBN 978-80-87063-04-0.
Stufflebeam, D. L.; Madaus, G. F. ; Kellaghan, T. (Eds.) (2000). Evaluation Models:
Viewpoints on Educational and Human Services Evaluation. Second Edition.
Hingham, MA, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/surreyuniv/Doc?id=10053344&ppg=37
165
Tedlie, Ch. and Reynolds, D. (2000). International Handbook of School Effectiveness
Research. London - New York: Falmer Press. ISBN:
Model excelence EFQM. Praha: esk spolenost pro jakost, 2004. ISBN 80-02-
01671-8.
Website:
Czech School Inspection. http:// www.csicr.cz
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PROject based SCHOOL
management
School Managers and Learning
Achievements:
How Can School Managers Improve
School Results?
Authors:
Patrizia Gelmetti
Tiziana Pedrizzi
Developed by:
ANSAS National Agency for the Development of School Autonomy
Lombardia, Italy
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1. INTRODUCTION
Over the last two decades the focus of education has shifted from teaching
to learners achievements. As a matter of fact, right after World War II and till the
eighties, it was considered enough to invest in buildings, laboratories, the
number of teachers and training courses in order to raise the level of learners
outputs and achievements. Nowadays international researche and analyses in
students and adult literacy pointed out the assumption that investments always
impact on outputs with the same direct proportion.
Therefore two types of policies were developed. The first one is to assess
school outputs through the generalization of the participation in international
standardized students assessment surveys (like PISA) or in national assessment
procedures.
The second one concerns the learners assessments by the introduction of
external standardized final exams (total or partial examination procedures), as
the external assessment is considered to be more reliable than the internal one.
Furthermore, a renewed interest in educational leadership is spreading all
over Europe, after a period of predominance of organisational and managerial
competencies. This happens also as the assessment of the students performances
in the subjects of the core curriculum has become central to many national
policies in the field of education and training. So managers in schools must
become able to manage their students assessment in order to enhance their
school performance and image. They also need to be able to use achievements
results to improve the teaching in their schools.
The aim of this module is to understand school managers role in
increasing learning achievements, to learn how to use PBSM to improve schools
outcomes and to give school managers (trainees) a chance to apply project based
school management in a case study.
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2. TERMINOLOGY
National testing: the national administration of standardised tests and
centrally set examinations.
Achievement: Successful performance; a measure of the quality and of the
quantity of the success one has in the mastery of knowledge, skills, or
understandings.
3. NATIONAL TESTING OF STUDENTS IN EUROPE
The national testing of students is becoming increasingly important across
Europe as a means of measuring and monitoring the quality of education and
structuring European education system. The tests are based on centrally set
procedures for the preparation of their content, for the administration and
marking, and for the interpretation and use of results.
National testing is carried out under the authority of a national or
centralised body, and all examinees take the test under reasonably similar
conditions. Except in a few countries, national tests represent a relatively new
way for the students assessment in Europe. The introduction and use of national
tests began slowly and sporadically and has increased significantly only since the
1990s. In the current decade some countries are still introducing this type of
assessment instrument, while those that started earlier have seen further
developments in their national testing system.
The aims are different from test to test. The first type summarises the
achievement of students at the end of a particular education stage and may have
a significant impact on their school career. The results of these tests are used to
award certificates or to make important decisions regarding streaming
progression from one year to the next or the final grading of students. In most
cases, these results are considered in conjunction with the internal results at the
end of the year or with final internal examinations.
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The second one consists of standardised assessments whose main
objective is to monitor and evaluate schools or educational systems as wholes.
The aim is to increase the quality and effectiveness of education, even by ranking
schools.
At the school levels, to which the national tests are provided, testing varies
considerably from country to country. The frequency varies: it could be every
year to every 2 or 3 years (the majority of the European countries) during the
whole of compulsory education. As for the timing, education authorities in most
cases organise national tests towards the end of the school year.
