Name:NikolajMller ChosenTopic:Thirdtopic.

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ThetopicthatIwishtodiscussinthisessayisHumestheoryoffaculties1.Moreprecisely,Iwishto discussthedistinctionwhichHumedrawsbetweenthefacultyofreasonandthefacultyoftaste.In otherwords,thismaybesaidtobeadistinctionbetweenepistemologyontheonehandandethics andaestheticsontheotherhand.Toexplainwhatismeantbyafaculty,thefollowingexample providesausefulillustration:Imaginethattwopersons,BillandBob,areinanartmuseum.Asthey walkbyapainting,Billsays,Thispaintingisbeautiful!Bob,beinganartcritic,repliesthatwell,the waysinwhichthecolorsareusedinconjunctionwitheachotherreallycreateadynamicqualityto thepicturewhichisnotseenveryoften.AccordingtoHumestheoryoffaculties,Billsexclamation isonethatbelongsto,ororiginatesfrom,theofficeoftaste.Bobsstatementoriginatesfromthe officeofreason.Thus,theformerisconcernedwithbeauty,whereasthelatterisconcernedwith truthandfalsehood.Humesfullviewislaidoutinthefollowingquote: Thusthedistinctboundariesandofficesofreasonandoftasteareeasilyascertained.The formerconveystheknowledgeoftruthandfalsehood:thelattergivesthesentimentof beautyanddeformity,viceandvirtue.Theonediscoversobjectsastheyreallystandin nature,withoutadditionordiminution:theotherhasaproductivefaculty,andgildingor stainingallnaturalobjectswiththecolours,borrowedfrominternalsentiment,raisesina manneranewcreation2 Tounderstandthefullextentofthisviewonemaydivideitintoparts,eachofwhichconstitutesan aspectofHumesdistinctionbetweenreasonandtaste.Firstofall,Humeassertsthatthefacultyof reasonisconcernedwithmattersoffacts,i.e.whethersomethingistrueorfalse.Inopposition hereto,Humesaysthatthefacultyoftasteisnotconcernedwithtruthandfalsehood,butfeelingsof beautyanddeformity,viceandvirtue.Furthermore,theformershowsthingsastheyreallyare,but thelatteraltersnaturalobjectsbyborrowingcolorsfrominternalsentiment.Humethereforeasserts thattheconceptsofbeauty,virtueandsoonarequalitativelydifferentfromtheconceptsthatrelate totruthandfalsehood.ThismeansthatBillsstatementisfoundedonsomesortofpersonalopinion internalsentimentandisnotreallyamatteroftruthorfalsehoodbutrathercreation. TheviewwhichIwishtoadvocateistwofold.FirstIwillshowthatHumestheoryoffacultiesdoes notholdunlessmodified.Second,Iwillalsoarguethatethicalandaestheticassertionsmayverywell befoundedonopinioninthesensethattheyrelyoncontestablepremisesthatareoftenunspoken andthusimplicit.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymakethesekindsofstatementssubjective;insteadthey maybetreatedasconclusionsreliantuponconditionalsthatdifferfromthekindsofconditionalsin whichscientistsareinterestedbecausetheseconditionalsarenotreliantuponobservation statementsbutratheronwhatmaybecalledassumptionstatements.
Inthisessay,Iwillusethewordsofficeandfacultyinterchangeably.AlthoughthismaynotfitwithHumes generaluseofthetwowordsentirely,Iassumethatforthepurposesofthisessay,nodistinctionbetweenthe twoneedbedrawn.
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Hume,David:AnEnquiryconcerningthePrinciplesofMorals(1751).

