4/2/2012

1
Module # Module #39 39
Fatigue of Materials
Learning Objectives
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Topics Topics
Mechanisms for Fatigue
Fatigue Crack Propagation
Prof. M.L. Weaver
4/2/2012
2
Fatigue of Materials Fatigue of Materials
Many materials fail when subjected to fluctuating
stresses.
The stresses required to cause failure are far below those
d d t f t i l li ti f l d needed to cause fracture on single application of load.
Fatigue failure is failure under dynamic loading.
Fatigue is the cause for more than 90% of all service
failures in structural materials. It is something that you
would like to avoid.
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Fatigue failures generally occur with little or no warning
(with catastrophic results).
How to deal with fatigue? How to deal with fatigue?
Must look for and monitor fatigue damage.
Routinely inspect for cracks:
Die penetrant testing
X-ray inspection
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Hardness testing
Etc
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Fatigue Fractures Fatigue Fractures
Stress concentrators
PSBs
Inclusions
Etc
Initiation
Fatigue crack propagation
Fast fracture
( )
Ic
Y a K o t >
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Figure 14.1
Schematic representation of a fatigue fracture surface in a metallic shaft. This schematic shows the
initiation region (usually at the surface), crack propagation region (evidenced by beach or
clamshell markings), and catastrophic rupture (i.e., fast fracture) regions. Fast fracture occurs when
the crack length exceeds a critical value under the applied stress. Figure adapted fromMeyers and
Chawla, 1
st
Edition, p. 593.
(a)
(b)
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Fatigue fracture markings. (a) Rotating steel shaft. Center of curvature of earlier beach
markings locate crack origin at corner of keyway. (b) Clam shell markings (C) and ratchet
lines (R) in aluminum. Arrows indicate crack propagation direction. [Figures adapted from
R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation & Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 4th ed.,
(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996) p. 523]
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Stress Cycles Stress Cycles
o
a
Ao = o
r
o
m
o
max
All fluctuating
stress cycles
are made up of
a
m
and a
a
S
T
R
E
S
S
TIME
o
min
0
max min
max min
Stress Range:
Stress Amplitude (alternating stress):
2 2
r
r
a
o o o o
o o o
o
A = =

= =
Prof. M.L. Weaver
max min
min
max
m
2 2
Mean Stress:
2
Stress Ratio:
1
Amplitude Ratio:
1
m
a
R
R
A
R
o o
o
o
o
o
o
+
=
=

= =
+
Stress Cycles Stress Cycles
o
max
max min
o o =
Real stress cycles are far more complex and unpredictable
S
T
R
E
S
S
TIME
o
m
o
min
0
Prof. M.L. Weaver
y p p
than the ideal one showed on the prior viewgraph.
Thus, fatigue failures are statistical in nature.
Now we need to consider how fatigue parameters influence
fatigue failure.
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Fatigue Results: the S Fatigue Results: the S--N curve N curve
Engineering fatigue data is generally presented on S-N
(or -N) curves.
S = applied stress
Ferrous metals
S appl ed stress
= applied strain
N = # cycles to failure
S
o
r

Ferrous metals
and other strain
aging materials
Non-ferrous
metals
Examples:
Low carbon steel
Stainless steel
Titanium
Etc
Example:
Al alloys
S
L
Prof. M.L. Weaver
# cycles to failure (log scale)
Al alloys
S
L
= fatigue/endurance limit
Fatigue Results: The Fatigue Results: The SS--NN Curve Curve

