Engineering Math - 3, Ch-2, 2nd Order ODE, 2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations. BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING GUIDE .
INC [ 18/APRIL/2013 ]
[EngineeringMathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Text-book: Advanced-EngineeringMathematics,7th edition by Erwin-kreyszig.
By MUHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI
2013
WWW.MEDICAL-IMAGE-PROCESSING.BLOGSPOT.CA BY
SIKANDER-LODHI
[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Table of Contents
2.1 [start here] HOMOGENEOUS-LINEAR-DIFFERENTIAL-EQUATIONS:- ................................................... 2 Problem-set [2.1] [start-here] ................................................................................................................. 10 [ 2.2 ] [start-here] HOMOGENEOUS-EQUATIONS-WITH-CONSTANT-COEFFICIENTS:- ............................... 22 PROBLEM SET 2.2: ................................................................................................................................... 26 SECTION 2.3 [START-HERE] CASE-OF-COMPLEX-ROOTS [ OR CASE-III ].COMPLEX-EXPONENTIALFUNCTION: .................................................................................................................................................. 31 SUMMARY-OF-CASES I III :- ............................................................................................................. 33 Problem-set 2.3....................................................................................................................................... 34 [ 2.4 ] start here DIFFERENTIAL-OPERATORS [OPTIONAL]:-....................................................................... 46 Problem Set 2.4 [start-here] ................................................................................................................... 48 [ 2.6 ] start-here EULER-CAUCHY-EQUATION:- .......................................................................................... 52 Problem-set 2.6....................................................................................................................................... 56 Ex # 2.8 [ start-here ] Non-Homogeneous-Equations ................................................................................. 62 Problem-Set 2.8 ..................................................................................................................................... 67 Ex 2.9 [start-here] SOLUTION BY UNDETERMINED-COEFFICIENTS:............................................................ 73 Table # 2.1 [ Method of Undetermined Coefficients ] ...................................................................... 73 Problem set 2.9 ...................................................................................................................................... 87 [ 2.10 Start-here ] SOLUTION-BY-VARIATION-OF-PARAMETERS :- ........................................................ 89 Problem set 2.10 ......................................................................................................................................... 96 * 2.12 start here + MODELING-OF-ELECTRIC-CIRCUITS :- ......................................................................... 96 Table 2.2 .............................................................................................................................................. 99 Problem set 2.12 ................................................................................................................................... 105 [ 2.13 start here ] COMPLEX-METHOD-FOR-PARTICULAR-SOLUTIONS.*OPTIONAL+: ............................. 105 Problem-set 2.13 start here .................................................................................................................. 110
CH-2 [START-HERE] 2.1 [start here] HOMOGENEOUS-LINEAR-DIFFERENTIAL-EQUATIONS:We study 1st order linear differential equations and we shall now define and consider lineardifferential equations of the second-order.
www.medical-image-processing.blogspot.ca by Sikander-lodhi
Page 2-OF-110

LINEAR-DIFFERENTIAL-EQUATION-OF-THE-SECOND-ORDER:A second-order-differential-equation is called linear if it can be written as.. [ +; and Non-linear if it cannot be written in this form. The characteristic feature of eq-1 is that its linear in the Un-known function [y] and its derivatives, where as p(x) and q(x) as well as r(x) may be any given functions of x. If the first term is, say * f(x).y + , we have to divide by f(x) to get the standard form that is *eq-1] , with y as the first term , which is practical. If * its means identical-equal-to + ,that is, for all x * ] considered ], then eq-1 becomes simply [ ]; this nd equation [Eq-2+ is called as homogeneous-linear-differential-equation of 2 order. If , then eq-1, is called Non-homogeneous-linear-differential-eq of 2nd order. This is similar to sec# 1.7. The functions p(x) and q(x) in eq-1, and eq-2, are called the coefficients of the equations. An example of a Non-homogeneous-linear-differential-equation is ...-> [ ]; An example of a homogeneous-linear-differential-equation is. ->[ ]; Example of Non-linear-differential-equations are -> [ ]; and ..->[ ];. We shall always suppose that x varies on some Open-Interval [I] , and all our assumptions and statements will refer to such an I , which we need not specify in each case . Re-call[ by definitions the concept of interval includes as special cases [ ] and [ ] as well as the whole x-axes [ ], all our intervals are open, that is , their endpoints are not regarded as points belonging to the interval, that I may be the entire x-axis. A solution of a 2nd-order[linear/or non-linear+ differential equation on some open interval [ is a function *y=h(x)+ that has derivatives *y=h(x)+ and *y=h(x)+, and satisfies that differential equations for all x in that interval; That is, the equation becomes an identity if we replace the un-known function[y] and its derivatives by [h] and its corresponding derivatives. 2nd-order-linear-differential equations have many basic applications as we shall see. Some of them are very simple, their solutions being familiar functions from calculus. Others are more involved their solutions being higher-functions [ for instance, Bessel-function ] occurring in engineering problems. HOMOGENEOUS-EQUATIONS: [ SUPER-POSITION OR LINEARITY-PRINCIPLE ]:-
We now begin our discussion of 1. 2nd order-homogeneous-linear-differential equations in sec# 2.12.7. 2. 2nd order-Non-homogeneous-linear-differential-equations in sec # 2.8 2.13.
Page 3-OF-110

Key An equation in the form of [ order-linear-differential eq . Where : p(x) and q(x) are the coefficient of given differential equation in eq-1; CASE-1: [When Then , [ Case-2: [When Then, [ differential-Equation. ------------------- THEOREM # 1 :- [ FUNDAMENTAL-THEOREM-1 FOR THE HOMOGENOUS EQUATIONS [EQ-2]]:[FOR HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION]:1. For a homogeneous-linear-differential equations-2 [Eq-2] , any linear-combinations of two solutions on an Open-Interval [I] is again a solution of Eq-2, on Open-Interval*I+. 2. In Particular, for such an equations, sum and constant multiples of solutions are again solutions. Proof: let, y1 and y2 be solutions of [Eq-2] on I, then by substituting [ derivatives into Eq-2 ; So,
[ So, [ . . [ ]; ]; ];
]; this eq-1 is a 2nd-
+:+; its 2nd order homogeneous equations. +:+; its 2nd-order-Non-homogeneous-linear-
] and its
Since, in the last line , [(---)=0], because y1 and y2 are solutions by assumption. This show that [ ] is a solution of [Eq-2] on I . CAUTION! Always remember this highly important Theorem, but do not forget that it does not hold for Non-homogeneous-linear-equation or Non-linear-equations as the following two examples illustrate.
Page 4-OF-110

Ex # 2:- [ A Non-Homogeneous Linear-differentia equations ] . Substitution shows the functions *y=1+cos*x++ and *y=1+sin*x++ are solution of Non-homogeneouslinear-differential-equations. That is , [ ];
But the following functions are not solution of this differential eq [ ------------------------Ex # 3 :- [ A Non-Linear-differential-equations]: Substitution shows that the function [y=x2 ] and [y=1] are solution of non-linear-differential equations. [ ]; . ];
But the following functions are not solutions of this differential equations : ----------------------Ex # 1:- [ SOLUTION-OF-A-HOMOGENEOUS-LINEAR-DIFFERENTIAL-EQUATION ]:Let, is , [
are solutions of homogeneous linear differential equations *Eq-A+ that ];
So, if y1 and y2 are solution of eq-A, then y1 and y2 must satisfied eq-A so, FOR [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; It show that y1 is a solution of eq-A; ]; :]; ];
L.H.S=R.H.S FOR :-
Page 5-OF-110

[ [ [ . [ [ ]; ]; It show that y2 is a solution of eq-A, ]; ]; ];
L.H.S=R.H.S So, we can multiply sum then we get the value of y. [ {:. c1 and c2 by different constants c1 and c2 and then take the
]; this is called a Linear-Combination of y1 & y2 .
are any Arbitrary-Constant };
Let, c1=-3 and c2=+8 . So, by placing the value of c1 and c2 in Eq-3 we get
[ [ ]; ] because , ];
And verify that this is another solution of our homogeneous-equation-A for all x [ [ [ [ [ . . [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 6-OF-110

. .. [ ]; it show that [Eq-3] is also a solution of [Eq-A].
L.H.S=R.H.S CONCLUSION:So y1 , y2 and [ equations of 2nd order. -----------------finished-here-------+; are the solution of homogeneous-linear-differential-
INITIAL-VALUE-PROBLEM[I.V.P],GENERAL-SOLUTION,BASIS:GENERAL-SOLUTION:i. For a first order differential equation a general solution involved one arbitrary-constant*c+ , and in an initial-value problem we used one initial condition [ y(x0)=y0+, to get a particular-solution in which c had a definite value . The idea of a general-solution was to get all possible solutions , and we know that for linear-equations [ sec# 1.7 ] we succeeded [because those have no singular solutions+, we now extend this idea to second order equations. For second order homogeneous linear-equations [Eq-2], a general-solution will be of the form, that is [ +;its a Generalnd Solution of 2 order Homogeneous linear-equations. Its a Linear combination of two solutions y1 and y2 involving two Arbitrary-constant c1 & c2 . [ +; Its a Linear combination of two solutions y1 and y2 involving two Arbitrary-constant c1 & c2 .
ii.
iii.
iv.
INITIAL-VALUE-PROBLEM [I.V.P]:-
Page 7-OF-110