National tests are based on the curriculum and linked to national
education standards in the subjects tested. Certain countries limit national testing
to two or three subjects although several of them have announced plans to widen
its scope by adding additional ones.
In the vast majority of countries, national tests represent a combination of
subject-centred and skill-based questions and tasks. Very often countries favour a
mix of multiple-choice items, short answers and essays, and open-ended
questions, depending on the subject and the school year.
Test questions are supplemented by background questionnaires for school
principals, teachers, parents and students which link the data collected to the
socio economic background of the students, their motivation, the support
measures or the school climate.
In the great majority of European countries, the aggregated results of
national tests for each school are not publicised. But some countries arrange for
central government publication of results for each school or recommend local
publication even in the leaflets of schools. These data can be published as raw
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data or with weight indicators depending on the characteristic of the student
population or the Added Value of schools.
In some European countries the external evaluation of schools or school
managers takes account of the results achieved by the students in national tests.
In others, there are regulations, recommendations or resources for support, that
relate to the use of the test results during the internal school evaluation. In fact
central authorities expect schools to carry out an internal process of quality
analysis based on their results in certain national tests.
In many countries there are strong debates about unintended effects of
national tests. The most common unintended effects/consequences are:
overemphasis on subjects tested and on parts of these subjects, problems for
weak students, demotivation and anxiety increase in students, less importance to
teachers judgements. In case tests are used to rank schools, it is necessary to
measure first of all Added Value (Eurydice, 2009).
4. SCHOOL MANAGERS and SCHOOL RESULTS
It has been found that effective leaders develop school climates and
cultures that help motivate both students and teachers leading to the creation of
better teaching and learning environments which are more conducive to higher
levels of student achievements. Besides, in most school systems, the school
manager is required by the systemic authorities to improve student learning and
is held accountable for it by building commitments in developing a shared vision
for motivating and energizing the teachers and students.
It has been reported that the leadership behaviour of a manager and
his/her role as an instructional leader has a significant impact on creating more
effective schools leading to higher levels of student achievements. For example
Cotton (2003) has asserted that the following types of behaviours by a principal
have a significant impact on student achievements:
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The establishment of a clear focus on student learning by having a vision,
clear learning goals, and high expectations for learning for all students
Interactions and cordial relationships with relevant stakeholders with
communication and interaction, emotional and interpersonal support,
visibility and accessibility, and parent/community participation;
Developing a school culture conducive to teaching and learning through
shared leadership and decision-making, collaboration, risk taking leading
to continuous improvements;
Providing instructional leadership through discussions of instructional
issues, observing classroom teaching and giving feedback, supporting
teacher autonomy and protecting instructional time; and
Being accountable for affecting and supporting continuous improvements
through monitoring progress and using student progress data for program
improvements (cited in Gamage, Adams and McCormack, 2009).
A manager needs to have a clear understanding of the major dimensions
of his or her position, including: (a) the aims and goals which his or her school is
attempting to achieve; (b) the means or the resources available to achieve these
goals; (c) the degree of freedom delegated to him or her by the employing
authority to innovate or modify existing educational methods and procedures in
order to achieve these goals; (d) the legal, traditional and personal authority
vested in the role of the manager; (e) the constraints and boundaries likely to
limit school-based decisions; and (f) the extent of the managers responsibility
and accountability for funding, staffing and administration of the school.
Apart from establishing a vision and setting goals, effective managers
place high emphasis on achieving high levels of student learning and provide
resources towards the efforts to improve the achievements and general well-
being of the students. In practice, these managers constantly encourage teachers
and students to attain higher levels of academic achievements; adopt
collaborative planning processes, problem solving and decision-making focus on
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school improvements while ensuring that all school development programs are
geared to make all students learn.