a
Fatigue Limit

a
Endurance Limit at 10
7
Cycles
In materials exhibiting a fatigue limit, cyclic loading at
stresses below the fatigue limit cannot result in failure.
(In steels S
L
/UTS = 0.4 to 0.5)
N
f
N
f
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
Fatigue Limit
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
Endurance Limit at 10 Cycles
Prof. M.L. Weaver
For non-ferrous materials we will generally define the
fatigue strength as the stress that will cause fracture at
the end of a specified number of cycles (usually 10
7
).
4/2/2012
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Categories of Fatigue Categories of Fatigue
Fatigue
Nocrackspree ist; initiationcontrolled
Fatigueof uncracked components
Crackspreexist; propagationcontrolled
Fatigueof cracked structures
(1)
No cracks pre-exist; initiation-controlled
fracture. Examples: almost any small
components like gudgeon pins, ball races,
gear teeth, axles, crank shafts, crive shafts.
Cracks pre-exist; propagation-controlled
fracture. Examples: almost any large
structure, particularly those containing
welds: bridges, ships, pressure vessels.
Highcyclefatigue(HCF) Lowcyclefatigue(LCF)
Prof. M.L. Weaver
(2) (3)
[M.F. Ashby and D.R. Jones, Engineering Materials 1, 2
nd
Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Boston (1996), p. 146]
4
Fatigue at stresses below yield; 10
cycles to fracture. Examples: all rotating
or vibrating systems like wheels, axles
engine components.
>
High cyclefatigue(HCF)
4
Fatigue at stresses above yield; 10
cycles to fracture. Examples: core
components of nuclear reactors, air-
frames, turbine components, any
component subjected to occasional
ov
s
Low cyclefatigue(LCF)
erloads.
Categories of Fatigue Categories of Fatigue
High-strain Low-strain
S
UTS
Plastic
deform.
LOW CYCLE HIGH CYCLE
Finite life
Infinite
life
S
YS
de o
of bulk
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

S
a
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Elastic
deform.
of bulk
Adapted from J.E. Shigley, C.R. Mischke, and R.G. Budynas, Mechanical
Engineering Design, 7
th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Boston (2004), p. 314
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
5
10
7
10
8
Number of cycles to failure, N
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Most data is presented on S-N curves. This is typical of the stress-
life method which is most suitable for high-cycle applications [i.e., in
the high-cycle fatigue (HCF) regime].
However it is easier to implement strain life experiments
Stress Stress--Life or Strain Life or Strain--Life? Life?
However, it is easier to implement strain-life experiments.
The strain-life
method is more
applicable where
there is measurable
plastic deformation
O-A-B
reflects
initial
l di i
o
Ac
e
Ac
p
A
B
2
o A
Prof. M.L. Weaver
plastic deformation
[i.e., in the
low-cycle
fatigue (LCF)
regime].
loading in
tension.
c
O
C
2
2
c A
2
o A
2
c A
Its convenient to consider elastic and plastic strains separately.
Strain Strain--Life Method Life Method
Elastic strain amplitude is determined from a combination of , N
f
elastic plastic
c c c A A = + A
p f f ,
f
and Hookes law.
( )
2
2
b
f
e a
f
N
E E
o
c o
'
| | A
= =
|
\ .
A
Variation of the
Basquin relation
Prof. M.L. Weaver
elastic strain amplitude
2
true stress amplitude
fatigue strength coefficient
fatigue strength exponent
e
a
f
b
c
o
o
A
=
=
' =
=
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The plastic strain component is described by the Manson-Coffin
equation.
Strain Strain--Life Method (2) Life Method (2)
( )
2
2
c
p
a
f f
N
E
c
o
c
A
' = =
plastic strain amplitude
2
true stress amplitude
fatigue ductility coefficient
fatigue ductility exponent
p
a
f
c
c
o
c
A
=
=
' =
=
Prof. M.L. Weaver
The Manson-Coffin equation describes LCF.
Strain Life Method (3) Strain Life Method (3)
This is th M ns n C ffin l ti nship b t n f ti lif nd t t l
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2
elastic
b
f
e
plastic
c
f f
p
f
E
N N
c
c
c
c
c
o
c
c
A
'
A = +

A
= +
A
| | A
|
A
' +
\ .
=
This is the Manson-Coffin relationship between fatigue life and total
strain. We can use it to determine the fatigue strength.
At high temperatures,
the Manson Coffin
equation breaks down
because N decreases u
d
e
l
e
)
c
f
c'
LCF

P
>
e
HCF

P
<
e
Prof. M.L. Weaver
because N
f
decreases
as temperature in-
creases. In addition,
N
f
depends on cyclic
frequency.
S
t
r
a
i
n