An Initial-value Problem [I.V.P] now consists of Eq-2 and two Initial-Conditions that is [ And Two Initial-Conditions:[ ]; Prescribing value [k0] and [k1] of solution and its derivative [ slope of the curve] at same given x0 in Open-Interval *I+, considered. We shall use [Eq-5] to get from [Eq-4+ a Particular-solution of Eq-2, in which c1 and c2 have definite values . --------------------BASIS [OR Not-proportional, or Linearly-Independent or Fundamental-System ]:A General solution [Eq-4] of an [Eq-2] on an Open Interval [I] , is a solution with y1 & y2 not proportional solution of Eq-2 on Open-Interval*I+ and c1 , c2 are arbitrary-constants. These y1 , y2 are then called Basis [Or Fundamental-System ] of Eq-2 on OpenInterval*I+; DEFINITION OF BASIS [or FUNDAMENTAL-SYSTEM ]:A Basis of solutions of Eq-2 on an Open-Interval [I] is a pair y1 , y2 of linearlyIndependent [ or Basis ] solution of Eq-2 on Open-Interval[I]. [ y1 , y2 = Basis of 2nd order Linear-differential equation ]; -------------PARTICULAR-SOLUTION:];
Page 8-OF-110

If we assign a particular value of c1 and c2 in the general-solution [ Eq-4 + of eq-2 on I , then we get Particular-solution [Eq-G+ of eq-2 on I, [ Assign a Value Let, Then, [ We also called Also we spoke the Basis an Open-Interval *I+ . OR PARTICULAR-SOLUTION:The particular-solution of [Eq-2] on I is obtained if we assign specific values , to c1 and c2 in Eq-4 , As usual, y1 & y2 are called proportional [or Linearly-dependent] on I [OpenInterval] if ,
[ [ ]; ];
];
+; Its a Particular solution of Eq-2 , on I; the Basis of [Eq-2]; as in terms of Linearly-Independent, of
Where, k and BASIS:-
are numbers, zero or not.
Actually, we can also formulate our definition of a basis in terms of LinearIndependence we call two functions y1(x) & y2(x) as linear-independent on an Interval I where they are defined if
[ ];
Page 9-OF-110

And we call them linearly-dependent on I, if this equations also holds for some constants k1 , k2 not both zero. Then, if we can divide and solve , obtaining
[ ];
Hence, then y1 and y2 are proportional [linearly-dependent=proportional], where as in the case of linear-independence [not-proportional+ , they *means y1 & y2 ] are not-proportional=Linearly-Independent. I. In practice, one mainly uses a general solution to get particular-solutions from it , by imposing two initial conditions that is [Eq-5+ , because its the particular-solution that describes the unique behavior of a given physical or other system. Being interested in first gaining experience in that practical-task, we give the underlying theory afterwards [in sec-2.7], for the time being it suffices to know the following . If the coefficients p(x) & q(x) of Eq-1 and the function r(x) are continuous on some interval I, then Eq-1 always has a general-solution on I, from which one obtains the solution of any Initial-value-problem of Eq-1 that is Eq5 on I, which is unique. Also , Eq-1 does not have singular-solutions *that is , solution not obtainable from a general-solution].
II.
III.
IV.
------------Problem-set [2.1] [start-here] Q 7 ) reduce to first order and solve ? Given

[ ];
Method for reducing Eq-A in First-Order :-
Page 10-OF-110

Let,
[ [ ]; ];
By placing eq I & ii in eq-A, then

[ [ Now [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; Answer-1, now our given eq is converted into 1 order differential eq
st
Using separable-Method:[ ]; its our separable-form.
Now using integration. [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Using exponential on both side. [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Applying log property [ [ ]; ];
---------------------[ [ ]; ];
Page 11-OF-110

------------[ [ Now using separable method: [ Using integration Then [ [ [ [ ]; ]; correct-Answer. ]; ]; ]; its a separable form of eq-N. ]; ];
------------------finished-----------Q 14 ) reduce to 1 order and solve ? Given : [ Solution: Let [ For y :[ ]; ]; ];

st
Where z is the function of y,

[ ];
Where z, is a function of y then but y is the function of x , so we used Chain-rule, then

[ ];
Used Chain-Rule on eq-2 :[ ];
Page 12-OF-110

[ {:. }; ];
By palcing eq-i & eq-ii in eq-A we get. -------------------
[
[ ------------So,
];
];
[ [ [ [ [ [
Using separable method:
]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
[ [
]; ]; its a separable form .
Now integrating on both side . [ [ ]; ];
Using exponential on both side [ [ ]; ];
Using log property [ ];
Page 13-OF-110

[ [ [ [ [ Now For y :[ [ [ Use integrations [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; Correct-Answer ]; ]; ]; ]; ];its separable form ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
-------------Finished-here-------Initial-value-Problem [I.V.P] Q 23 ) particular solution=? Given :[ Also Initial-Cinditions:[ [ ]; ]; ]; homogeneous equation.
Page 14-OF-110

Basis Of Homogeneous equation:[ Solution:If y1 and y2 are the solution of homogeneous differential equation and if y1 & y2 are not-proportional (Independentsolution of homogeneous-differential-equation then, y1 and y2 are the basis of the homogeneous equation { eq-A }. Then , Its exist a general-equation That is GENERAL-EQUATION:[ ]; basis cause to satisfied the eq-D. ];
Then by placing the value of y1 and y2 in eq-D, we get. [ -------------[ --------------[ For c1 and c2 :Used I.V.P :Initial-Cinditions:[ [ --When [ [ [ For y :[ ]; ]; ]; :]; ]; ]; +; its a general-solution of Homogeneous equation. ]; ];
Page 15-OF-110

[ [ [ When [ [ [ [ [ [ Now subtracting the eqEq[ ]; , then we get ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; :]; ]; ]; ];
Eq=
[ {[ [
]; ]} ];
[ [ For c1 :[ [ {:. [ [ [ [
]; ];
]; ]; ] }; ]; ]; ];
Placing the value of c1 & c2 in eq-E , [ [ ]; ]; Correct-Answer , its our particular-solution of homogeneous equation.
Page 16-OF-110

-----------------finished-here-------------Q 31 ) Are the following function are linearly dependent or in-dependent of given Interval ? [ Solution:Basis Of Homogeneous eq: [ [ Given Interval :[ ]; ]; ]; ]; [ ];
FOR DETERMINING THAT GIVEN FUNCTION [y1=x+1 ] & [ y2=x-1 ] ARE LINEARLY DEPENDENT OR LINEARLY-INDEPENDENT ON GIVEN INTERVAL [0<x<1 ] :Formula: For Linearly-dependent [ For Linearly-Independent [ When [0<x<1 ] :Then , [ [ [ [ So, [ ]; Answer [ correct-answer ] ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Conclusion: y1 & y2 are linearly-Independent because the ratio of y1/y2 is not equal to k=constant . ----------------finished-here------------Q 33 ) Given:
Page 17-OF-110

[ Interval:[ any Interval = I ]; Solution:Let, [ [ So, At any Interval [I] :For Linearly-dependent [ --------------Formula: For Linearly-dependent [ For Linearly-Independent [ -------------[ [ [ ]; ]; ] ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Let [ we choose any single Interval[x] Then [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
]; its linearly-dependent, Correct-Answer.
------------finished-here--------------
Page 18-OF-110

Q 21 ) find the curve in the xy-plane which passes through the point, P(1,1), and Intersect the line: [y=x] at right angle and satisfies [ ]; ? Solution: [ Let, [ [ ]; ]; ];
By placing the value of eq-i and eq-ii in eq-A , then we get, So, [ [ Now, For z :[ ]; ]; ]; so our eq-A is reduced to 1 order.
st
Using Separable Method :[ [ [ ]; ]; its our separable form. ];
Using integrations So, [ [ ]; ];
Using exponential on each side. [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 19-OF-110

[ [ [ {:. [ [ [ [ [ For y:[ ]; ]; ]; ]; separable-form ]; ]; ]; } ]; ];
Use integrations: [ [ [ [ [ [ Using I.V.P :So, we have Given point P(1,1)=(x,y). We make the I.V.P by using the given point P(1,1) as following: [ So, [ ]; ]; its I.V.P ; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
[from I.V.P we have y=1, x=1 ] Put the value and get the answer.
Page 20-OF-110

[ [ [ Given I.V.P :[ So, [ [ Using derivative [ [ [ [ [ When [ [ [ [ [ For c :[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Placing the eq-1 and eq-2 in eq-L, then we get . [ ];
Page 21-OF-110

[ [ Graph:]; ]; Answer [correct-answer].
------------------finished-here--------------
-------------section 2.1 finished here---------
[ 2.2 ] [start-here] HOMOGENEOUS-EQUATIONS-WITH-CONSTANTCOEFFICIENTS:1. In this section and the next one, we show how to solve homogeneouslinear-equations [ +; whose coefficients a and b are constant [a,b=constant]. 2. These equations have important applications, especially in connection with mechanical and electrical vibrations, as we shall see in sec # 2.5,2.11 and 2.12. 3. To solve eq-1, we remember from sec.1.7 that a 1st order linear differential equation * y+k.y=0 + with constant coefficient k has an exponential function as solution, [ ];. 4. This gives us the idea to try as a solution of eq-1 the function .[ ]; its a solution of Eq-1;
Page 22-OF-110