It is obvious that there is no one particular style of leadership claiming to
be the perfect one leading to improved school performances and student
achievements. School managers are required to be more flexible in adapting
appropriate leadership styles with the creation of collaborative working
environments with higher-levels of commitment, motivation, ownership,
developing, trusting and healthier school cultures, facilitating higher
productivity and increased student achievements Gamage, Adams and
McCormack, 2009). With these in mind, we believe that Project Based School
Management method will help school managers to increase their schools general
achievement levels. In order to better understand PBSM the following case study
is parepared as a part of in-service training program designed for school
managers. Following part of the module covers the training methodology and
step by step case study.
5. TRAINING METHODOLOGY
After the introduction the participants will describe shortly the situation of
the achievement results in their own school, based on the National Testing of
Students in Europe, or on national evaluations and will discuss positive and
negative aspects of national/international assessment.
Then, the participants will discuss a case study presented by the training
staff, and will suggest possible improvements to be introduced into the school
activities.
During the group work, the participants will use a grid provided by the
training staff.
The chapter PBSM Philosopy and Training Methodology (1. Planning, 2.
Organizing, 3. Commanding, 4. Coordinating, 5. Controlling) is the reference
173
point for structuring the grid. The provided grid suggests a wide range of items
for each point of the discussion. Considering the limited amount of time, during
the work session the trainers will identify only three items for each point to
submit to the participants.
At the end of the work session the participants will fill the grid and
discuss the results; then they will prepare a draft Project that will be structured
according to PBSM Philosopy and Training Methodology in order to improve
the school results.
5.1. Case study
The group will analyse the case presented by the trainers and will suggest
possible improvements to be introduced into the school activities.
During the case study, the participants will analyse:
1. The social and economic environment the school belongs to, in order to find
out if there is any connection between the student results and the socio-cultural
family situation;
2. The school situation:
is the external evaluation a habit for the school or is it a first?
what is the attitude of teachers, parents and SM towards the external
evaluation?
conditions/circumstances in which the external evaluation was provided
3. The testing results are important in order to:
point out the main problem(s) arisen from the analysis of the testing
results (e.g. results below the average level, non-homogeneous results,
very different from one subject to another, very different from one class to
another)
174
find out the causes: teachers, organization, students, previous class
situation
discuss strategies at different levels (best practices)
4. Possible use of results:
In the school: improving the school organization, encouraging students
self analysis processes, promoting teachers training activities, organizing
additional classes and advanced modules for students...
In the territory: involving parents and other stakeholders in processes for
the improvement of school activities...
The discussion on the results can consider two aims: one is the already
mentioned improvement of the students achievements, the other is the
relationship with the territory, in order to involve the stakeholders as much as
possible in the school life.
5.2 Case Study Grid
CASE STUDY GRID
1. Social school context (environmental conditions and social level of the
students families)
Invovelment of stakeholders in the planning and organization of
managerial and educational activities (resources and services
provision)
Involvement of parents and families in the school-life
2. School situation analysis (general situation and consideration on the
standard external evaluation)
Previous participation of the school in similar initiatives (if so, kind
of measures adopted)
Compulsory or optional participation (if optional: level of common
share)
Position of teachers towards the standard external evaluation (is it
considered a good opportunity or felt as a judgment?)
Position of students towards the standard external evaluation (a
useless exercise or a good opportunity for self-evaluation?)
Timing, subjects chosen, number of classes involved
Previous training courses on the evaluation/testing/assessment
175
Establishment of a Project team for the evaluation of students
achievements
Involvement of the evaluation project leader to the planning and
organization of the school activities
Motivation, incentivizing of the project leader and team members
Connection and interaction between the evaluation project leader
and other school project leaders
Project documentation methods
3. Testing Results, presentation of the results and problems to be discussed
a) Presentation of the results
Timing and circumstances (during a specific staff meeting, as an
item on the agenda, right after the testing, or at the end of the school
year? ...)
Method: comparative schedules for the same grades, comparative
schedules referring to the previous years, comments by the principal
and his staff, or no comments at all in order to allow personal
reflections?
................................................
b) Problem to be discussed
Results below the average level
Non homogeneous results, very different from one subject to
another
Non homogeneous results, very different from one class to the other
.
