Evaporation

To reduce load times, this material is divided into three files, corresponding to the numbered points below. The present file (evap1.html) contains point 1 only.

1. Evaporator Concepts o History o Performance Measures o Boiling Point Elevation o Multiple Effect Evaporators o References 2. Evaporator Modeling o Dynamic Model o Steady State Model o Heat Transfer 3. Evaporator Calculations o Single Effect o Multiple Effect

Evaporator Concepts
Evaporation is a special case of heat transfer to a boiling liquid. This particular heat transfer application is so common and important that it is treated as a separate unit operation. The intent is to concentrate a non-volatile solute from a solvent, usually water. This is done by boiling off the solvent. Concentration by evaporation is normally stopped before the solute begins to precipitate; if not, the operation is better considered as crystallization. Evaporation is usually treated as the separation of a liquid mixture into a liquid product (concentrate or thick liquor) and a vapor byproduct, although in special cases such as water treating and desalination, the vapor is the product instead of the thick liquor. In this course, we will limit evaporation to systems with non-volatile solutes. Evaporation is similar to drying in that both drive off volatiles, but is different in that the product is a liquid. Evaporation differs from distillation because both components in a distillation system are volatile. Evaporation normally produces a single vapor fraction, distillation several. An evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution and a means to separate the vapor from the boiling liquid. Different types are categorized by the length and alignment (horizontal or vertical) of the evaporator tubes. The evaporation tubes may be located inside or outside of the main vessel where the vapor is driven off. Because many materials cannot tolerate high temperatures, evaporators often operate at reduced pressure so that the boiling point will also be reduced. In many (most?) cases, evaporators operate under a vacuum. This means that a vacuum pump or jet ejector vacuum system is required on the last effect. Evaporators are commonly used in the inorganic and organic chemical, pulp and paper, and food industries (especially sugar). Examples are the concentration of fruit juices and of NaOH.

History:
The invention of the multiple effect evaporator is generally credited to Norbert Rillieux. Rillieux developed a multiple pan evaporation system for use in sugar refining. Rillieux was born in Louisiana and trained in France. Most of his working career was spent in the U.S., although he later returned to Europe where he is buried in the famous Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris. Rillieux's achievements were little acknowledged during his lifetime, because according to the laws of the time he was "a free person of color." He was also the first cousin, once removed, of the painter Edgar Degas.

Performance Measures:
There are three main measures of evaporator performance: 1. Capacity (kg vaporized / time) 2. Economy (kg vaporized / kg steam input) 3. Steam Consumption (kg / hr) Note that the measures are related, since Consumption = Capacity/Economy. Economy calculations are determined using enthalpy balances. The key factor in determining the economy of an evaporator is the number of effects. The economy of a single effect evaporator is always less than 1.0. Multiple effect evaporators have higher economy but lower capacity than single effect. The thermal condition of the evaporator feed has an important impact on economy and performance. If the feed is not already at its boiling point, heat effects must be considered. If the feed is cold (below boiling) some of the heat going into the evaporator must be used to raise the feed to boiling before evaporation can begin; this reduces the capacity. If the feed is above the boiling point, some flash evaporation occurs on entry.

Boiling Point Elevation

Since evaporators dealing with boiling solutions, and in particular with solutions with non-volatile solutes, any calculations must account for the effect of boiling point elevation.

The vapor pressure of an aqueous solution is less than that of pure water at the same temperature; so the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of the water. This is called Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) or vapor pressure lowering. The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property -- it depends on the concentration of solute in the solution, but not on what the solute and solvent are. When working problems involving heat transfer to or from boiling solutions, it is necessary to adjust the temperature difference driving force for the boiling point elevation. Note that the equilibrium vapor rising from a solution exhibiting boiling point elevation will exist at a temperature and pressure such that it is superheated with respect to pure vapor. The vapor rises at the solution boiling point, elevated with respect to the pure component boiling point. The vapor, however, is solute free, so it won't condense until the extra heat corresponding to the elevation is removed, thus it is superheated. Justification The equations in this section are being displayed using MINSE, a browser independent approach to displaying equations on the web. If the equations are not properly formatted by your browser, you need to render them (select this link) by invoking Ping's MINSE polymediator. This will run a special program that should cause them to appear in a more understandable format. At equilibrium, we can write relating the partial pressure of solvent in a vapor phase to its thermodynamic activity coefficient, pure component vapor pressure, and mole fraction in the corresponding liquid phase. If we are dealing with ideal solutions, the activity coefficient is 1.0, Raoult's Law applies, and If the solute is non-volatile, the vapor will be pure solvent, and If the liquid phase is binary, then , and So as the solute fraction gets larger, the vapor pressure of the solvent must be higher to produce the same total pressure. The only way this can be true is if the boiling point of the solution increases to produce the needed pressure. Determination For strong solutions, one can take advantage of Duhring's Rule The boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point of water at the same temperature. This lets us plot TBP solution against TBP water and get a straight line for each concentration. Another way of thinking of these plots -- they plot the temperature where the vapor pressure of the solution is equal to some fixed value against the temperature where the vapor pressure of water equals the same value. For Duhring Plots to be valid, the range of boiling points must be relatively narrow and the solution must obey Raoult's Law. A Duhring Plot for the NaOH/Water system can be found in McCabe et al. Fig. 16.3, p. 481 (also Foust et al. Fig 19.11, p. 502). To use a Duhring plot:

1. For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of pure water. This can be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam table. 2. Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the diagonal line representing the NaOH fraction, then trace left to read the solution boiling point from the vertical axis. 3. The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two temperatures. Felder & Rousseau (2nd ed., p. 264) give a method for estimating the BPE for dilute solutions (x close to zero). It does not apply to values of x greater than a few percent. The formula is: BPE References

R. M. Felder & R. W. Rousseau, Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes (2nd Edition), John Wiley, 1986. pp. 262-265. Foust, A.S. et al., Principles of Unit Operations (2nd Edition), John Wiley, 1980, pp. 500-501. McCabe, W.L., J.C. Smith, P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (5th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 1993, p. 471.

Multiple Effect Evaporators

Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In a single-effect evaporator, steam provides energy for vaporization and the vapor product is condensed and removed from the system. In a double-effect evaporator, the vapor product off the first effect is used to provide energy for a second vaporization unit. Triple- effect evaporator problems are familiar to generations of engineering students. This cascading of effects can continue for many stages. Multiple-effect evaporators can remove much larger amounts of solvent than is possible in a single effect. In a multiple effect arrangement, the latent heat of the vapor product off of an effect is used to heat the following effect. Effects are thus numbered beginning with the one heated by steam. It will have the highest pressure. Vapor from Effect I will be used to heat Effect II, which consequently will operate at lower pressure. This continues through the train: pressure drops through the sequence so that the hot vapor will travel from one effect to the next. Normally, all effects in an evaporator will be physically the same in terms of size, construction, and heat transfer area. Unless thermal losses are significant, they will all have the same capacity as well. Evaporator trains may receive their feed in several different ways. The feed order is NOT related to the numbering of effects. Effects are always numbered according to decreasing pressure (steam flow). Forward Feed arrangements follow the pattern I, II, III. These require a single feed pump (reduced fixed costs). They typically have reduced economy (higher operating costs) since the cold feed must be raised to the highest operating temperature. These also tend to have the most concentrated liquour, which tends to be the most viscous, in the lowest temperature effects, so their may be difficulties getting a good overall heat transfer coefficient. Backward Feed arrangements go III, II, I. These need multiple pumps to work against the pressure drop of the system; however, since the feed is gradually heated they usually have better economies. This arrangement also reduces the viscosity differences through the system and so is better for viscous solutions. Mixed Feed arrangements offer a compromise, with the feed entering in the middle of the system (i.e. II, III, I). The final evaporation is done at the highest temperature so economies are still better than forward feed, but fewer pumps are required than in a backward feed arrangement.

Parallell Feed systems split the feed stream and feed a portion to each effect. This is most common in crystallizing evaporators where the product is likely to be a slurry.

References: 1. Aven, R.E., Class Notes: Evaporation, unpublished, no date. 2. Balchen, J.G. and K.I. Mumme', Process Control: Structures & Applications, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988, pp. 170-174, 508- 513. 3. Foust, A.S. et al., Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd Edition, John Wiley, 1980, pp. 494-516. 4. McCabe, W.L., J.C. Smith, P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1993, pp. 463- 489.

Evaporator Modeling
The equations in this section are being displayed using MINSE, a browser independent approach to displaying equations on the web. If the equations are not properly formatted by your browser, you need to render them (select this link) by invoking Ping's MINSE polymediator. This will run a special program that should cause them to appear in a more understandable format. Please let me know if you have problems making this work. In an evaporator, heat is transferred from a heating medium (usually steam) to a solution by conduction through a solid surface (the tube walls). As the solution boils, mass and heat are simultaneously transferred into the vapor phase. Consequently, an evaporator model consists of

an overall material balance component material balances energy balances (usually one each on the process side and the heating side) heat transfer equations

Dynamic Model

Begin with the material balances. A total material balance can be written for the steam side (inside the tubes) and for the process side (liquid plus vapor).