5. Substituting eq-2 and its derivatives [ ]; &.. [ ]; into our equation [eq-1] we get---> [ ];.. 6. Hence eq-2 is a solution of eq-1 , if is a solution of the quadratic equation [eq-3] that is -> [ ];its Characteristic equations [or Auxiliary-equation ] of eq-1. 7. The roots of eq-3 are ........................................................
8. 9.
[ [
]; +;..
10.Our derivation shows that the functions y1 & y2 in eq-5 are solutions of Eq1. [ ];-> its solutions of eq-1. 11.The student may check this by substituting eq-5 into eq-1. 12.Directly from eq-4 we see that , depending on the sign of the discriminant [ ] , we obtain. a. (Case-I) two real roots if [ ];. b. (Case-II) a real double root if [ ]; c. (Case-III) complex conjugate roots if [ ];
We discuss cases I and II now and Case III in the next section.
CASE-I :- TWO-DISTINCT-REAL-ROOTS two real roots if [ in this case, [
AND
:];..
];.
Constitute a basis of solutions of eq-1 on any interval [because ...{ } is not constant; see sec.2.1].
Page 23-OF-110

the corresponding general-solution is -> [ --------------------CASE-II :- REAL-DOUBLE-ROOT When the discriminant [ [ [ :];.
] then eq-4 gives only one root ]; and we get at first only one solution ];
To find a second solution, needed for a basis, we use the method of reduction of order*actually, we use a special case of it. We discuss the general method in sec.2.7.] . that is, we set [ ]; {:. }
And try to determine the function u such that y2 becomes a solution of Eq-1. For this, we substitute [ ]; and its derivatives , into eq-1 .
[ [ [
[ [
[
]; ]; ];
]; ];
];
];
this gives
[ ];
Collecting terms, we get

[ ];
Page 24-OF-110

[ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
The expression in the last parentheses is zero, since y1 is a solution of eq-1. The expression in the first parentheses is zero, too, since
{:.
So, [ [ [ {:. [
} , {:.
};..
]; ]; ];
]; }
. hence . By two integrations,
We are thus left with [ ];..
To get a second independent solution [
then [ a basis. Our result is that in the case of a double root of eq-3 a basis of solution of eq-1 on any interval is [ [ ]; The corresponding general solution is
], we can simply take u=x. ], since these solutions are not proportional, they form
] and>
[[ ]; its a general solution of eq-1 in case-II. Warning: If is a simple root of eq-4, then is not a solution of eq-1.
Page 25-OF-110

-----------------------The remaining Case-III of complex conjugate roots of the characteristic equation eq-4 will be discussed in next section. ---------------PROBLEM SET 2.2:
Q 1) find General-solution = ? Given:[ Solution :[ For Characteristic equation :[ For Roots [ ]:[ Formula:[ ]; ]; ]; its characteristic eq. ]; ];
Where A=1,B=3,C=2; [ [ [ [ either [ or [ Here and ]; are real and distinguish so we used case-I for general-solution of eq-A. ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 26-OF-110

FOR GENERAL-SOLUTION OF EQ-A :[ We get [ [ [ ] ]; Answer [correct-Answer+. Its a general-solution of eq-A. ] ]
----------------------Finished-here----------2.2 [some theory out of this book] ------------------------Derivations:If & are the root of the characteristic equation and if homogeneous linear differential-equation, Then , Formula:[ Then, [ . [ So, [ ---------------finished-here-----]; its our 2 order homogeneous linear-differential eq.
nd
&
are given so in the order to find the 2 order
nd
];
];
];
its the Quardic equation.
--------------Q 7 ) differential equation ? Given : [ Solution:];
Page 27-OF-110

Let we know that: [ For Characteristic-eq:Formula:[ ]; ];
By placing the above value in eq-D as [ [ . [ Using Quardiac equation A=1, B=1, C=-6; [ [ [ [ .. [ Either: [ or [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; its characteristic eq. ]; ];
FOR DIFFERENTIAL EQ:[ [ ]; +; Answer * its correct answer + its the required differential eq of given Basis y1 and y2 .
----------finished-here-------------
Page 28-OF-110

Q 17) solve by the I.V.P ? Given: [ ];
Given Initial-condition [I.V.P]: [ Solution: [ [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Taking square-root on each side. [ [ Either. [ ]; or [ ]; ]; ];
So roots are real and distinguished so we used case-I. Case-I :[ [ For yh :[ [ For c1 & c2 :[ When y(0)=1 :]; ]; ]; ]; ]
Page 29-OF-110

[ [ [ [ When y(0)=20 :[ [ [ [ [ [ Subtracting eqand eq]; ]; we get. ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
For c2 :[ [ For c1 :[ [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
By placing the value of c1 & c2 in eq-A, then [ { [ ]; [ ]; } ];
Page 30-OF-110

[ [ ]; ]; Answer [correct answer ].
------------finished-here----------
----------------------SECTION 2.2 FINISHED HERE-------
SECTION 2.3 [START-HERE] CASE-OF-COMPLEX-ROOTS [ OR CASE-III ].COMPLEX-EXPONENTIAL-FUNCTION: 1) CASE-OF-COMPLEX-ROOTS [ OR CASE-III ]: For homogeneous-linear-differential-equations with constant coefficients
[ ]; {:. a, b are constant};
We now discuss the remaining case that the characteristic equation

[ ];
Has roots
[ ];
Which are complex.

Eq-3 shows that this happens if the discriminant { [
[
} , this is case-III of the last section . ];

];
Let , [
[
];
];
we see that
Page 31-OF-110

[ ]; now are complex solutions
of eq-1.
But we claim that in this Case-III, a basis of real solutions of eq-1 on any interval is
[ ]; its
solution of eq-1.
Indeed, that these are solutions follows by differentiation and substitution, also, [y2/y1=tan [ ] constant]; since [ ] , so that y1 & y2 are not proportional *or not-dependent or Independent ]. The corresponding general solution is
[ +; its a general solution of eq-1.
------2) COMPLEX-EXPONENTIAL-FUNCTION[ ]: Case-III (complex roots ) has been settled, and nothing is left to prove. We just want to see how one can get the idea that y1 & y2 might be solutions in this case. We show that this follows from the complex exponential function . The complex-exponential-function= [ ] [In eq-7] of a complex variable [z] { } is defined by eq-7 below.
[ ];
Real-exponential-function= .for real z=s, this becomes the familiar real-exponential-function= of calculus because then cos[t]=cos[0]=1 and sin[t]=sin[0]=0. Also, has properties quite similar to those of the real-exponential function . In particular, one can show that it is differentiable and that it satisfies [ ]; (proofs in sec.12.6.);
Page 32-OF-110

This may suffice to motivate the definition [eq-7], in eq-7 we now take [ ] with as in eq-4, that is ,
[ Then eq-7 gives ];
[
Similarly, since[ ], we get for
];
[see eq-4]
];
Adding these two formulas and dividing the sum by 2, we get on the right y1 as given in eq-5 ; Similarly, by subtracting those formulas and dividing the result by we get on right y2 as given in eq-5. From fundamental theorem 1 in sec 2.1 it follows the y1 and y2 are again solutions. This confirms that eq-6 is a general solution of eq-1 in case-III [complexroots]. For later use we note that [eq-7] with s=0 gives the so-called Euler-Formula [ in eq-8 ]
[ ]; at s=0;
---------------------SUMMARY-OF-CASES I III :Up till here we complete the discussion of all three cases and we may sum it up as below:
case I II
Roots of eq-2 Distinct real roots [ Real double root ->[ ] ]
Basis of Eq-1 [ [ ] ]
General-solution of eq-1 [ [[ ] ];
III
Complex-conjugate roots 1. [ 2. [
1. ]; ]; 2.
[ [
] ]
];
Page 33-OF-110

Its very interesting that in applications to mechanical systems or electrical-circuits, these three cases correspond to three different forms of motion or flows of current, respectively. We shall discuss this basic relation between theory and practice in detail in sec.2.5 and again in sec.2.12. BOUNDARY-VALUE-PROBLEMS: Applications sometimes also lead to conditions of the type as below eq-9. [ ]; These are known as boundary-conditions, since they refer to the endpoints P1 , P2 ( boundary points P1 , P2 ) of an interval I on which the eq-1 is considered. Eq-1 and conditions in eq-9 together constitute what is known as a boundary-value-problem [B.V.P]. ----------
Problem-set 2.3
Q 1 ) verify that following function y is the solution of given differential eq *eq-S ] and obtain the general-solution using case-III ? Given:[ [ Solution:Let, [ ]; ]; ];
If y is the solution of differential equation then y and its derivatives cause to satisfied the given differential eq [eq-S] So, [ For derivatives of y:];
Page 34-OF-110

[ [ {:. [ } ]; ]; ];
By placing y , y and y in eq-S, we get . [ So, [ .. [ ]; henced proved [Answer-1], it show that y is the solution of given differential equation. For Genereal-Solution:[ [ {:. Where [ [ ]; ]; } ]; ]; ]; ];
We used case-III :Formula For General-Solution of Homogeneous-Equation in Case-III : [ ];
Page 35-OF-110

[ [ [ ]; ]; ]; [ ];
By placing all above value in eq-L , we get [ [ [ [ homogeneous eq [eq-S] . ----------------Finished-here-------Q 7) Given: [ Req General-solution=? Solution:[ For Characteristic-eq [ [ ]; ]; its our characteristic eq
Page 36-OF-110
]; ]; ]; ]; Answer-2 , its a general-solution of
];
];

For Roots: [ [ [ [ [ Either [ ]; or [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
The both root are real & distinguish So, We used case-I :Formula :[ For General-Solution: [ [ ]; ]; Answer [ correct-answer]. ]; its a general formula for general solution of eq-A.
---------------finished-here-------------2.3 Q9) Given:[ ];
Page 37-OF-110