.........
4. Analysis of the possible causes
Teachers (competence, ability, training,)
Organization (planning, team work,.)
Students (class composition: numbers, origin of the students, ...)
Previous class situation (continuity: same teachers, a lot of
changes,..)
.
5. Strategies to adopt to face and solve the problem
Organizational aspects (assignment of teachers, classes composition,
timetable)
Didactic aspects
For the students (personal support, extra hours, remedial classes /
hours...)
For the teachers (in-service training, support to the team- work,
support to the common planning, common evaluation tests...)
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6. Use of the results
Analysis of the results as an input to promote initiatives to reflect on
the school organization
Analysis of the results as an input to promote self-evaluation
activities for the students
Analysis of the results as an input to organize groups of teachers to
collaborate and re-arrange some didactic activities
Analysis of the results as an input to organize training courses for
the teachers
Analysis of the results as an input to organize remedial courses for
the students
Presentation of the results to the parents (timing, methods, ...)
Presentation of the results to the stakeholders (timing, methods, ...)
Possible discussion on the involvement of the policy makers and the
stakeholders
........
5.3 Discussion on Best Practices and Guidelines
The participants will discuss the group work results and they will
highlight the best practices. The comments and the observations will be listed in
the Guidelines according to the following structure:
1 Preliminary activities
2 Training of the selected staff
3 Testing implementation
4 Results analysis and interpretation
5 Presentation of the results to the teaching staff
6 Presentation of the results to the community
7 Projects to improve the school results
This content will be adapted to the characteristics and needs of the
different countries of trainees.
177
6. PROJECT FORMULATION by USING PBSM
At the end of the work session, after filling out the grid and discussing the
results; the participants will be asked to prepare a draft Project that will be
structured according to the following steps:
1. Planning
Formulation of objectives
Strategies for the involvement of stakeholders in the planning and
organization of school activities
Partecipatory decision-making processes among team members (sharing
of responsibilities and authority)
2. Organizing
Identification of the project leader
Identification of the necessary human and material resources for the
achievement of objectives
Definition of the timetable and location for the implementation of
activities
Formulation of action steps (implementation phases)
Priming of remuneration forms for the project leader and team members
Identification of documents and materials to support each implementative
phase
3. Commanding
Sharing responsabilities among team members in each implementation
phases
Defining communication strategies within the project team and with the
school manager and staff.
4. Coordinating
Defining the meeting timetable among team members, with school staff
and other stakeholders
178
Setting of information system to support the interaction between team
members, school staff and stakeholders (also making the best use of
internet)
5. Controlling
Identification of methods for the in itinere evaluation
Identification of methods for the ex-post evaluation (correspondence
between objectives and results, impact evaluation...)
Setting of measurament indicators
7. CONCLUSION
National testing is a growing trend not only in Europe but also all around
the world. Results of the Eurydice research on national testing indicate that
almost all European countries are using national testing to assess students
success, to monitor and evaluate schools or the educational system as a whole. In
general the aim is to increase the quality and effectiveness of education by
testing.
The role of the school manager in increasing school effectiveness is widely
analysed and accepted by the academic community. Apart from establishing a
vision and setting goals, effective managers place high emphasis on achieving
high levels of student learning and provide resources towards the efforts to
improve the achievement and general well-being of students. Effective managers
constantly encourage teachers and students to attain higher levels of academic
achievement. In order to do so, school managers are required to be more flexible
in adapting appropriate leadership and management styles.
The Project-based School Management method is a new management
methodology developed as a result of PRO-SCHOOL project. This publication as
whole and this module in particular provides a training methodology to use
Project Based School Management method to improve school results.