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InordertorejectHumestheoryoffacultiesitwillbenecessarytointroduceandrefuteanother distinctionknownasHumesFork.AccordingtoHumesFork,onlytwokindsofstatementsexist. TherearethekindsofstatementswhichHumereferstoasrelationsofideasandthenthereare factualstatements.3Thesedifferentkindsofstatementscanalsobeclassifiedasanalyticand empiricalstatements,respectively.NowaccordingtoHumeandotherphilosopherswithan empiricistbackground,suchasthelogicalpositivistsanythingthatdoesnotfitintooneofthe abovecategoriesismeaningless.ThismeansthatifonewishestorefuteHumestheoryoffaculties withinhisownframework,onemustnotviolatethisprinciplebybringinginathirdcategoryof statements.TheadvantagetofollowingHumesdistinctionisthatitseemsintuitivelycorrectif somethingisnotanobservationabouttheworlditmustbetautological,andotherwiseitsurelymust benonsensical.However,thesepossibilitiesarenotexhaustiveandHumesdistinctionmust thereforebeabandoned.ThisIwillattempttoshowinthefollowing. Beinganempiricist,Humebelievesthatanythingnonanalyticalwhichcanbeexpressedthrough languagemustrefertosomethingintheworldorconsistofseveralthingsthatrefertodifferent thingsintheworld.ThisprincipleisalsoknownasHumesCopyThesis.Thewordhorsethusrefers tosomethingintheworld,namelyahorse.Butthewordunicorndoesnotrefertoanythinginthe world.Ontheotherhand,itmaybesaidtobecreatedoutoftwootherwords,namelytheconcepts horseandhorn.AccordingtoHumestheory,itisthefacultyofimaginationthatconjoinssuch conceptsintomorecomplexconcepts.Thistheoryclearlydoesnotaccountforentitiesthatarenon existentyetalsoarenotreliantuponotherexistingentities,butaccordingtoHume,nosuchthing canbesaidtoexist.Butcantheconceptoffictionalcharactersthenbesaidtohaveanymeaningat all?TakeforexampletheprotagonistofHomersOdyssey,Odysseus.Althoughtheremayperhaps havebeenahistoricalfigurewhosenamewasOdysseus,whoperhapsevenwasthekingofIthaca, thisisnotthepersonreferredtobythedescriptiontheprotagonistofHomersOdyssey,Odysseus. PerhapsitmaybeobjectedthatthenameOdysseusisacomplexnamelikethatofunicorn,but howwouldoneeverdescribesuchapersoninameaningfulway?Afterall,theproblemcouldbe madealotmorecomplicatedinmanyways,forexamplebyconsideringafictionalcharacterfroma sciencefictionbookwhichtakesplaceinthefuture.Suchacharactercouldneverbedescribedby usingsimplertermswhichrefertoexistingthingssinceanythingthatwoulddescribethecharacter would,exhypothesi,benonexistentunlessonewishestoadvocatetheviewthatthefuture alreadyexists.OnaHumeanview,then,itwouldseemthatsuchliteratureconveysabsolutelyno meaningatall.EvenifitwassomehowpossibletoshowthatHumestheorycouldadequatelyspeak ofliteratureintermsofcomplexterms,thisseemstobeanerroneousendeavorsinceitisnotatall thebusinessofliteraturetorefertoexistingentities.Rather,fictionalcharactersandthealikeconvey meaningbybeingmakebeliefs.Theyarethusunrealinthesensethattheydonotexist,but meaningfulsinceonecouldknowwhatitwouldmeanforthemtobeexistent.Todescribethisusing Fregesterminology,suchcharactersmaysaidtohaveSinn(meaning)butnoBedeutung(reference.)4 Thismeansthatwhilenonexistent,anyproficientreaderisabletounderstandthemhypothetically. Thisimportantpointtranslatestoothertopicsaswell,aswillbecomeevidentlateron.
Thestatementthistrianglehasthreesidesisanexampleofrelationsofideas.Thestatementthissheepis blackisanexampleofafactualstatement. IdonotwishtofullyembraceFregestheoryasitispresentedinhispaperberSinnundBedeutungsinceI believethatKripkescriticismoftheoriesofdescriptionsiscorrect.Ibelieveandfornowassumethatfictional charactersandthelikemustcoversomemiddlegroundbetweenbeingrigiddesignatorsandconveyingSinn.
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Ifvalid,theaboveargumentdemonstratesthatnotallstatementsareanalyticorfactual.Instead,a thirdcategoryofstatementswhichmightbecalledhypotheticalstatementsorassumption statementsmustbeaddedinordertoproperlydealwithallkindsofstatements.Anaptexampleof ahypotheticalstatementinanothertopicthanliteratureisthelogicalpositivistscriterionof verifiability.Crudelyput,itsaysthatastatementcanbesaidtobemeaningfulonlyifsomepossible observationcouldconfirmthisstatementorifthisstatementisanalytic.5Thiscriterionclearlyisnot somethingwhichcouldbeestablishedonthebasisofobservations,norisitanalytic.Also,itis conceivablethatseveralothercriterionsofmeaningcouldexistinothersystemsalongsideit,e.g. Popperscriterionoffalsification.Properlyformulated,thesedifferentstatementsarepostulatedand havethestatusofaxiomsinmathematics.Theymaybemutuallyincompatiblewitheachotherbut thedifferentsystemsofwhichtheyareapartneednotbeinconsistent.Thepointthatsuch assumptionsunderlineisthatitispossibletoassumedifferentsystemsthatareincompatibleyet logicallycoherent. Toturnbacktothequestionofthedifferentfacultiesofreasonandtaste,ananalysisofthetwois requiredinrelationtotheabovementionedcategories.Whenapersonassertssomethingwhich belongstothefacultyofreason,thisiseithertrueorfalse.Inphilosophicaljargon,asentencewhich maybesaidtobetrueorfalseisusuallyknownasaproposition,e.g.: A. Somedogsareblack. B. IfDisbiggerthanEandEisbiggerthanF,DisbiggerthanF. PropositionAisafactualstatementaboutthecolorofsomedogs,propositionBisastatementabout therelationshipbetweenD,EandF,giventhatcertainconditionsaremet.Amaybeempirically verifiedwhereasBisanalyticitstruthisreliantuponthewaywethinkabouttheworld.Now considerBillsstatementwhichwassaidtobelongtothefacultyoftaste: C. Thispaintingisbeautiful! Itmightbesaidthatthissentencemayalsobetrueorfalse,butanyskepticalpersonwould immediatelyposethequestionWhatdoesitmeantosaythatsomethingisbeautiful?Itseems thattheconceptofbeautymustbeclarifiedinordertojudgewhethersuchastatementistrue.The samegoesforothervaluestatementsthatassertthegoodnessorevilnessofsomething.Value statementsthenrelyuponotherstatementsthatdefinethecontentofwordssuchasgoodand beautiful.Butthisstatementcannotitselfbefactualsincethatwouldbebeggingthequestion. Instead,itmustbeeitheranalyticorhypothetical.Ifanalytic,thecontentofadefinitionsuchasthat actionwhichisgoodistheactionwhichisXwouldhavetobetruemerelyduetoitslogicalform. Thisdefinitioncouldalsobeanalyzedintermsofaconditional,sayingthatifsomethingisgood,then itsatisfiestheconditionX.Theonlycaseinwhichthisconditionalisatautologyisifbeinggoodis substitutedforX,sayingthatifsomethingisgood,thenitsatisfiestheconditionbeinggood.The problemwithassumingthatadefinitionofvalueisanalyticisthenthatthisonceagainwouldbe beggingthequestion.Absurdiumadreductio,anydefinitionofvaluemustbehypotheticalinthe sensethatitstruthvaluecannotbeestablishedduetoanyobservationorduetobeinganalytic.