Solution:{:. {:. }; }
For Characteristic eq:[ For Roots:A=1, B=6, C=9; [ [ [ [ [ [ ]; {:. ]; ]; [ } ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
We have Double-Root so we used case-II :Formula:[ For General-solution:[ ]; ]; we used Case-II [ answer-1]
Page 38-OF-110

[ [ [ of eq-A, ]; ]; Answer-2 [correct-answer] , its the General-solution ];
----------Finished-here----------Q 15 ) Given: [ Solution: For Characteristic eq:[ For-Root:A=1, B=2, C= Formula:[ [ .. [ Either: [ ]; or [ ]; ]; ]; ]; . ]; ];
Page 39-OF-110

We have Complex conjugate roots, therefore we used Case-III. Formula:[ By placing all value in eq-GG we get [ [ ------------Finished-here-----Q 19 ) Particular solution=? Given :[ ]; ]; ]; Answer-2 [correct-Answer]. ];
Given Initial-Condition[I.V.P]:[ [ Solution:[ For Characteristic eq:[ For Roots:A=1,B=-4,C=4; Formula:]; ]; ]; ];
Page 40-OF-110

[ By placing the value. [ . [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
We have double-root [ ] , therefore we used Case-II. FORMULA:[ ];
For general-solution of homogeneous eq:[ When [ [ [ [ For y :[ [ When y(0)=10 :www.medical-image-processing.blogspot.ca by Sikander-lodhi Page 41-OF-110
]; its general-solution of homogeneous eq :]; ]; ]; ];
]; ];

[ [ [ [ When c1=3 :[ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
By placing the c1 and c2 in eq-P ; [ [ ]; ]; answer its the required particular-solution.
----------------Finished-here----------Boundary-Value-Problem [B.V.P] :Q 26 ) Particular-Solution=? Given:[ ];
Boundary-Value-Problem[B.V.P]:[ [ ]; ];
Page 42-OF-110

Solution:[ For Characteristic eq:[ For Root:[ [ [ [ Either: [ ]; or [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];its characteristic eq. ];
The roots are real and distinguished , so we used case-I . Formula [Case-I ]:[ For General-Solution of eq-A:[ [ ]; ]; Its the general-solution of eq-A. ];
Using Boundary-value-Problem [B.V.P]:-----------Boundary-Value-Problem[B.V.P]:[ ];
Page 43-OF-110

[ ];
----------When [ [ [ [ [ {:. {:. [ [ .. [ When [ So, [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; } } ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 44-OF-110

. [ Now , Multiplying by eq-S1 and also multiplying by eq-S2 , then we get. ];
[ [ [ [ Also [ [ [ [ Subtracting eq u1 and eq u2 . ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
];
]; ];
Page 45-OF-110

=
[ .. [ For c1 :When [ [ [ . [ ]; ]; ];
];
]; ];
For Particular-Solution:[ [ [ ]; ]; answer [ correct-Answer]. ];
------------Finished-here---------------------Ex # 2.3 finished here--------[ 2.4 ] start here DIFFERENTIAL-OPERATORS [OPTIONAL]:-
Page 46-OF-110

INTRODUCTION: This section gives an introduction to differential operators. It will be used only once and for a minor purpose (in sec.3.2), so that it can be omitted without interrupting the flow of ideas. By an operator we mean a transformation that transforms a function into another function. Operators and corresponding techniques, which are called operational-methods, play an increasing role in engineering mathematics. Differentiation suggests an operator as follows. Let D denote differentiation with respect to x, that is write [ ]; D is an operator, it transforms y * assumed differentiable + into its derivative y . forexample: [ ]; Applying D twice, we get the second derivative D(Dy)=Dy=y , we simply write D(Dy)=D2y, so that . [ Where , ,:. n = 1,2,3,..,N -; [ ]; this Eq-1 called a 2nd order differential operator. Here a & b are constant, P is polynomial , L is linear *which explain below+ , when L is applied to a function y ( assumed y is twice differentiable function ) , it give eq-2. [ ]; L is a linear-operator , by definition this mean that we have following, for any constant and any (twice differentiable) functions y and w. [ ]; The homogeneous linear differential equations *y+a.y+b.y=0+ may now be simply written as below eq-3.
[ ];
];
&
Example in eq-4 below: [ Since

];
Page 47-OF-110

[ We have from eq-2 and eq-3
[ ];
];
{:.
}; This confirms our result of sec.2.2 that is a solution of eq-3 if and only if is a solution of the characteristic eq [ ]. If has two different roots, we get a basis. If has a double roots, we need a second independent solution to get that solution , we differentiate [ ]; [see eq-5] on both sides with respect to and interchange differentiation with respect to and x , obtaining below equation.
[ Where [ ];
];
For a double root , [ [ Hence
], so that we have . ];
is the desired second solution [ this agree with sec.2.2] .
is a polynomial in , in the usual sense of algebra. If we replace by D , then we get the Operator-Polynomial . The point of this Operational-Calculus is that can be treated just like an Algebraic quantity. In particular, we can factor it . ------------------
Problem Set 2.4 [start-here]

Q 11 ) General-solution=? Given: [ Solution:[ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 48-OF-110

[ [ So, [ A=1,B=6/5,C=0.36; Formula:[ ]; ]; ]; ];
[ . [ [ We used Case-II :Formula Of General-solution:[ For General-Solution:[ ]; ];
];
];
];[Answer] its ageneral solution of homogeneous eq.
--------------------finished-here----------Q 13 ) I.V.P , Particular-solution=? Given:[ Initial-Condition:[ ]; ];
Page 49-OF-110

Solution:[ [ [ For Characteristic eq: [ For Root: A=1,B=4, C=5 Formula: [ [ [ [ Either [ {:. ]; [ }; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
The roots are complex and conjugate ,so we used Case-III, Formula:[ For General-solution: [ [ ]; ]; ];
Page 50-OF-110

[ For Particular-Solution:Used-I.V.P:Initial-Condition:[ For y :[ [ [ ..
[ ];
]; its a general-solution
];
]; ]; ];
For A & B :When [ [ [ [ [ [ For B:When

[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
. ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
:];
Page 51-OF-110

[ ];
{:. [
[ [ [ [ ];
]; }
]; ]; ];
{:. [
]; }
For Particular solution:[ [ [ [ [ -------Finished-here----------------Ex # 2.4 , finished here------]; ]; Correct-Answer , its our required Particular solution. ]; ]; ];
[ 2.6 ] start-here EULER-CAUCHY-EQUATION: Constant-coefficient equations are solvable without integrations, as we have seen.similarly,the so-called Euler-cauchy-Equation [Eq-1+ below can also solved by purely algebraic manipulations. [ ]; its Euler-cauchy-Equation .
Indeed, substituting Eq-2 and its derivatives into the differential-equation [Eq-1], [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Page 52-OF-110

We find [ [ Omitting , which is not zero if equation[ in Eq-3 + . that is, [ eq-1. Case-I : [ Distinct real-roots ]:If the roots m1 , m2 of Eq-3 are real and distinct, then, ]; ]; , then we obtain the Auxiliary-equation = characteristic-
]; its a Auxiliary-equation = characteristic-equation of
[ ]; these are the Basis of solutions of differential equations [Eq-1] for all x for which the function are defined.
The corresponding general-solution is given in below eq-4; [
]; its a General-Solution of eq-1 in Case-I ;
Where {:. c1 , c2 are Arbitrary constant.}; ----------------
Case-II : Double-Root :If eq-3 has a double root [ ], then we get a first solution that is shown in eq-5;
[ And a 2nd solution [[[[[ [ [ [ ];
]; its one of the solution of eq-1 ; by the method of reduction of order ( as in sec.2.2 ] .thus, substituting ]; and its derivatives into eq-1, we get. ]; {:. u = function or variable };
];
];
Page 53-OF-110

We get,
[
[
];
];
];
Re-shuffling terms gives

[ ];
{:.
[
};
];
[ [
]; ];
------------Rough work: [ Place this y1 in above eq-G --------------[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
];
Page 54-OF-110

[ ];
And integrate [ [ [ Applying exponent [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Applying integrations [ [ ]; ];
So we get the 2nd solution of eq-1, that is ,
[ [
]; ];
Hence in the case of double root of eq-3, a basis of eq-1 for all positive x is
[ [ ]; ]; this are the basis of eq-1 when eq-3 has a double root ..
{:.
}.
{:.
};
& gives the General solution of eq-1, [ [{:.