179
8. RESOURCES & LINKS:
Eurydice. (2008). National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and
ongoing reforms,
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ressources/eurydice/pdf/047DN/047_IT_EN.pdf
Eurydice. (2009) National Testing of Pupils in Europe: Objectives, Organisation
and Use of Results:
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/1
09EN.pdf
Eurydice Web Site: www.eurydice.org
Gamage, D., & Adams, D., & McCormack, A. (2009) How Does a School Leaders
Role Influence Student Achievements? A Review of Research Findings and Best
Practices. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, Volume 4,
Number 1 (January March) http://cnx.org/content/m19751/latest/
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PROject based SCHOOL management
In-Service Training
Curriculum
181
PROJECT-BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY AND
TRAINING METHODOLOGY
Duration: 3 hours
Responsible partner: Menderes Town National Education Directorate, Turkey
Aim(s) of the module:
to introduce Project-Based School Management (PBSM) approach to
school managers
to understand the rationale behind the project-based school management,
identify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which are necessary
for successful project-based management,
understand the importance of ensuring participation in in-service
trainings,
Preparation& Materials needed:
Prepared questions for discussion
Flipchart, markers, papers and sticky tapes
PowerPoint presentation
Assessment :
Assessment will be done by participants by using Kirkpatricks four level model.
182
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
-learn about
project-based
management,
project-based
organizations
and project-based
school
management
-what is project-
based
management,
-what is project-
based
organizations
and project-
based school
management
Presentation
& structured
discussion
50 min -Introductory
questions will
be asked to
start discussion
-PowerPoint
presentation
-Further
discussion
-learn about the
functions of
project-based
school
management and
key management
skills for PBSM
- functions of
project-based
school
management
- key
management
skills for PBSM
Presentation,
group work
and structured
discussion
40 min -PowerPoint
presentation
-groups will be
determined
and questions
for discussion
will be given
-results of the
discussions will
be presented to
whole group
-learn about
adult learning
principles and
active learning
methods
Group work
Case study
Discussion
Brainstorming
Role play
Icebreakers
Buzzgroups
Presentation
and Role play
45 min -Presentation of
the subject by
PPT
-Each training
method will be
introduced by
using role play
-learn how to
evaluate
trainings
Four level of
learning
evaluation
model:
1.Reaction
2.Personal
learning
3.Applied
learning
4.Results
Presentation
and structured
discussion
45 min -The subject
will be
introduced by
PPT
-Questions for
discussion
-Evaluation of
the module by
using
Kirkpatrick
model
183
EFFECTIVE SCHOOL INDICATORS AND IN-SERVICE TRAINING NEEDS
OF SCHOOL MANAGERS
Duration: 2 hours
Responsible partner: Menderes Town National Education Directorate, Turkey
Aim(s) of the module:
to give brief information about PRO-SCHOOL project,
to give a picture of effective school indicators according to perceptions of
high school managers, teachers and parents from partner countries,
to share the in-service training needs of school managers
to disseminate projects outputs with target groups
Preparation & Materials needed:
Prepared questions for discussion
Flipchart, markers, papers and sticky tapes
PowerPoint presentation
Assessment :
Assessment of the module will be done by using talking stick method (each
participant will be asked to comment on the module)
184
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
-define and
understand the
concept of
school
effectiveness
what is school
effectiveness
what are the
indicators of
effective
school
Structured
discussion
45 min -A structured
discussion will be
started by
introducing
questions,
participants will
discuss the answers
and write down a
list of answers
-learn and
discuss about
research results
of Pro-School
Project
Research
results of Pro-
School Project
PowerPoint
presentation
75 min - PowerPoint
presentation will be
given
-After the
presentation the
participants will
comment on the
results and their
own experiences
185
LIFECYCLE OF THE PROJECT
Duration: 3,5 hours
Responsible partner: Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Aim(s) of the module:
to develop knowledge and tools for understanding project management and
its benefits for quality assurance of the processes in an educational
institution and in various sections of it.
to prepare school managers to access the national and European funding
opportunities by developing coherent and structured projects for the school
or for needs within the school.
to support school managers and heads of working teams in preparing,
delivering and assessing the knowledge, by valorizing the resources and
avoiding overlapping.