Foramuchmoredetailedandaccurateexplanationofthecriterionofverifiability,seeAyersTruth,Logicand Language.Mypointhereismerelythatthecriterionreliesonneitherexperiencenorlogicalform.
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TheaboveanalysisofstatementCrevealsthatanyonestatingthispaintingisbeautiful,oranyother valuestatement,mustimplicitlybecommittedtocertainpremisesconcerningthenatureofvalue. NowconsiderascientistmakingaconditionalstatementofthekindIfAthenB.Theargumentof suchascientistwouldtypicallyhavetheform6 IfAthenB A Therefore,B

WhereAisanobservationstatementabouttheworldandtheconditionalIfAthenBisalsoan observationstatementassertingacertaincausalconnectionbetweenthetwoeventsAandB.The observationstatementthen,accordingtoHume,originatesinthefacultyofreasoning.Thiscanbe comparedtoBillsstatementThispaintingisbeautifulinthefollowingway.Asitwasnotedearlier, Thispaintingisbeautiful!alsoseemstobeanobservationstatementbutisreliantuponacertain conceptionofthenatureofbeautyandthisconceptionwaspresentedasahypotheticalstatement which,likethescientistsconditional,alsohadtheformIfAthenB.Butthefullchainofreasoning whichBillimplicitlymadeinhisassertionwouldthenhavetobethefollowing: IfsomethingsatisfiestheconditionX,thenitisbeautiful ThispaintingsatisfiestheconditionX Therefore,thispaintingisbeautiful!

Interpretedinthisway,Billsassertionistheconclusionofamodusponensargumentwhichconsists ofahypotheticalstatementandanobservationstatementforsurelyitisanobservationifa paintingsatisfiessomeconditionornot.Followingthismodifiedtheoryoffaculties,thecrucial differencebetweenastatementoriginatinginthefacultyofreasonandthefacultyoftasteisthen this:Astatementfromthefacultyofreasoncanbesaidtobethepremiseofaconditionalargument whereasastatementfromthefacultyoftasteisaconclusionwhichimplicitlyreliesuponacertain conceptionoftaste.Bothofthesestatementsarecapableofbeingtrueorfalsesincethelatter requiressomeconditionXtoobtaininordertobetrue.Butasthisconditionisspecifiedbya hypotheticalstatement,theconditionimposedmayindeeddifferaccordingtotheinternal sentimentofapersonandthusbesubjective. Inconclusion,amodifiedtheoryoffacultieshasbeenproposedtoHumestheoryoffaculties. WhereasHumestheoryisembeddedinanempiricistframework,thismodifiedtheorydoesnot acceptthevalidityofcertaindistinctionsanddefinitionsthatarefundamentaltoHumesphilosophy. Insteaditoffersaviewthatallowsfordivergingopinionsduetothefactthatpeoplemayhave differentstartingpointswhentheyargue.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthesedifferentstartingpoints belongtoacategorywhichcanbecalledassumptionstatementswhichareneitherobservations noranalytic.Thetheorydoesleaveroomforimprovement,particularlyinhowassumption statementsarerelatedtootherareasofphilosophyandinelucidationofthenatureofassumption statementsandhowtheywork.Nevertheless,itdoesprovideatoolwhichmakesdifferentkindsof statementsdiscerniblefromeachother,andmaybeofuseinsuchundertakings.
Whatisherebymeantisnotanargumentrelyinguponinductionbutratherdeduction.However,the conditionalIfAthenBreliesoninductionaslongasthisisafactualstatementabouttheworld.
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