Total Material Balance -- Steam Side The coil has constant volume and is filled with steam, so we can revise this to In some cases, you may want to represent the vapor density as a function of pressure. Total Material Balance -- Process Side If the total mass of the process vapor is much smaller than that of the process liquid, it may be possible to neglect the vapor in the total material balance. Component (Solute) Balance A solvent balance could also be written, but would not be a mathematically independent equation. Note that the solute is treated as nonvolatile, so that none leaves with the vapor. This is true for most evaporator applications. Energy Balance -- Steam Side This expression includes two heat transfer terms: qs, for heat transferred from the steam to the tube metal, and Q1 for heat losses from the steam. Energy Balance -- Process Side The heat transfer terms are q, heat transferred from the tube metal to the process liquid and Q2, heat losses from the process side. Energy Balance -- Tube Metal No material balance is necessary for the tube metal, but heat is transferred into and out of the tube walls, so an energy balance is may be needed. Q3 represents any heat losses from the tube wall. Two transport equations are also needed: Heat Transfer -- Steam to Tubes The inside heat transfer coefficient is a condensing coefficient. Heat Transfer -- Tubes to Process Liquid These six differential and two algebraic equations comprise a fundamental, dynamic model of a single effect evaporator.

Steady State Model

For many evaporator calculations, we are less interested in the behavior of the evaporator as a function of time than in broad behaviors. As we start looking at longer and longer times, fluctuations in behavior become less apparent and the system values approach a single operating point, the steady state. When we consider the steady state system, process variables stop changing with respect to time, so the time derivatives of the accumulation terms become zero. This allows us to replace differential equations with algebraic equations, and the steady state model which results is: Steam Side Material Balance

Process Side Material Balance Component (Solute) Balance Steam Side Energy Balance If losses are negligible, then . Substituting the result of the mass balance gives where is the latent heat of the steam. This equation is analogous to Eq. 16.2 in McCabe, Smith, and Harriott. Process Side Energy Balance Substituting the results of the material balance and neglecting the losses, we can rearrange this to which is equivalent to McCabe et al. Eq. 16.3. The liquor enthalpies depend on the composition and concentration of the solution. Tube Metal Energy Balance Neglecting wall capacitance and losses, we obtain and combining with the other energy balances gives which is equivalent to the textbook's Eq. 16.4.

Heat Transfer
Several heat transfer effects must be considered when modeling an evaporator: Transfer from condensing steam vapor to the interior of the coil wall can be represented by a steam film heat transfer coefficient, hc. This is usually high; however, if a large quantity of noncondensibles are present in the steam they can reduce heat transfer. Such noncondensibles should be vented to keep the coefficient up. Transfer through any scaling or fouling on the tube interior wall is usually not a concern in an evaporator. Industrial boiler feed water is typically treated to keep scaling to a minimum. Transfer through the tube wall can be represented by a conventional tube wall resistance (wall thickness/thermal conductivity,). This is usually not significant unless the evaporator is the agitated film type. Transfer through fouling on the exterior tube wall can be significant, depending on what material is being evaporated. Transfer to the boiling liquid depends on the velocity of the liquid. For dilute aqueous solutions, values on the order of 1500- 3000 W/m^2*C are reasonable. The text provides a figure for estimating this value. All of these factors should be accounted for when calculating the overall heat transfer. A typical expression, in this case treating interior scaling as negligible, is given by It is often more convenient to express this in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient, U, Question: Should a log mean temperature difference used?

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, depends on the properties of the solution, the heating medium, and the surface geometry and type, including smoothness, cleanliness, composition, and thickness of metal. As with heat exchangers, U can be expressed as the inverse of the sum of the heat transfer resistances: Heat of Dilution For some compounds, such as H2SO4, NaOH, and CaCl2, it is necessary to provide for the solution heat of dilution. The most convenient way to accomplish this is to use enthalpy-composition diagrams to obtain enthalpy data. When it is legitimate to neglect the heat of dilution, the heat transfer is equal to the sum of the sensible and latent heat of the solution, or If it is also acceptable to neglect the boiling point elevation, then the latent heat of the vapor can be approximated by the latent heat of steam. When the temperature of the feed, Tf is greater that the temperature in the evaporator, flash evaporation occurs and sensible heat is removed instead of being added. When the feed is subcooled, and Tf < T, an extra load is placed on the evaporator.
R.M. Price Original: 1/7/97 Modified: 3/16/98; 3/6/2003

Evaporator Calculations
Evaporator problems require solution of the system material and energy balances with the accompanying property and heat transfer equations. Solution would be rather straightforward, except that often the required thermodynamic properties are only available in tabular or graphical form.