{:. ]; its a General solution of eq-1 when eq-3 has a double root
}; ] are arbitrary constant };
Page 55-OF-110

----------------CASE-III :- COMPLEX-CONJUGATE-ROOTS: If the roots m1 and m2 of eq-3 are complex, they are conjugate, say [ ]; We claim that in this case, a basis of solutions of eq-1 for all positive x is given in below eq-8,
[ ];
Indeed, these function are not proportional, and they are solutions of eq-1 , as follows by differentiation and substitution. The corresponding general-solution is given below in eq-9 ; [ This proves everything and settles the case. Another question is how we got the idea that eq-8 might be solutions . to answer it , we state that the formula [ ] extends from real to complex ..* ] and together with eq-7 in sec.2.3 (with s=0 ) gives as follow. [ [ ]; ]; Now multiply by & add and subtract. This gives 2.y1 and 2 .y2 , respectively. From this, dividing by 2 and 2. , we have eq-8. -------------Problem-set 2.6 Q 5 ) find the general-solution of given differential equation? Given:[ Solution:]; ];
Page 56-OF-110

[ [ [ [ Equation. Now, For Characteristic eq:{:. -----------[ [ ---------[ Put the value {:. [ [ Using Quardiac equation:Formula: [ Where A=1,B=8,C=16 [ ]; ]; ]; } ]; its the characteristic eq. ]; ]; ]; } ]; ]; its the homogeneous-Cauchy-Eular-Differential]; ];
Page 57-OF-110

. [ ];
We have Double-root, so therefore we used Case-II. Case-II :Formula:[ ];
For General-Solution:[ Where [ [ -----------Finished-Here------Q 15 ) Solve by I.V.P ? Given:[ Initial-Condition:[ Solution:[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; correct answer, its our General-solution. ];
Page 58-OF-110

[ [ [ For Characteristic eq:Where -----------[ [ ---------[ [ [ [ [ [ [ Either: [ ]; or [ ]; ]; [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; . ]; ]; ];
The roots are real and distinguished therefore we used Case-I :Case-I :Formula:-
Page 59-OF-110

[ For General-Solution:[ [ For Particular-Solution:Using I.V.P :[ For y :[ [ [ When [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; :]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; its the general-solution. ];
---------Initial-Condition:[ --------When [ . ]; ];
Page 60-OF-110

[ [ [ Multiply by 8 with eq- . [ [ [ Subtract eq- and eq- we get. [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
[ [ [ For c1 :[ [ [ ]; ]; ];
];
]; ];
For Particular-Solution:- [ [ [ ];
];
];
Page 61-OF-110

[ [ ----------------Finished-here-------------------------------ex # 2.6 , finished here --------Ex # 2.8 [ start-here ] Non-Homogeneous-Equations
Beginning in this section, we turn from homogeneous[eq-2] to Non-homogeneous[eq-1] linear equations, where , that is. [ +; its a Non-homogeneous eq of eq-2.
]; ]; Correct answer, its required particular solution;
How can we solve such an equation? Before we consider methods, let us first explore what we actually need for proceeding from the corresponding homogeneous equation[eq-2] below to the Non-homogeneous-equation [eq-1]. [
]; its Homogeneous equations of eq-1. The key that relates eq-1 to eq-2 and gives us a plan for solving eq-1 is the following theorem[Theorem # 1 ]. Theorem # 1:- * Relations between solutions of eq-1 and eq-2 ] :a) The difference of two solutions [ ] of eq-1 on some Open-interval I is a solution* ] of eq-2 on I. b) The sum of a solution of eq-1 [that is -> + on I & a solution of eq-2 [that is -> + on I is a solution of eq-1 [that is + on I. Proof: a) Denote the left side of eq-1 by L[y]. let L[ ]=r(x), & since we have [ [ b) Similarly, for [ This situation suggests the following concepts. as before & any solution * & be any solutions of eq-1 on I. then L*y+=r(x), ], e.t.c, we obtain the first assertion, ]; + of eq-2 on I, +; its a solution of eq-1 on I.
Page 62-OF-110

[ its a solution of eq-2 on I+;
DEFINITION [ GENERAL-SOLUTION,PARTICULAR-SOLUTION]: A General-solution of the Non-homogeneous equation eq-1 on some Open-interval I is a solution of the form [eq-3] below. [ [ And +; its a general-solution of Non-homogeneous equation [Eq-1]. +; its a General-Solution of the Homogeneous-equation [eq-2+ on I . is any solution of eq-1 on I containing no Arbitrary-constants[c=0].
PARTICULAR-SOLUTION: A particular-solution of eq-1 on I is a solution obtaining from eq-3, by assigning specific values to the arbitrary constants c1 & c2 in . If the coefficient of eq-1 and r(x) are continuous functions on I, then eq-1 has a generalsolution on I because exists on I by theorem # 3 , sec.2.7, & the existence of will be shown in sec.2.10, also , an initial value problem for eq-1 has a unique solution on I. This follows from theorem # 1, sec.2.7, once the existence of initial conditions [ ]; of the has been established . indeed, if
Are given & a has been determined, by that theorem there exists a unique solution homogeneous-equation [ eq-2+ on I satisfying [ And [ ];
]; is the unique solution of eq-1 on I satisfying the given initial-conditions.
Furthermore, justifying the terminology, we now prove that a general solution eq-1 includes all solutions of eq-1, hence the situation is the same as for the homogeneous-equation: Theorem 2: [ General-solution ]: Suppose that the coefficients [ ] and r(x) in eq-1 are continuous on some open interval I . Then every solution of eq-1 on I is obtained by assigning suitable values to the arbitraryconstants in a general solution eq-3 of eq-1 on I. Proof:
Page 63-OF-110

Let be any solution of eq-1 on I, let eq-3 be any general-solution of eq-1 on I, this solution exist because of our continuity assumption. Theorem # 1(a) in this section implies that the difference [ ] is a solution of the Homogeneous-equation [eq-2] . [ ]; by assigning suitable values to the ], the statement follows.
By theorem # 4 in sec.2.7, this solution Y(x) is obtained from arbitrary constants c1 , c2 . from this and [ Practical-Conclusion:-
To solve the Non-homogeneous-equation [eq-1+ or an Initial-value-problem for eq-1, we have to solve the homogeneous equation [eq-2+ & find any Particular-solution of eq-1. Methods for this and applications will be the subject for the remaining sections of Ch-2, which contain various examples , so that at present , with methods not yet available, we merely illustrate the basic technique & our notation by a simple example. Example # 1 : [ Initial-Value-Problem [I.V.P] for a Non-Homogeneous equation ]:Solve the initial-value problem Given [ Given Initial-Conditions:[ Solution:1st Step:[General-solution-of-the-homogeneous-equation]: [ The homogeneous eq of eq-A is [ The characteristic eq of eq-B is [ [ ]; ]; its characteristic eq of eq-B, ]; ]; ]; ];
For roots of characteristic equation [eq-C]
Page 64-OF-110

[ ];
[ Where a=1 . b = -4 c= 3 [ .. [ ];
];
];
For the Basis y1 and y2 :Formula: [ So, [ ]; ];
For the General-Solutions of eq-B:Formula:[ So, [ ]; its General-Solutions of eq-B. ];
2nd step: [Particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation ] :Since [ has derivatives ]; times some constants , we try
Page 65-OF-110

Then its derivatives are [ By placing the value of [ We get, [
[
]; and its derivatives in eq-A , ];
];
];
Using initial condition:

Given Initial-Conditions:[ Or at x=0 ;
[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
];
For General-Solution of the Non-homogeneous-equations [Eq-A+ :[
];
[
A+.
]; its a general solution of Non-homogeneous-equations [Eq-
{:. [ {:. [
] }; ] };
3rd step: [ Particular-solution satisfying the initial conditions] :By differentiation

[[
From eq-4 & eq-5 & initial-conditions,
];
Page 66-OF-110

[ [ So, [ ]; ]; ];
And
[ ];
This gives
, so
By placing value of c1 & c2 in eq-4 we get our Answer.

[
A+.
]; its a general solution of Non-homogeneous-equations [Eq-
[ [ ]; Answer .
];
Solution methods follow in the next sections. ------------finished-here--------Problem-Set 2.8
Q 1) verify that yp(x) is the particular solution of given Non-Homogeneous equation, and fing GeneralSolution? Given:[ Solution:[ ]; ];
If yp is the solution of Non-Homogeneous-Eq[ Eq-A] then yp , yp & yp cause to satisfied Equation [eq-A]:So, [ ];
Page 67-OF-110

For yp :[ [ For yp :[ [ Place [ [ [ .. [ L.H.S=R.H.S [ ]; its the Particular solution of given Non-homogeneous-eq [eq-A] ]; HENCED PROVED. ]; ]; ]; and its derivative into eq-A, we get. ]; ]; ]; ];
Find General-Solution: [ For Homogeneous-Equation:[ For Characteristic eq:[ [ [ Either: [ ]; [ ]; ]; [ ]; ]; [ ]; ]; ]; its the corresponding homogeneous eq of eq-A. ]; its the Non-Homogeneous differential eq[eq-A].
Page 68-OF-110

We have two real & distinguished roots,therefore we used Case-I, Formula:[ [ ]; ]; its the general-solution of corresponding homogeneous-eq [eq-V] of eq-A.
For General-Solution Of Non-Homogeneous-Equation [eq-A]:[ Now, Formula:[ [ ]; ]; ]; its Non-homogeneous eq
Eq-T, becomes, [ [ {:. [ ]; ]; } ];
[ ]; its correct answer., its the required general solution of NonHomogeneous-equation[eq-A]. -----------------Finished-here----------Q 11) Verify yp is the solution of given equation and solve by I.V.P ? Particular-solution=? Given:[ [ I.V.P :[ Solution:[ ]; Its Non-Homogeneous-equation ]; ]; ];
Page 69-OF-110

General-Solution For Non-Homogeneous-differential eq: [ ];
Verify that yp is the solution of eq-A, [ For yp & yp :[ [ [ [ [

[
];
]; ]; ]; ]; ];
];
. [ L.H.S=R.H.S For Particular-Solution:For General-Solution:[ Formula:Eq-A is the Non-homogeneous equation with Constant coefficient. So, [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; henced proved [ Answer-1]
For Homogeneous-eq:[ ];
Page 70-OF-110