Preparation & Materials needed:
Flipchart, markers, papers and sticky tapes
PowerPoint presentation
Assessment (please explain):
Project based assessment. The trainees are required to develop the Activity Plan
for a project to be implemented in their educational institution.
186
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timin
g
Explanations
- to introduce the
history of Project
Management and
discuss the
importance of
Project Management
in schools
-Introduction;
History of Project
Management
- Why Project
Management in
schools?
PPT
presentatio
n and open
discussion
30 min
-to teach how to set
up a Project
Management Plan
Identification
setting up the goal,
objectives
Expected outcomes:
indicators
PPT 30 min
-to introduce
Project Appraisal
steps and
procedures
Identifying the
funding
programme
Identifying the
resources
Developing the
project proposal
Correlation:
Objectives
Activities Results
Project time frame:
the Gantt diagram
Developing the
Financial plan
correlating
activities with
financing
PPT,
discussion
on samples
60 min After the
introduction
of the subject
by PPT,
samples will
be shown
and
discussed
-to teach about
Project Financing
and contracting
criteria
Contracting
Project financing
criteria
PPT,
lessons
and
discussion
30 min
-to introduce the
steps of Project
Implementation
Monitoring
Risk management
Reporting
PPT,
lessons
and
discussion
30 min
-to introduce
Project Evaluation
Project Evaluation:
External Evaluation
and Audit
PPT 30 min
187
TOOLS FOR PROJECT BASED SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Duration: 6 hours
Responsible partner: Brasov County School Inspectorate, Romania
Aim(s) of the module:
to train school managers to identify schools needs
to transpose them in terms of a project
to analyze the necessary resources to match the projects goal
Preparation & Materials needed:
Projector, Flipchart, markers, papers and sticky tapes
188
Objectives
School
Managers
will be
trained on
how to:
Contents Methods &Tools Timing Explanations
- define the
logical
framework
of a project
The terms of:
project, project
management
The benefits of
a project
The lifecycle of
a project
Presentation &
structured
discussion
60 min Introducing the
module content,
glossary of
project- related
terms
Examples will be
given to illustrate
the potential of
projects to solve
institutional
needs
- identify
and analyze
the needs
Formulate aim
of project
Analyse
existing
situation
Identify and
analyse
institutional
needs
Prioritising
these needs
Selecting the
target group
Presentation &
Sample case
brainstorming &
structured
discussion
90 min The
correspondence
idea - goal
Transposing the
aim in terms of a
project
Quantifying the
needs, answering
the questions:
Why?, To whom?,
Where and
when?
- use the
instruments
specific to
needs
analysis
Questionnaires
Focus group
SWOT
Analysis
Gantt Diagram
Presentation,
sample case
scenario & activities
based on hand-outs
activities
60 min How to apply the
instruments
specific to needs
analysis
- identify
novelty and
relevance of
the project
The relevance
in terms of
institutional
and financial
priorities,
The novelty of
the proposed
project
reported to
existing ones
Structured
discussion
Case studies
30 min The projects
potential
contribution to
enhance quality
and promote
innovation in the
field concerned
Relevance of the
chosen project in
the light of the
demonstrated
need
189
- identify
the possible
constraints
Constraints
referring to:
timing, budget
and quality
standards
Decisional
matrix
Presentation,
brainstorming &
structured
discussion
30 min
-criteria related to
feasibility
-criteria related to
soundness of
project
management
- identify
necessary
resources
and
available
ones
Human
resources
analysis
Material
resources
analysis
Presentationsample
case scenario &
activities based on
handouts
60 min -choosing the
project team;
-assigning
appropriate
responsibilities
and roles
decisional and
communication
flow;
-analysing
necessary and
existing
resources;
-managing
human and
material
resources in a
project.
- set up a
partnership
The
importance,
roles and
involvment of
partners
Choosing a
suitable
partnerships
Sample case
scenario
20 min -how to choose
partners;
-roles and tasks
assignment in a
partnership;
-the roles of
partners and
coordinator;
Assess the
training
module
Assessment Process review
Feedback fill-in
sheet
10 min SMs asked to
summarize and
review the topics
presented&
discussed.