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
A
c
/
2

(
l
o
g

S
c
a
l
PLASTIC
ELASTIC
2N
f
(log Scale)
b
f
E
o'
Total strain
10
3
to 10
4
cycles
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Strain amplitude is held constant during cycling.
Strain-controlled cyclic loading often occurs during thermal
cycling (when a component expands and contracts due to
fluctuations in temperature)
Cyclic Strain Cyclic Strain--Controlled Fatigue Controlled Fatigue
fluctuations in temperature).
This is particularly dangerous when a component is made from
materials exhibiting different coefficients of thermal expansion.
Also occurs during reversed bending between fixed
displacements.
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Local plastic strains at notches subjected to cyclic loading can
also result in strain-controlled conditions near the root of the
notch. This is due to constraint placed on the material near the
root by the surrounding mass of material.
Trends for Engineering Metals Trends for Engineering Metals
[Dowling]
Constant strain-amplitude cycling:
High-strength materials are desirable for HCF.
[Dowling]
Prof. M.L. Weaver
High ductility materials are desirable for LCF.
High-strength materials have low values of
f
and low ductility.
High-ductility materials have low values of
f
and low strength.
4/2/2012
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Schematic stress-strain hysteresis loop
o
Ac
e
Ac
p
A
B
o A
O-A-B reflects initial loading in
tension.
On unloading, curve B-C, yielding
begins in compression at a lower
c
O
A
C
2
o A
2
c A
2
o A
2
c A
begins in compression at a lower
value than was observed in
tension. This is due to the
Bauschinger effect.
Re-loading in tension completes
the hysteresis loop.
A hysteresis loop is described by
Prof. M.L. Weaver
y p y
its width, Ac, the total strain
range, and its height Ao, the
stress range.
Metals can harden or soften during fatigue depending upon their initial
state.
Response of Materials to Strain Cycles Response of Materials to Strain Cycles
Control Condition
Time
S
t
r
e
s
s
+ 1
2
3
4
5
Cyclic Hardening
o
c
1
2
3
4
5
2 4
1
2
3
4
5
Time
S
t
r
e
s
s
+
Prof. M.L. Weaver
3
Cyclic Softening
Time
S
t
r
e
s
s
+
1
2
3
4
5
5
o
c
1
2
4
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Effects of
Mean Stress
and Stress
Ratio
S
T
R
E
S
S
TIME
o
a
Ao
o
m
= 0
0
o
min
o
max
R = -1.0
R
E
S
S
o
a
Ao
R = -0.3
o
max
Variation of
o
m
(and R)
will cause the
endurance
limit to change
S
T
R
TIME
o
m
0
R 0.3
S
T
R
E
S
S
TIME
o
a
Ao
0
R = 0.0
o
m
o
min
o
max
o
min
= 0
Prof. M.L. Weaver
S
T
R
E
S
S
TIME
o
a
Ao
o
m
0
R > 0.0
o
min
o
max
max min
min
max
m
Mean Stress:
2
Stress Ratio:
1
AmplitudeRatio:
1
m
a
R
R
A
R
o o
o
o
o
o
o
+
=
=

= =
+
Effects of Mean Stress and
Stress Ratio
As o increases the fatigue life As o
m
increases, the fatigue life
decreases!
As R increases, the fatigue life
increases!
Prof. M.L. Weaver
[Dieter]
4/2/2012
12
Effects of Mean Stress and Stress Ratio Effects of Mean Stress and Stress Ratio
There are several empirical equations to relate the alternating stress
to the mean stress.
Goodman
( )
1
1
m
o
o o
(
=
( Linear
R 0
R = 1
R =negative
Gerber
Soderberg
( )
1
a o
UTS
o o
o
(

( )
2
1
m
a o
UTS
o
o o
o
(
=
(

Linear
Parabolic
o
o
R =0
R =1
R =-1
R =positive
Prof. M.L. Weaver
( )
1
1
m
a o
YS
o
o o
o
(
=
(

Linear
o
UTS
R =1
Mean Stress
o
YS
Most experimental data lies between the
Goodman and Gerber values. The
Goodman relation is more conservative
and is safer for design purposes.
Goodman relation Goodman relation
Alternative representation
UTS
S
t
r
e
s
s
UTS
e
o
min
o
max
o
Cycling outside of
lines results in
failure
Prof. M.L. Weaver
UTS
Mean Stress
e
o
4/2/2012
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Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion
Most engineering structures are subjected to variable amplitude
loading as is illustrated below.
[Dowling]
Figure 9.43
Prof. M.L. Weaver
As you can see, a certain stress amplitude (o
a1
) is applied for a
number of cycles (N
1
). The number of cycles to failure for o
a1
is N
f1
.
The fraction of life used is N
1
/N
f1
. There will be additional
expressions for regions of loading with different stress amplitudes.
Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion
The Palmgren-Miner rule can be used to determine whether or not
the fatigue life is exhausted.
N N N N
Fatigue failure is expected when the life fractions sum to unity (i.e.,
when 100% of the fatigue life is exhausted).
3 1 2
1 2 3
1
i
i f f f fi
N N N N
N N N N
+ + + = =

