Within these examples,

notice the use of one or

more of the following
trig identities:
Pythagorean Identities
cos
2
x+sin
2
x 1
1+tan
2
x sec
2
x
Half -Angle Identities
cos
2
x=
1
2
1+cos 2x ( ) ( )
sin
2
x =
1
2
1cos 2x ( ) ( )
Calculus II
MAT 146
Additional Methods of Integration
The methods of substitution and integration by parts are widely used
methods of integration. Each of these methods is associated with a derivative
rule. Substitution relies on undoing the chain rule and integration by parts
results from undoing the product rule. Additional methods of integration are
associated with particular types of functions. Here, we explore how to
integrate certain trigonometric functions as well as rational functions.
Trigonometric Integrals: Using Trig Identities
Shown below are four examples to illustrate integration of certain families of
trigonometric integrals.
Example 1: Evaluate sin
3
xdx

.
sin
3
xdx

sinx ( )sin
2
x
( )
dx

sinx ( )1cos
2
x
( )
dx

sinxsinxcos
2
x
( )
dx

sinxdx sinx ( )cos

2
x
( )
dx

The first integral in the last line can be solved by
inspection and the second by using the
substitution u = cosx. With this in mind, the final
result is
sin
3
xdx

cosx +
1
3
cos
3
x + C
Example 2: Evaluate cos
2
xdx

.
cos
2
xdx

1
2

1+cos 2x ( ) ( )dx

1
2
1+cos 2x ( ) ( )dx

1
2
dx +

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx

1
2
x +
1
2
1
2
sin 2x ( )



_
,
+C

1
2
x +
1
4
sin 2x ( ) +C
Example 3: Evaluate sin
5
xdx

.
sin
5
xdx

sinx ( )sin
2
x
( )
sin
2
x
( )
dx

sinx ( )1cos
2
x
( )
1cos
2
x
( )
dx

sinx ( )12cos
2
x+cos
4
x
( )
dx

sinx2sinxcos
2
x+sinxcos
4
x
( )
dx

sinxdx2 sinxcos
2
xdx+ sinxcos
4
xdx

The left integral in the last line can be solved by inspection, while each of
the other two require a u-substitution of u = cosx. This gives us
sin
5
xdx

sinxdx2 sinxcos
2
xdx+ sinxcos
4
xdx

cosx +
2
3
cos
3
x
1
5
cos
5
x +C
Example 4: Evaluate sin
4
xdx

.
sin
4
xdx

sin
2
xsin
2
xdx

1
2
1cos 2x ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
dx

1
4

12cos 2x ( )+cos
2
2x ( )
( )
dx

1
4
dx

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx+
1
4
cos
2
2x ( )dx

1
4
dx

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx+
1
4
1
2
1+cos 4x ( ) ( )dx

1
4
dx

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx+
1
8
1+cos 4x ( ) ( )dx

1
4
dx

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx+
1
8
dx

+
1
8
cos 4x ( )dx

Each of the four integrals in the last line can be solved by inspection or by a
straightforward substitution. This gives us
sin
4
xdx

1
4
dx

1
2
cos 2x ( )dx +
1
8
dx

+
1
8
cos 4x ( )dx

1
4
x
1
4
sin 2x ( )+
1
8
x +
1
32
sin 4x ( )+C

3
8
x
1
4
sin 2x ( )+
1
32
sin 4x ( )+C
As we look back on these four examples of integrals involving powers of
trigonometric functions, we can make some useful observations about
strategies for evaluating such integrals. With integrals of the form sin
n
xdx

or cos
n
xdx

, where n is a positive integer greater than 1, we follow one of

two strategies depending on whether the exponent is odd or even.
Situation A: If n = 2k + 1 for k some positive integer (i.e., n is an odd
exponent) [see Examples 1 and 3 above]:
1. Factor the integrand from sin
2k+1
xdx

to sin x ( )sin
2k
xdx

.
2. Using the trig identity
sin
2
x + cos
2
x 1
, rewrite sinx ( )sin
2k
xdx

as
sinx ( )1cos
2
x
( )
k
dx
.
3. Expand 1cos
2
x
( )
k
to get

1 kcos
2
x +L + 1 ( )
k1
k cos
2k2
x + 1 ( )
k
cos
2k
x.
4. Multiply each term in the above expansion by sinx to get the integral

sin x ksin x cos
2
x +L + 1 ( )
k 1
ksin xcos
2k 2
x + 1 ( )
k
sin x cos
2k
xdx

5. Integrate this expression term by term:

sinxdx ksinxcos
2
x

dx +L + 1 ( )
k1
ksinx cos
2k2
x

+ 1 ( )
k
sinxcos
2k
xdx

6. Evaluate the first term by inspection and make a substitution in all
other terms, using u = cosx.
7. Evaluate the remaining integral expressions.
Situation B: If n = 2k for k some positive integer (i.e., n is an even exponent)
[see Examples 2 and 4 above]:
1. Using the trig identity cos
2
x
1
2
1 + cos 2x ( ) ( ), rewrite cos
2k
xdx

as
1
2
1+cos 2x ( ) ( )



1
]
1
k
dx

,
2. Expand
1
2
1+ cos 2x ( ) ( )



1
]
1
k
to get

1+ kcos 2x ( )+L + k cos
k1
2x ( ) +cos
k
2x ( ),
3. Integrate the previous expression term by term to get