190
MANAGEMENT THEORIES AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT STYLES
Duration: 3 hours
Responsible partner: University of the Peloponnese, Corinth, Greece
Aim(s) of the module:
to give school managers basic information about management theories and
leadership styles
to help them understand the importance of management and
communication skills for effective school management.
Preparation & Materials Needed:
Case studies, projector, Flipchart, markers, paper and sticky tapes
Assessment:
Every SM has to present a plan of activity for his school
191
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
To introduce
management
theories
Basic
information
about
management
theories
Lecture and
Power
Point
presentation
40 min Define related
terms
Examples will be
given to define
the exact
meaning of the
terms.
To introduce and
discuss
leadership styles
Basic
information
about different
leadership styles
Lecture and
Power Point
presentation
20 min Discussion
based on the
questions
To introduce
communication
and discuss its
importance in
effective school
management
Communication
with staff,
students and
parents,
motivation and
climate at a
school
Lecture
Discussion
40 min Structured
discussion
Leadership &
communication
strategy activity
To discuss on
good practices
Good practices in
management,
leadership
communication
Lecture
Discussion,
power point
60 min
Assess the
training module
Assessment Discussion 20 min Summarize the
topic presented
and discussed
192
METHODS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS
Duration: 3 hours
Responsible partner: HOGENT University College Ghent, Belgium
Aim(s) of the module:
enumerate the basic characteristics of integrated quality management
explain the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle, the European Foundation for
Quality Management (EFQM) model with the nine fields of interest and the
TRIS method
display their insight in the various phases of a self evaluation process
become aware of good practices in internal evaluation
become capable of judging self evaluation tools
Preparation & Materials needed:
PowerPoint presentations, questionnaires, projector, flipchart, markers
Assessment :
Questionnaire about the efficiency of the methodology used, the lecturers, the
aims, the contents, the expectations of the participants
193
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
Highlight the
general aims
of the module
General aims Lecture &
Power Point
presentation
10 min
Illustrate the
basic
principles of
Integrated
Quality
Management
Basic characteristics
of Integrated
Quality
Management
Structured
discussion
&
PowerPoint
presentation
15 min Illustrating the
basic principles of
Integrated Quality
Management
(strengths and
weaknesses within
schools)
Explain the
Methods of
Quality
Management
PDCA cycle
EFQM as basic model
with 9 fields of
interest:
1. Leadership
2. Policy and strategy
3. Co-workers
4. Partners and
means
5. Management of
processes
6. Customer results
7. Appreciation by
the personnel
8. Social results
9. Final results
TRIS
Lecture &
PowerPoint
presentation
& Exercises
60 min Integrating the
PDCA cycle in the
EFQM model.
Illustrating the
means of the TRIS
model (Flanders)
within higher
education.
Exercises on the
methods of
Quality
Management.
Insight in the
Self
Evaluation
Process
Stages of a self
evaluation process
Lecture &
Power Point
Presentation
Structured
Discussion
40 min Illustrating the
stages of the self
evaluation process
Judging Self
Evaluation &
Quality
Assurance
Tools
Illustrate good
practices to monitor
quality on a project
based manner and
the self evaluation
process in
educational systems
Lecture
Discussion
35 min Exchange
European good
practices
Reflect
Conclusion of the
module
Discussion 15 min
Assess Questions about
efficiency of the
used methodology,
lecturers, aims,
Question-
Naire
5 min
194
EVALUATION OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
Duration: 3 hours
Responsible partner: Institute of Education and Communication, Czech
University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
Aim(s) of the module:
Learn and understand good examples of school effectiveness evaluation
criteria and processes
Learn how to choose appropriate evaluation criteria according to school
objectives and strategy
Classify the internal and external criteria
Discuss the differences in school effectiveness within European secondary
schools
Exchange of European good practices of effectiveness at secondary school
level
Preparation & Materials Needed:
PC, projector, screen, PowerPoint presentations, flipchart, markers, pens, paper
195
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
To explain main
aims of the
module and
definition of
main terms
What does school
effectiveness mean?