Single Effect Calculations:

Single effect evaporator calculations are fairly basic. Usually it is possible to solve the material and energy balances analytically by a sequential approach. Typically, the operating temperature is not provided. Usually, the operating pressure or temperature of the vapor condenser is known, and can be used to determine the temperature using steam tables, etc. You may need a different steam table than you normally use, since not many textbook tables have good coverage of the vacuum range commonly used in evaporators. Don't forget to allow for boiling point elevation. Remember that when BPE is present, the vapor will be superheated. You also should be prepared for side calculations -- steam consumption, evaporator economy, etc.

Multiple Effect Calculations

Typically, multiple effect evaporator calculations require an iterative solution procedure because so many of the required properties, etc., depend on unknown intermediate temperatures. Fortunately, the overall approach is basically the same for the majority of problems, requiring only minor adjustments to compensate for problem quirks.

In a typical evaporator problem, you are given the steam supply pressure, the operating pressure of the final effect, values for the overall heat transfer coefficient in each effect, the feed pattern, and the feed and product compositions. You also know that the effects are all to have the same heat transfer area. You typically want to find the steam consumption and the heat transfer area, and one or more of the temperatures, flows, and compositions from within the system. The overall strategy is to estimate intermediate temperatures, solve the material balances for the solvent vapor flow rates, use these to determine the heat transferred in each effect, and from that information find the heat transfer area. If the areas are not equal, you revise the temperature estimates and repeat the procedure. The steps in the procedure can be summarized as: 1. Use the overall component balance to completely determine the feeds and product streams. These numbers are fixed and are not changed by iteration. 2. Calculate the total amount of solvent vaporized (another fixed number). Divide this up into estimated amounts for each effect; usually it is convenient to split it equally. 3. Use component and material balance to get estimates for the remaining flowrates within the system and the compositions of the intermediate streams. These (and all the estimated quantities) will change each iteration. 4. Use the compositions to estimate BPEs and other properties. Be sure to keep track of which properties depend on composition, temperature, or both. 5. Determine the overall temperature drop between the steam and the saturation temperature of the last effect (remember to subtract off the BPEs).

Note that the BPE values may depend on the concentrations, so the overall Delta T can vary with each iteration. 6. Allocate the overall drop among the various effects. Since the areas are the same, the temperature difference in each effect is roughly proportional to the overall transfer coefficients.

7. Use the Delta T and BPE values to obtain estimates for all the temperatures in the system. Typically, you do this starting with the steam to the first effect, subtracting a Delta T, adding a BPE, etc.

You can use the saturation temperature of the last effect as a check -- it should match the value for your final effect operating pressure. 8. Use the temperature and composition estimates to get enthalpy values. You can get these from specific heat calculations or from data.

Be sure to use the same reference temperatures for all streams, including those taken from steam tables, etc.

9. Set up the process side enthalpy balances. Use material balances to eliminate the liquid flows from the enthalpy equations. Do enough algebra so that the only unknowns left in the balances are the vapor flow rates and the steam to the first effect. 10. Solve the set of equations that is made up of one enthalpy balance for each effect and the total vapor material balance for the unknown vapor flows (one off each effect and the steam to the first). 11. Use heat transfer equations to calculate the heat transfer area for each effect.

12. Compare the areas. If they are not equal, you need to repeat the calculation. Begin by using the areas you obtained to revise the temperature estimates. The recommended approach is to use the ratio of the calculated heat transfer area for an effect to the arithmetic mean of the calculated areas.

13. Repeat the calculations (from step 7) until the system converges. If your BPEs, enthalpy data, etc., depends on composition, you will need to include steps 3 and 4 in each cycle as well. 14. Once the system has converged, answer questions. Be sure to use values from the final iteration to calculate your answers. A sample triple effect evaporator calculation may be downloaded as a Mathcad file. The example neglects BPE in order to show the algorithm clearly.
R.M. Price