Prof. M.L. Weaver

4/2/2012
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As before fatigue
Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion
If the variable amplitude loading cycle is repeated a number of times,
it is convenient to sum cycle ratios over one repetition of the history
and to then multiply that fraction by the number of repetitions
required to reach unity.
As before, fatigue
failure is expected
when the repeated life
fractions sum to unity
(i.e., when 100% of the
fatigue life is
exhausted).
Figure 9.44
Prof. M.L. Weaver
onerepetition
1
number of repetitions to failure
i
f
i fi
f
N
B
N
B
(
=
(

=

[Dowling]
THE FATIGUE PROCESS THE FATIGUE PROCESS
There are 3 stages:
I. Crack initiation
I II III

II. Crack propagation or

stable crack growth
III. Unstable crack growth
or failure
I II III
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Figure adapted fromM.A. Meyers and K.K. Chawla, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1
st
edition,
Prentice-Hall, 1999, p. 607.
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Fatigue Crack Growth (1) Fatigue Crack Growth (1)
Regardless of the mechanism that controls fatigue at
elevated temperatures, we are concerned with how
long it will take for a crack to grow to a critical length.
Everything starts with crack initiation!
Crack initiation is not well understood. Most cracks
initiate at free surfaces. However, in those instances
h k i i i i hi lid f
Prof. M.L. Weaver
where cracks initiate within a solid, some sort of
interface is usually involved.
Fatigue Crack Growth (2) Fatigue Crack Growth (2)
Where slip fits in. Where slip fits in.
Crystalline solids
generally deform by
slip which leaves slip
Slip
b
slip, which leaves slip
bands on the surface.
In unidirectional
deformation, slip occurs
uniformly through a
grain.
bands
Normal slip
process
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Slip planes are offset in
one direction, the slip
direction.
[Reed-Hill & Abbaschian, p. 756]
4/2/2012
16
Prof. M.L. Weaver
[Figure scanned from Reed-Hill & Abbaschian, p. 756]
In fatigue, slip bands are observed long before the
required number of cycles to fracture the material
Slip
bands
form
S
t
r
e
s
s
S-N curve
Schematic illustration of
surface roughening caused
by slip band formation in a
strain-controlled fatigue
experiment. Notethe
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Number of Cycles
Observation of
first slip lines
experiment. Note the
formation and growth of
slip bands in specific
grains during loading. The
micrographs come from
Roesler et al., p. 339.
4/2/2012
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Intrusions and Extrusions Intrusions and Extrusions
Where slip fits in. Where slip fits in.
(a) Under an alternating
load, crystalline solids
will still deform by slip
leaving slip bands.
S
(a)
b
t
Static load
(one direction)
Slip occurs in one
direction.
(b) However alternating
loads produce slip in
both directions. This
can result in slip band
( )
(b)
b
t
t
Alternating load
(two directions)
Prof. M.L. Weaver
can result in slip band
intrusion.
(c) This can also produce
slip band extrusion.
[Figure adapted from Dieter, p. 396]
(c)
b
t
Alternating load
(two directions)
In fatigue, slip lines form on some grains but not on
others.
Fatigue Crack Growth (5) Fatigue Crack Growth (5)
Where slip fits in. Where slip fits in.
Additional deformation produces additional slip lines;
but, fewer slip lines are produced than the actual
number of fatigue cycles.
Prof. M.L. Weaver
In many materials, slip rapidly reaches a saturation
value, resulting in distorted regions of heavy slip.
(i.e., intrusions and extrusions)
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Fatigue Crack Growth (3) Fatigue Crack Growth (3)
Intrusions and extrusions
can act as stress
concentrators (or notches)
Persistent
b
( )
for cracks initiation.
Cracks are generally found
to occur in these regions of
heavy deformation.
Slip bands
Slip under
alternating
load
produces
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Some bands are more
persistent than others.
We call them persistent slip
bands (PSBs).
[Reed-Hill & Abbaschian, p. 756]