For Characteristic eq:[ A=1, B=-6, C=9 [ [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
We have double root, therefore we used case-II ; Formula:[ For [ [ :]; ]; its general solution of corresponding homogeneous eq of eq-A. ];
For General-Solution Of Non-Homogeneous-Equation Of Eq-A :[ [ Formula: [ [ A]. For y :]; ]; its general solution of above non-homogeneous eq[eq]; ];
Page 71-OF-110

[ [
[ [
]; ];
]; ];
For Particular solution:For Value of c1 & c2 :Using I.V.P :When y(0)=0 :[ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
When y(0)=1 :[ [ ]; ];
[ [ [ ];
]; ];
For Particular solution:[ [ [ ]; Correct answer [its particular solution of Non-Homogeneous-eq. ]; ];
------------------Finished-here------------
Page 72-OF-110

-----------Ex # 2.8 finished-here----------
Ex 2.9 [start-here] SOLUTION BY UNDETERMINED-COEFFICIENTS:

A General-solution [Eq-A+ of a non-homogeneous-linear-equation is a sum of the form where yh is a general-solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation and yp is any particularsolution of non-homogeneous-equation.
[ equation.
+ its a general-solution of Non-homogeneous
This has just been shown. Hence our main task is to discuss methods for finding such yp . There is a general method for this which always works and which we shall consider in the next section. There also is a much simpler special method of practical interest which we discuss now. Its called the Method-Of-Undetermined-coefficients and applies to equations -> [Eq-1] with constant coefficients and special right sides r(x), namely, exponential functions, Polynomialsfunctions,cosines-functions,sines-functions, or sum or products of such functions. These r(x) have derivatives of a form similar to r(x) itself. This gives the key idea: Choose for yp a form similar to that of r(x) and involving unknown coefficients to be determined by substituting that choice for yp into Eq-1 . Example # 1 in the last section 2.8, illustrates this for an exponential-function; the undetermined coefficient was C. The rules of the method are as follows. RULES FOR THE METHOD OF UN-DETERMINED-COEFFICIENTS :1. Rule-A [ Basic-Rule ] :If r(x) in eq-1 is one of the functions in first column in table 2.1, then choose the corresponding function yp in the second-column and determine its undetermined coefficients by substituting yp and its derivatives into eq-1. . . . . Table # 2.1 [ Method of Undetermined Coefficients ]
Page 73-OF-110

Rule-A Siral-No Term in r(x) 1 2 [ ] ]; 3 4 5 6 Choice for yp [ [ ]
2. Modification Rule [ Rule-B ]:- If a term [ ] in your choice for yp happens to be a solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to eq-1, then multiply your choice of yp by x ( or by x2 if this solution corresponds to a double root of the characteristic equation of the homogeneous-equation). Mathematically we can re-present this Rule-B as : In [ [ If [ n1 = a solution of homogeneous eq corresponding to eq-1 ]. Then
[ ].
] ]
-----------3. Sum-Rule [ Rule-C ] :- if r(x) is a sum of functions listed in several lines of table 2.1 in [ 1st Column ] , then choose for yp the Sum-Of-The Functions in the corresponding lines of the 2nd column. Mathematically we can re-present this Rule-C as : If
[ ]; in 1 column of table 2.1 .
st
Then,
[ ]; in 2nd column of table 2.1 .
Page 74-OF-110

------------- The basic rule [rule-A] tell us what to do in general. The Modifications-Rule [Rule-B] , takes care of difficulties that occur in the case indicated accordingly, we always have to solve the homogeneous equation first . The sum rule [rule-C] is get if we note that the sum-of-two-solutions of eq-1 with r(x)=r1(x) & r(x)=r2(x) , respectively, is a solution of eq-1 with r(x)= r1(x) + r2(x) . (Verify!). The method corrects itself in the sense that a false choice of yp or one with too few terms will lead to a contradiction, usually indicating the necessary correction, and a choice of too many terms will give a correct result, with superfluous coefficients coming out zero. -----------
Ex # 3 :- * Modification Rule * Rule-B + ( double-Root ) and Sum-Rule[ Rule-C + ]:Solve I.V.P :Given:[ Initial-Condition:-[Given] [ Solution:[ ];
];
];
For Homogeneous-Eq :[ ]; its Homogeneous eq of eq-4.
For-Characteristic-Eq:[ +; its a characteristic eq of eq-A.
For Roots of Characteristic-eq [Eq-B ] :[ Formula:
];
];
Page 75-OF-110

Where: A=1, B=-2 , C=1
];
[ ]; this show that we have double root .
For yh [ For double-Root ] :Formula ( For-Double-Root ) Of yh :From sec # 2.3

[[ ];
Basis of Homogeneous Eq [Formula ] for double-roots:[ [ ---------------------Compare these both eq [ ]; its Homogeneous eq of eq-4. }; ] ];
{:. Where { a=-2 , b=1 } ; ---------------
[[ [[ [[
FOR yp :-
]; ]; ]; its a general-solution of Eq-A.
Page 76-OF-110

So, what rule we used now , we select the rule by using r(x), so we have . [ So, Re-call the Rule-B and Rule-C, For Term x in r(x):So, [
[
];
];
];
For term ex in r(x) :We have , Modification-rule [ Rule-B ], If Double-Root => * Sum-Rule [ Rule-C ] => [ So,
[ ];
]; ];
So, If Double-Root => * [ [ [ For yp :[ [ {:. [ For yp :]; ];

]; };
];
];
]
];
Page 77-OF-110

[ For yp :[ ]; ];
So, by placing the value of yp and its derivatives into eq-4 , we get. [ [
[
]; ];
];
. [ ];
Hence , C=1/2 , K1= 1, K0=2, and a general-solution of eq-4 is , By placing above value in yp , we get , [ [ ]; ];
For y ( or General-Solution of Eq-4 ):[ ];
{:. [[
[ For y :[ Hence apply initial-condition :[ [ [ ]; ];
]; };
]; its a general solution of eq-4;
];
];
Page 78-OF-110

[ For c2 :[ [ {:. [ [ [ [ For y :[ [ [ ]; ]; ]; Answer , its a particular solution of eq-4 ]; [ ]; ]; }; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
--------------finished-here---------Ex # 4 ) Another Application-Of-Sum-Rule [Rule-C]:Solve Given :

[ ];
Solution:For-Homogeneous-eq:[ ]; its homogeneous eq of eq-5.
For Characteristic-eq :[ For Roots [ ]-Of-Characteristic-Eq :[ ]; ]; its a characteristic eq of Eq-A.
Page 79-OF-110

Using Quadraiac-formula:[ Where:- A=1, B=2 , C=5 ; [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
We used case-III (since roots are complex ):[ Roots=> {:. Basis [ Formula ]:[ [ ]; ]; ]; };
General-Solution yh of homogeneous eq [Formula] [ So, {:. [ [ So, For yp :[ [ For yp :[ ]; ]; ]; }; ]; its a solution of homogeneous eq *Eq-A].
];
];
Page 80-OF-110

For yp :[ {:. (Same-sign)x(same-sign) = +ve sign }; {:. (different-sign)x(different-sign) = -ve sign }; By placing yp , yp , & yp in eq-5, we get,
[
[
];
];
];
-----------[ [ [ -------
[ ];
]; ]; ];
We get : C=2 , -> M=1/17, K=-4/17=-4.M; [ ]; For yp :[ For y :[

[
];
];
]; Answer.
---------finished-----------Ex # 2 ) [ Modifications-Rule ( Rule-B) In Case-Of-A-Simple-Root ] :Solve: [ ];
Page 81-OF-110

Solution:For Homogeneous-Eq [ For Characteristic Eq :[ For-Roots of Eq-B :[ Using Quadraiac-formula:[ Where:- A=1, B=-3 , C=2 ; [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
We have two real and distinct roots so, we used case-I, For yh :[ [ We have , [ Term in r(x) So, where, K=1 , =1 , Re-Call, the rule-B. ];
,Choice
]; ];
for yp
Page 82-OF-110

[ So, For yp :Hence above Rule-B suggest the below formula by having [ So, Put the value and get the answer, So, [ For yp & yp :[ [ [ Place yp,yp & yp in eq-3, [ [
[
];
so we have,
];
];
]; ]; ];
]; ];
];
.. [ C= . ];
For Particular-Value Of yp :[ [ For y :]; ];
Page 83-OF-110

Formula:[ [ -------------Finished-here------Ex # 1 ) [ Applications-Of-Rule-A +:Solve the Non-homogeneous equation [Eq-2+:Given:[ Solution:We have in eq-2 [
Trem in r(x) Choice for yp [
+; Its a formula of a general solution of eq-3. +; its a General-Solution of eq-3.
];
]
]
[ [ ] ];
8=k , n=2 , For yp :[ [ ]; ];
By placing the yp & yp in eq-2, we get , [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Page 84-OF-110

. [ ];
Equating x2,x & xo terms on both side we get , [ [ [ For K2 :[ [ For K0 [ [ [ For K1 :[ [ For yp :[ [ For yh :Formula :[ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 85-OF-110

[ For :];
A=1, B=0, C=4 , [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
The roots are real and complex . [ [ ]; +; its a general solution of eq-A.
So roots are complex-conjugate , therefore we used case-III from sec # 2.3. Comparing Formula with equations:For yh :[ ---------------Compare both eq below. [ [ --------------------We get, [ [ [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; ]; [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 86-OF-110

----------Compare both eq [ [ ---------[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ For y :[ [ --------------------finished here-------]; ]; Answer ]; ]; ]; ]; [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Problem set 2.9