How can we
evaluate
effectiveness
Lecture &
PowerPoint
presentation
10 min The content of the
course will be
introduced
To learn about
developments in
school
effectiveness
research
Development of
school effectiveness
research
Lecture and
discussion
20 min Different
approaches to
school
effectiveness
evaluation will be
introduced and
discussed
Description of
main points of
external and
internal criteria
(a)Selection of
criteria
(b)Checking quality
of selected criteria
(reliability, validity)
(c)Operational
definition of each
criterion/defining
indicators
Lecture &
PowerPoint
presentation
20 min The main points
will be presented
on the
PowerPoint
presentation, also
the strategy of
school
inspections in
partner countries
will be explained
To understand
the classification
of criteria
Classification of
criteria:
Types of criteria
Presentation
Discussion
and analysis
50 min On the circulated
materials, the
different criteria
classification will
be described.
Preparation of
own criteria and
indicators in
accordance with
practical
demand and
need of concrete
school
leadership
system
Application of the
criteria on the
experience gained
during the
excursion at
secondary school
previous day
Workshop,
SWOT
analysis,
discussion
60 min School managers,
their personal
examples and
experience will be
described in the
circulated
materials. The
participants will
try to identify
effective and
ineffective
strategies and
analyze them.
Summary and
feed back
Conclusion of this
module and
questions
Discussion 20 min Answering
questions,
writing
conclusions on
the flipchart
196
SCHOOL MANAGERS AND LEARNING ACHIEVEMENTS
How Can School Managers Improve School Results?
Duration: 3 hours
Responsible partner: ANSAS - National Agency for the Development of School
Autonomy Lombardia, Italy
Aim(s) of the module:
to understand school managers role in increasing learning achievements,
to learn how to use PBSM to improve schools outcomes
to give school managers a chance to apply project based school management
in a case study.
Preparation & Materials Needed:
PPT, 2 Case Studies
Assessment :
Every SM has to present a plan of activity for his school and an evaluation of the
module as a useful tool to prepare it.
197
Objectives Contents Methods
&Tools
Timing Explanations
To introduce and
discuss the
Eurydice national
testing research
results
National
testing of
students in
Europe:
-aim of testing
-use of the
results
PPT,
discussion
General description
of
European
evaluation
processes and
students
achievements in
schools,
discussion of
national and
international tests
To understand the
relationship
between school
effectiveness and
school
management
School
managers and
school results:
-characteristics
of effective
school
managers
PPT,
discussion
-Analysis of the
social & economic
environment
-Importance and
use of testing
results
Case study-1 Case
analysis by
PPT and
written
materials
SMs will analyze
the case presented
by the trainers and
will suggest
possible
improvements to be
introduced into the
school activities
To offer to SM an
overview of the
problem they can
reproduce in their
schools in a
meeting teacher or
by themselves or
by external
experts
Case study-2
Project
formulation by
using PBSM
Case
analysis by
PPT and
written
materials
The trainers present
as a SM the
negative results of
his school. He asks
teacher to decide
about changing in:
1.Teacher training
2.School curriculum
3.Internal
evaluation
The group of SM
has to simulate the
teachers discussion
about change.
198
Title: Training Modules for Managers and Other Teaching
and Managerial Staff
Editor: Menderes Town National Education Directorate
Edited by: M. Emin BAKAY, Prof. Milan Slavk
Gldan Kalem
Reviewed by: Prof. Maurice Rolls
doz. Dr. Manfred Bruer
doc. Ing. Roman Hrmo, PhD.
Print: Can Digital Bask Ltd. ti
Number of pages: 223
Edition: First, 2010
This publication is not for sale.
"This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This
publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be
held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained
therein."
Menderes Town National Education Directorate
199