1
2



_
,

k
dx

+
1
2



_
,

k
k cos 2x ( )dx

+L
+
1
2



_
,

k
k cos
k1
2x ( )dx

+
1
2



_
,

k
cos
k
2x ( )dx

4. For each term in the previous sum, either (a) evaluate by inspection,
(b) return to step (1) here and use the same trig identity (even
exponents), or (c) return to Situation (A) previously described and
follow those steps (odd exponents). Continue this process until each
integral created can be solved by inspection.
Rational-Function Integrals: Using Partial Fraction Decomposition
Which of the following integrals is easier to evaluate?
(A)
1
x
2
5x 6
dx or (B)
1
7
1
x 6
dx
1
7
1
x +1
dx

For most of us, it is (B). Each of the two integrals in (B) is of the form
C
du
u
, where C is some constant and u is a function of x. The integral in
(A) does not have a straightforward strategy for solution unless the
denominator matches a special case.
It turns out, however, that (A) and (B) are equivalent, because

1
x
2
5x 6

1
7 x 6 ( )

1
7 x +1 ( )
You can verify this by adding the two fractions in the right-side expression.
After simplifying the sum, it will be the left-side expression.
In order to evaluate integrals such as those illustrated in (A) above, it is
useful to be able to transform a rational expression into a sum of difference
of simpler rational expressions. This transformation process, essentially
reversing the process of determining a common denominator and then
adding or subtracting, is called partial fraction decomposition. Here we
describe how to carry out partial fraction decomposition and then use that
process to transform integrals of rational expressions into integrals that are
equivalent yet more easily evaluated.
The format for a partial fraction decomposition depends on the
characteristics of the denominator in a rational expression. In the expression
1
x
2
5x 6
, we can factor the denominator into two linear terms:
1
x
2
5x 6

1
x 6 ( ) x + 1 ( )
If a rational expression contains two linear terms in its denominatorlinear
terms that are not multiples of one anotherthe expression can be
transformed into an equivalent expression as follows:
1
x 6 ( ) x + 1 ( )

A
x 6 ( )
+
B
x +1 ( )
If we multiply each side of this equation by (x-6)(x+1), we get:
1 A x +1 ( ) +B x 6 ( )
0x +1 Ax + A+ Bx 6B
0x +1 A+B ( )x + A6B ( )
Note that we have rewritten the left side expression as 0x+1. We do this in
order to equate the linear and constant coefficients on the two sides of the
equal sign:
0x +1 A+ B ( )x + A 6B ( )
A+ B 0
A 6B1
The last two equations for a system that we can solve using techniques
learned in algebra:
A 6B 1 A 1 + 6B
A + B 0 (1 + 6B) + B 0 7B 1 B
1
7
A +
1
7



_
,
0 A
1
7
This shows us that
1
x 6 ( ) x + 1 ( )

1
7
x 6 ( )
+

1
7
x + 1 ( )

1
7 x 6 ( )

1
7 x + 1 ( )
Example 1: Use partial fraction decomposition to transform the integral
5x 4
2x
2
+ x 1
dx
into a form more easily integrated and then carry out the
integration.
5x 4
2x
2
+ x 1

5x 4
x +1 ( ) 2x 1 ( )

A
x +1 ( )
+
B
2x 1 ( )
5x 4 A 2x 1 ( )+ B x +1 ( )
5x 4 2Ax A+ Bx + B
5x 4 2A+ B ( )x + B A ( )
2A+ B 5 and B A 4
The final two equations form a linear system whose solution is A = 3 and
B = -1. Therefore,
5x 4
2x
2
+ x 1
dx

3
x +1

1
2x 1
_
,
dx
.
We can evaluate the new integral by inspection or by using a separate u-
substitution for each fraction. In so doing, the final result is
3
x +1

1
2x 1
_
,
dx 3lnx +1
1
2
ln2x 1 +C
.
Example 2: Evaluate
10x+3
x
2
+x
dx
.
10x +3
x
2
+ x

10x +3
x x +1 ( )

A
x
+
B
x +1
10x +3 A x +1 ( )+B x ( )
10x +3 Ax + A+Bx
10x +3 A+B ( )x + A ( )
A+ B10 and B3
A7
The linear system has solution A = 7 and B = 3. Therefore,
10x + 3
x
2
+ x
dx

7
x


+

3
x +1
_
,
dx
. We can evaluate the new integral by inspection.
The final result is
7
x


+

3
x +1
_
,
dx 7lnx +3ln x +1+C
.
Example 3: Evaluate
x
3
x
2
+1
dx
0
1

.
Because the numerator is a higher-power polynomial than the denominator,
we first carry out long division on the rational expression. This gives us
x
3
x
2
+ 1
x
x
x
2
+1
. We now explore how to solve the new integrals:
x
x
x
2
+1



_
,
dx
0
1

xdx
0
1

x
x
2
+1
dx
0
1
.
We can evaluate the first integral by inspection. In the second, letting
u = x
2
+1 with du = 2xdx or
1
/
2
du = xdx leads to an integral we can solve by
inspection.
We get
xdx
0
1

x
x
2
+ 1
dx
0
1

x
2
2

1
2
ln x
2
+ 1
0
1

1
2

1
2
ln 2



_
,
0
1
2
ln1



_
,

1
2
1 ln 2 ( )
Note 1: On pages 406-407 in our textbook, the author describes various formats and
requirements for use of partial fraction decomposition that depend on the characteristics
of the denominator in the initial rational expression.
Note 2: The expand function on your TI-89 or TI-92 calculator will perform a partial
fraction decomposition before your eyes! Type expand( and then type in the rational
expression and close the parentheses. When you hit return, the decomposition will be
shown on your screen. Among other locations, the expand( command can be found under
the algebra menu. Touch the F2 key and then select choice 3.