Q 1) General-solution=? Given:[ Solution:];
Page 87-OF-110

Using Mathod of Undetermined-coefficient:For Ganeral-Solution:[ For yh :[ Homogeneous-equation: [ For Characteristic eq:[ [ [ [ Either: [ ]; or [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
Hence the roots are complex and conjuagate , therefore we used case-III, Formula:[ [ Using Case-III :[ [ [ For yp :[ ]; ]; ]; its general-solution of homogeneous eq eq-S; ]; ]; ];
Page 88-OF-110

.do it latter .
-------------------------ex # 2.9 finished here -----------------
[ 2.10 Start-here ] SOLUTION-BY-VARIATION-OF-PARAMETERS : The method in the last-section [ Ex # 2.9 ] is simple and has important engineering applications ( as we shall see in the next sections Ex # 2.11), but it applies only to constant-coefficient equations with special right sides r(x). In this section [ Ex # 2.10 ] , we discuss the so-called method of Variation-OfParameters which is completely general; that is , it applies to below equation [ Eq-1 ] with arbitrary variable function p(x), q(x) & r(x) that are continuous on some interval I .
];
The method gives a particular solution yp of eq-1 on I in the form of below equation [Eq-2 ], where y1, y2 form a basis of solutions of the homogeneous-equation [Eq-3 ] [below] corresponding to eq-1 & Eq-4 , where eq-4 is the Wronskian *W+ of y1 , y2 (see sec # 2.7 ).
[ ]; ]; ];
[ [
In practice, this method is much more complicated than our previous method, because of the integrations in Eq-2.
Page 89-OF-110

Let us first see an example [Ex # 1 ] to which our previous method does not apply ( as the answer will show ). Ex # 1 ) [ solve the differential equation ]:Given :- [ Solution:Let, [ For Homogeneous equation: [ +; its a homogeneous eq of eq-A. ]; ];
For Characteristics Equation : [ For Roots of Eq-C : Formula : [ Where , A=1,B=0, C=1 , Put the value and get the answer. [ [ [ [ [ either ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; +; its the characteristic equation of eq-B.
Page 90-OF-110

[ Or [ {:. Where a=0, ]; } =1 , b=1 ];
So, for y1 and y2 For y1 :Formula :[ [ Where a=0, [ [ [ For y2 :[ Where a=0, [ [ [ ]; ]; =1 ]; ]; ]; ]; =1 ]; ]; ];
Where y1 & y2 are basis of homogeneous equation. So,
Page 91-OF-110

For W [ W(y1,y2) = Wronskian=W ]:Formula:[ So, [ {:. [ [ [ [ [ [ For yp(x) :Formula :[ ];
];
]; ]; [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; }
Required : [ {:. [ [ ]; ]; ]; [ ]; }
So, put the value and get the answer.

[ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Page 92-OF-110
[ For yh :[ Required:
{:. [ ]; [ ]; }
];
];
[
[ Now, For y :[ So, Req [ [ Put the value & get the answer. [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
];
];
]; ]; ]; Answer.
Where c1 & c2 are two arbitrary constants of integration. -------------finished here-------------IDEA OF THE METHOD.[ DERIVATION OF EQ-2 ]:-
Page 93-OF-110

What was Lagranges-idea ? where does the name of the methods come from? How can we get Eq-2 ? where do we use the continuity assumption ? The continuity of p(x) & q(x) implies that the homogeneous equation eq-3 has a General-solution [Eq-Az + *below+ on I , by theorem # 3 in sec # 2.7. The method of Variation-Of-Parameters involves replacing the constants c1 & c2 (here regarded as Parameters in yh ) by functions u(x) & v(x) to be determined so that the resulting function [Eq-5] [ below] is a particular solution of eq-1 on I.
[ [ By differentiating eq-5 we get,

[
]; ];
];
Now eq-5 contains two functions u(x) & v(x) , but the requirement that yp satisfy eq-1 imposes only one condition on u(x) and v(x). Hence it seems plausible that we may impose a second arbitrary condition. Indeed, our further calculations will show that we can determine u(x) & v(x) such that yp satisfies eq-1 & u(x) and v(x) satisfy as a second condition the relationship in eq-6 [below]. [ This eq-6 reduces the expression for [ ]; to the form [ Eq-7 ] below ];
By differentiating this eq-7 , function we have .

[ ];
By placing eq-5, eq-7 and eq-8 into eq-1 we get [ [ [ ];

Page 94-OF-110
]; ];

[ ];
We get ,
[ ];
Since y1 & y2 are solutions of homogeneous equations[eq-2] , this reduces to [ [

Therefore , we get.
]; ];
[ We have eq-6 as [
];
]; This eq-i and eq-6 is making a linear-system of two algebraic equations for the un-known functions u(x) & v(x) . The solution is obtained by Cramers-Rule (sec # 7.8 ) or as follows. Multiply the eq-i by [- y2 ] and multiply the eq-6 by [ y2 +and add to get.
(Eq-i)x[- y2 ] [- y2 ]x[ + [Eq-6]x[ y2 + = =[ to get [ Thus, Where
] +
];
];
is the Wronskian eq-4 , of y1,y2 .
Now again multiply the first eq by y1 & the second eq by y1 and add to get .
Page 95-OF-110

[ ];
So, Division by
, ( y1,y2 form a basis , hence , by theorem # 2 in sec # 2.7 !) gives.
[ [
By integration,
]; ];
[ [ ];
];
These integrals exist because r(x) is continuous. Substituting them [v(x) & u(x) ] into eq-5, we get eq-2. This completes the derivation. Caution! Before applying eq-2, make sure that your equation is written in the standard form that is eq-1, with y as the first term; divide by f(x) if it starts with f(x).y. ----------------finished here---------Problem set 2.10
----------------------Ex # 2.10 finished here---------[ 2.12 start here ] MODELING-OF-ELECTRIC-CIRCUITS :INTRODUCTIONS:-
Page 96-OF-110

The last section [sec # 2.11 ] was devoted to the study of a mechanical system that is of great practical interest. We shall now consider a similarly important electrical-system, which may be regarded as a basic building block in electrical net-works. This consideration will also provide a striking example of the important fact that entirely different physical systems may correspond to the same mathematicalmodel ---in the present case, to the same differential equation---so that they can be treated & solved by the same methods. This is an impressive demonstration of the unifying-power of mathematics. Indeed, we shall obtain a correspondence between mechanical and electricalsystems that is not merely qualitative but strictly quantitative in the sense that to a given mechanical-system we can construct an electric-circuit whose current will give the exact values of the displacement in the mechanical-system when suitable scale factors are introduced. The practical importance of such an analogy between mechanical and electrical-systems is almost obvious. The analogy may be used for constructing an Electrical-Model of a given mechanical-system; in many cases this will be an essential-simplification, because electric-circuits are easy to assemble and currents and voltages are easy to measure, whereas the construction of a mechanical model may be complicated and expensive, and the measurement of displacements will be time-consuming and relatively inaccurate. SETTING-UP THE MODEL :-
Page 97-OF-110
We consider the RLC-Circuit in fig.50, in which an Ohms resistor of resistance R [Ohms], an inductor of inductance L [henrys], and a capacitor of capacitance C [farads] are connected in series to a source of electromotive force [ E(t)=EMF ]in volts, where t is time. The equation for the current I(t) [Amperes] in the RLC-circuit is obtained by considering the three voltage drops on inductor[L] ,Capacitor[C], and resistor[R] are [given in below table ] , their sum equals the electromotive force E(t).
Serial -No 1. 2. 3. Voltage Drop on each individuals components across the circuit [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; Description Across the inductor, Across the resistor (OhmS law) Across the capacitor.
This is Kirchhoffs voltage law (sec # 1.8) *K.V.L+ , the analog of Newtons second law (sec # 2.5) for mechanical-systems. For a sinusoidal E(t)=E0.sin [ ] , ( E0 constant ) , this law gives [ eq-1 + this process of modeling is the same as that in sec # 1.8 . Indeed, if we add [ EL=L.I + to equation * Eq-7 in sec # 1.8 ] for the RC-circuit, we get our present equation [eq-1+ for the RLC-circuit. [ [ [ ]; ]; ];
Page 98-OF-110

To get rid of the integral in eq-1 , we differentiate with respect to t , obtaining eq 1, this [eq-1] is of the same form as eq-2 in sec # 2.11. Hence our RLC-circuit is the electrical analog of the mechanical system in sec # 2.11. The corresponding analogy of electrical and mechanical quantities is shown in table 2.2 [below]. [ Table 2.2
Analogy of Electrical and Mechanical Quantities in Eq-1, this sec # 2.12 , and eq-2 in sec 2.11: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Electrical-System Inductance L Resistance R Reciprocal 1/C of capacitance Derivative E0. .cos [ ] of Electromotive force [EMF] Current I(t) Mechanical-System Mass m Damping constant c Spring Modulus k Driving force F0.cos [ ] Driving force F0.cos [ ] Displacement y(t)
];
Comment:
Recalling from sec # 1.8 that * I=Q +, we have * I=Q + and [ ] in eq-1. Hence we get from eq-1 as the differential equation for the charge Q on the Capacitor in eq-1. [ ]; In most practical problems, the current I(t) is more important than Q(t), and for this reason we shall concentrate on eq-1, rather than on eq-1 .
SOLVING-EQUATION (EQ-1) , DISCUSSION OF SOLUTION: To get a particular-solution of eq-1, we may proceed as in sec # 2.11, by substituting eq-2 into eq-1 we get eq-3 where S is so-called Reactance, given by the expression eq-4, in any practical case, [ ], so that the denominator in eq-3, is not zero.
[ [ ]; ]; its steady-state current .
Page 99-OF-110