produces
alternating
slip
Persistent Slip Bands and Crack Initiation Persistent Slip Bands and Crack Initiation
PSBs are embryonic fatigue cracks that open when small tensile
strains are applied.
PSB protrusions
with extrusions
and intrusions in
a Cu single
crystal fatigued
at room
temperature.
120,000 cycles
at a plastic
strain amplitude
of 0.002. [From
Ma and Laird,
Acta metall., 37
(1989) 325].
Section through a PSB containing
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Once formed cracks will initially propagate along slip planes (Stage I).
Later they assume directions perpendicular to the applied stress
(Stage II).
( ) ]
intrusions at A and B and a crack at C.
[Scanned from Reed-Hill and
Abbaschian, p. 759].
4/2/2012
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Stage I Stage I
Cracks propagate
via crystallographic
shear modes.
A few cracks A few cracks
nucleate along
crystallographic slip
planes.
The rate of crack
propagation is low
(on the order of a
Prof. M.L. Weaver
(
few /cycle). The
fracture surface in
Stage I is nearly
featureless.
[Adapted with modifications from Courtney, p. 572]
Stage II Stage II
From R.M.N. Pelloux,
Fractography, in Atomistics
of Fracture, edited by R.M.
L t i d J R Pi k
Stage II crack
propagation shows
ripples/striations.
Latanison and J.R. Pickens,
Plenum Press (1981) pp.
241-251
Each striation represents the
position of the advancing
crack The crack
Prof. M.L. Weaver
[Dieter p. 397]
crack. The crack
propagation rate is high (on
the order of a m/cycle).
Striations are the result of a
combination of crack
propagation and blunting.
4/2/2012
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Stage III Stage III
The fatigue crack becomes too large.
The K
c
of the material is exceeded resulting in fast fracture.
Fatigue Life
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h
)
Fatigue Life
c
c
Incr. o
dc
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Variation in fatigue crack length with # cycles to failure
N (# cycles)
c
(
c
N
f
dN
c
o
Fatigue Crack Propagation (1) Fatigue Crack Propagation (1)
The crack growth rate can be expressed as:
m n
a
dc
K c
dN
o =
constant
lt ti t
K =
Is equation can be re-written in terms of the total accumulated
strain:
alternating stress
crack length
a constant ranging from2 to 4
a constant ranging from1 to 2
a
c
m
n
o =
=
=
=
1
1
m
dc
C
dN
c =
Prof. M.L. Weaver
This is known as the Paris equation. It predicts the crack growth
rate in the region of stable crack growth (Stage II).
dN
1
1
constant
total strain
a constant ranging from2 to 4
C
m
c
=
=
=
4/2/2012
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Linear Linear--Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method
We can make fatigue crack propagation more useful by relating it
to linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM).
Consider a thin sheet specimen of width w with a crack already in
it. The crack could result from the presence of a manufacturing
defect defect.
y
x
o
ij
u
c
Applied
Stress
Prof. M.L. Weaver
The stress near the crack tip is:
w
c
Applied
Stress
( ) ...
2
ij ij
K
F
r
o u
t
= +
LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
The K is the stress intensity factor that we defined previously as
fracture toughness.
( ) ...
2
ij ij
K
F
r
o u
t
= +
( ) K F c o =
Values of K have been tabulated for materials with different crack
geometries
( )
( , ) K F c
c F c w
c Y
o
o t
o t
=
=
=
Shape factor;
depends on
specimen shape
and crack
geometry
Prof. M.L. Weaver
geometries.
Of course, we are interested in the critical K values (i.e., K
c
) .
4/2/2012
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LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
At K
c
an incremental increase in the crack length (dc) results in a
small change in the elastic strain energy release rate (i.e., o
2
c/E)
which is equaled by the energy required to extend a crack.
If d h k If b l i d If you exceed K
c
the crack opens up. If you are below K
c
it does
not.
max min
o o o A =
K Y c o t =

Prof. M.L. Weaver

For constant o, K correlates with the fatigue crack growth rate.
This is illustrated on the next page.
max min
K K K Y c o t