[ ];
The result is that eq-2, with a & b given by eq-3, is a particular solution of eq-1. Using eq-3, we may write Ip in the form eq-5 , where [ see eq-14 in Appendix 3 + I0 , the quantity is called the impedance[ ]. Our formula shows that the impedance equals the ratio E0/I0 , which is some what analogous to E/I=R (Ohms-Law). [ [ ]; ]; A General-solution of the homogeneous-equation corresponding to eq-1 is Ih where are the roots of characteristic equation [given below ] . [ [ +; its a general solution of eq-A +; its a characteristic eq of eq-B.
---------------------------------[ [ Divide eq-A by L [ ----------------------------- Which we can write in the form [ [ ]; ] and [ ], where . ]; its homogeneous eq of eq-1. ]; ];its homogeneous eq of eq-1.
As in sec # 2.11 we conclude that if R > 0 (which, of course, is true in any practical case), the general solution Ih(t) of the homogeneous equation approaches zero as t approaches infinity (Practically: after a sufficiently long time).
Page 100-OF-110

Hence, the transient current [ I=Ih+Ip ] tends to the steady-state current Ip , and after some time the output will practically be a harmonic oscillation, which is given by eq-5, and whose frequency is that of the input. [ [ [ [ ---------------Example # 1 :- [ RLC-circuit ]:Find the current I(t) in an RLC-Circuit with R=100 Ohms,L=0.1 henry,C=10-3 farad, which is connected to a source of voltage E(t)=155 sin [377t] ( hence 60 Hz = 60 cycles/sec),assuming zero charge and current when t=0? Data: Given : [ ]; [ t=0] ; [C= ]; [E0=155];[L=0.1 ]; [ R=100 ]; ]; ]; ]; its a general solution . ];
Solution: 1st step [General-solution] Eq-1 is Formula: [ So, [ [ {:. [

[
];
]; ]; ]; [ t=0] ; [C= ]; [E0=155];[L=0.1 ]; [ R=100 ];}

];
Page 101-OF-110

For S :Formula :[ {:. [ [ [ And For Steady-state current [ {:. [ [ Where,
[ ]; its steady-state current .
]; ]; [ t=0] ; [C= ]; ]; ]; [E0=155];[L=0.1 ]; [ R=100 ];}
:];
]; [ t=0] ; [C=
]; [E0=155];[L=0.1 ]; [ R=100 ][S= ];
];}
[
[
];
];
[ For characteristic eq:[ [ For roots : A= , B= ,C= , ];its homogeneous eq ]; its a characteristic eq
];
Page 102-OF-110

[ ];
put value & get answer [ . [ For General-solution: [

{:. [ ];}
];
];
]; its a general solution .
[
[
];
];
2nd step : [particular solution ] we determine c1 & c2 from initial-conditions Initial conditions:[ When [
[ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
]; ]:];
[ --------------------[ [ So, ];
];
];
Page 103-OF-110

[ [ E(0)=0, [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
----------------------[ ];
Differentiate eq-6
[
[ ];
];
For I(0)=0:[
[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
];
];
];
The solution of eq-7 & eq-9, is c1=-0.042, c2=0.526. from eq-6 we thus have the answer { ask by sir about this methods} From Eq-6 ,
[ ];
Page 104-OF-110

The first two terms will die out rapidly, and after a very short time the current will practically execute harmonic oscillations of frequency 60 Hz=60cycles/sec, which is the frequency of the impressed voltage. Note that by eq-5 we can write the steady-state current in the form [
[
];
];
];
[ So,
];
[ [ ----------finished-------------Problem set 2.12
]; ]; answer-2.
-----------Ex # 2.12 , finished here------------
[ 2.13 start here ] COMPLEX-METHOD-FOR-PARTICULARSOLUTIONS.[OPTIONAL]: Engineers like to solve equations such as eq-1 below, by an elegant complex method, using that cos [ ] is the real part of (see sec # 2.3), finding a particular solution Ip of the resulting complex equation [eq2] and finally taking the real-part of as a particular solution of the given real equation eq-1.
[ ];
Page 105-OF-110

[ ];
----------------From section No: 2.3 :

[ ];
---------------- To find Ip , we substitute Ip , Ip & Ip into eq-2.

[ ];
This gives
[ ];
Dividing by on both sides , solving for K, and using the Reactance S *eq-4 form sec # 2.12 ], we get
[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
[ [ {:. [ [ ]; ]; }
]; ];
Multiply and divide by [
] on R.H.S
Page 106-OF-110

[ [ [ {:. [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; } ]; ]; ]; ];
Where the last equality follows by multiplication of numerator and denominator by [ ]. Thus the complex particular solution Ip of eq-2 is given below as:
[
[ [ [ ]; ];
];
];
Green part show the Real-Part and yellow part show the Imaginary part of Ip in above equation. So, the real part is given in eq-4 below.
[ ]; its a Real-Part of Ip.
This agrees with eq-2,eq-3 in sec # 2.12 . -------------------------Example 1 ) [ Complex-Method ]:Solve by the complex method: Given [ ]; Solution: The corresponding complex-differential-equation is [ ]; its complex-differential eq.
Page 107-OF-110

Where {:. } -------------Formula:
[ ];
-----------------So,
[ ];
We substitute
[ ];
Into the complex eq.

[ [ . ]; its complex-differential eq. ];
This gives
[ [ [ [ ]; ] on R.H.S, we get ]; ]; ];
Multiply & divide by [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
Page 108-OF-110

[ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];
From this we get the complex-particular-solution [ ].

[ [ [ [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ];
So has real-part *in green+ and Imaginary-Part *in Yellow+ on above equation. So the Real-Part is as followes
[ ];
The student verify that this is indeed a solution of the given equation. Formula in eq-3 suggests to introduce the so-called Complex-Impedance [ eq-5 , as
[ ];
+ in
Then we can write eq-3 in the form as

[ ];
We see that the real part of Z is R , the imaginary-part is the Reactance [ S ] , and the absolute value is the Impedance * +.
Page 109-OF-110

[ ];
Thus ( fig 53 ) below

[ ];
Where
[ ];
Consequently, the solution

[ ];
of eq-2 can now be written (use 1/ =
).
Its real-part is given in below eq-7 .

[ ];
And this solution of the given eq [eq-1] agrees with eq-5 in sec # 2.12, fully justifying our present complex-method.
--------------finished here----------Problem-set 2.13 start here
-----------2.13 finished here---------------
Page 110-OF-110
------------Ch-2 on 2nd -Order-ODE finished here---------------
X
MUHAMMAD-SIKANDAR-KHAN-LODHI OWNER-OF-MY-PERSONAL-UNIVERSITY-NOTES
4/18/2013
Page 111-OF-110
Page 112-OF-110
Page 113-OF-110
Page 114-OF-110
Page 115-OF-110
Page 116-OF-110

Engineering Math - 3, Ch-2, 2nd Order ODE, 2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Engineering Math - 3, Ch-2, 2nd Order ODE, 2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations. BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING GUIDE .

[EngineeringMathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

]; this eq-1 is a 2nd-

+:+; its 2nd order homogeneous equations. +:+; its 2nd-order-Non-homogeneous-linear-

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

are solutions of homogeneous linear differential equations *Eq-A+ that ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

]; this is called a Linear-Combination of y1 & y2 .

are any Arbitrary-Constant };

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

+; Its a Particular solution of Eq-2 , on I; the Basis of [Eq-2]; as in terms of Linearly-Independent, of

Where, k and BASIS:-

are numbers, zero or not.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

------------Problem-set [2.1] [start-here] Q 7 ) reduce to first order and solve ? Given

Method for reducing Eq-A in First-Order :-

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

By placing eq I & ii in eq-A, then

Using separable-Method:[ ]; its our separable-form.

Now using integration. [ [ [ ]; ]; ];

Using exponential on both side. [ [ [ ]; ]; ];

Applying log property [ [ ]; ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

------------------finished-----------Q 14 ) reduce to 1 order and solve ? Given : [ Solution: Let [ For y :[ ]; ]; ];

Where z is the function of y,

Where z, is a function of y then but y is the function of x , so we used Chain-rule, then

Used Chain-Rule on eq-2 :[ ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

By palcing eq-i & eq-ii in eq-A we get. -------------------

]; ]; its a separable form .

Now integrating on both side . [ [ ]; ];

Using exponential on both side [ [ ]; ];

Using log property [ ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

-------------Finished-here-------Initial-value-Problem [I.V.P] Q 23 ) particular solution=? Given :[ Also Initial-Cinditions:[ [ ]; ]; ]; homogeneous equation.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Let [ we choose any single Interval[x] Then [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ];

]; its linearly-dependent, Correct-Answer.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Using Separable Method :[ [ [ ]; ]; its our separable form. ];

Using integrations So, [ [ ]; ];

Using exponential on each side. [ [ [ [ ]; ]; ]; ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Placing the eq-1 and eq-2 in eq-L, then we get . [ ];

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

-------------section 2.1 finished here---------

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

CASE-I :- TWO-DISTINCT-REAL-ROOTS two real roots if [ in this case, [

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

Collecting terms, we get

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

We are thus left with [ ];..

To get a second independent solution [

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

[Engineering-Mathematics-3,ch-2, 2nd Order linear differential equations.

are given so in the order to find the 2 order

its the Quardic equation.