A = = A
LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
Variation in fatigue
crack length with #
e
n
g
t
h
)
Incr. o
Incr. K
c
critical
g
cycles to failure
N (# cycles)
c
(
c
r
a
c
k

l
c
dN
dc
c
o
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Obviously , so we plot
This is the variation of the fatigue crack growth rate
expressed in terms of K.
( )
dc
F K
dN
= A ( ) log versus log
dc
K
dN
| |
A
|
\ .
4/2/2012
23
LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
t
e

(
l
o
g

s
c
a
l
e
)
I II III
max c
K K
Stress intensity factor range K
C
r
a
c
k

G
r
o
w
t
h

R
a
( )
p dc
A K
dN
= A
p
1
th
K A
N
o

c
r
a
c
k

g
r
o
w
t
h
Prof. M.L. Weaver
I. Crack initiation little or no crack growth
II. Crack propagation Paris law region
III. Unstable crack growth accelerated/unstable crack growth
Variation in fatigue crack growth rate with stress intensity factor
Stress intensity factor range K
LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
Paris, Gomez and Anderson (1961) showed that the fatigue
crack growth rate could be related to the stress intensity
factor range by the relationship:
( )
p dc
A K
dN
= A
where A and pare constants that depend upon material,
environment, and test conditions.
The influence of the mean stress, written in terms of the
stress ratio R, is given by:
( )
dN
Prof. M.L. Weaver
An increased mean stress tends to increase crack growth
rates in all portions of the crack growth curve.
( )
( ) 1
p
c
A K dc
dN R K K
A
=
A
4/2/2012
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Region Comments
I. Growth rates are controlled by microstructure, o
m
, and
environment.
LEFM Method LEFM Method contd contd
II. Growth rates are controlled by microstructure,
environment, and frequency. In this region, p = 3 for
steels and 3-4 for Al alloys.
III. Growth rates are controlled by microstructure, o
m
, and
thi k
Prof. M.L. Weaver
thickness.
All of this is summarized on the next viewgraph.
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Figure fromH.L. Ewalds and R.J .H. Wanhill, Fracture Mechanics, 1
st
Edition(Edward Arnold, London, 1984) p. 172.
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IN GENERAL, FATIGUE
CRACK GROWTH
RATES ARE
STRUCTURE
INSENSITIVE
(a) dc/dN vs. K for several Ti, Al, and steel alloys. (b) The
same data replotted as dc/dN vs. K/E. Normalizing K by
dividing by the modulus (E) produces a curve (with some
Prof. M.L. Weaver
[Courtney, p. 590]
dividing by the modulus (E) produces a curve (with some
scatter about it) in which crack-growth rates in several
materials cannot be as clearly differentiated as they are in
(a). The results indicate that fatigue-crack growth rates are
not structure-sensitive; this is in contrast to most
mechanical properties. This comes from Bates and Clark,
Trans. ASM, 62, 380 (1969).
Some Variables That Affect Fatigue Life Some Variables That Affect Fatigue Life
Surface finish
Most fatigue cracks initiate from preexisting defects on the components surface.
Improving surface finish leads to longer fatigue lives.
Grain size
F ti t th i i i d G i b d i d Fatigue strength increases as grain size decreases. Grain boundaries are good
obstacles to fatigue crack propagation. This is identical to crack propagation in
brittle solids during fracture.
Residual stresses
Compressive residual stresses inhibit cracks from opening up. Compressive
stresses close cracks. Shot peening is a method to induce compressive residual
stresses on component surfaces.
Temperature
Prof. M.L. Weaver
Fatigue strength increases as temperature decreases. Materials are generally
stronger at lower temperatures.
Environment
Corrosion reduces fatigue strength by reducing the amount of material present to
carry the applied load. This actually concentrates stress. Limit contact to corrosive
environments.
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References for Module References for Module # #39 39
1. J. Roesler, H. Harders, M. Baeker, Mechanical Behaviour of
Engineering Materials, Springer (2007), Chapter 10.
2. S. Suresh, Fatigue of Materials, 2
nd
Ed., Cambridge (1998).
3. MEYERS & CHAWLA: Ch. 14
4. DIETER: Ch. 12, all
Prof. M.L. Weaver