Composition & Research Style Guide

York Technical College Rock Hill, SC

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction . .. Plagiarism ........... The Academic Writing and Research Process .. Checklist for Writers Modern Language Association (MLA) Format . Formatting a Paper Internal Citations Works Cited Sample Research Paper .. Composition Grading Rubric .......... Fundamentals of Grammar . Parts of Speech 3 4 8 10 11

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Nouns Pronouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbs Conjunctions Prepositions

Interjections Parts of a Sentence . 24 Subjects Verbs Phrases and Clauses Participles and Participial Phrases Gerunds and Gerund Phrases

Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases Punctuation ... 26 Periods Question Marks Exclamation Points Commas Colons Semicolons Parentheses Brackets 2

Ellipses Bibliography .. 31

Dashes Diagonals Quotation Marks

INTRODUCTION This is a general usage style guide. It is not meant to be exhaustive in that it is not everything there is to know about the subjects presented. However, the material that follows covers most of the commonly encountered style, research, and grammar issues. Among other great reference sources, finer details can be found in works such as The Gregg Reference Manual: A Manual of Style, Grammar, Usage, and Formatting, The Chicago Manual of Style, The Elements of Style (Strunk and White), or the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Plagiarism as it relates to academic misconduct is the first topic. Plagiarism is more than simply cheating; it is also stealing in that someone who plagiarizes is representing as his or her own work someone elses intellectual property. There is a very specific formal process for handling a plagiarism incident with the least possible consequence being the instructor assigning the product a lower grade. York Tech also keeps a formal record of the incident in the students academic file. Second, this manual addresses the common issues associated with the writing and research process. Following is a very brief composition checklist: It will help you ask yourself the most important questions about your composition process, progress, and product. Next, there is an entire section on the basics of Modern Language Association (MLA) formatting as well as an attached student product. Although there may be other requirements this manual has not addressed for your specific paper, do not deviate from the general guidelines. Your paper should have a very specific look to it. When it comes to format, an academic paper is not the place to demonstrate individuality. The York Tech standard grading rubric follows the student academic paper. York Tech is an accredited institution of higher learning. Average work turned in on time will earn a grade of C. Late work, regardless of its high quality, will not receive full credit. Please youre your instructor for specific course requirements regarding late or missing work. Although we expect your best effort, your compositions are not graded according to your effort; they are graded according to a standard. If your ideas are usually supported and clear; if the essays organization reflects a logical flow of ideas; if there is a sense of purpose and a controlling idea is evident, even if not fully sustained; if paragraphs are adequately developed, but transitions are not used consistently; if most word choices are effective; and if here are occasional grammatical, mechanical, and/or format errors, your paper will earn a C. This describes satisfactory/acceptable paper. Good (B) and superior papers (A) will demonstrate a higher standard of excellence than a satisfactory paper and, therefore, will receive a higher grade. After the rubric and before the annotated bibliography, there is a section on the fundamentals of grammar and punctuation. Grammar and punctuation rules can be complicated, but they are neither unknowable nor arbitrary. Moreover, if a writer does not understand parts of speech and parts of a sentence, she/he will never understand the 4

fundamentals of punctuation. Even if you do not remember every rule, you will at least know there is a rule and be skillful and careful enough to look it up. Disclaimer: There are no new ideas in this style manual. Everything contained here has been liberally copied or paraphrased from other sources. The bibliography, as best as possible, gives credit to the referenced sources.

PLAGIARISM I. Plagiarism defined: A. Representing orally or in writing, in any academic assignment or exercise, the words, ideas, or works of another as ones own without customary and proper acknowledgment of the source. B. Basically, if they arent your words, even if you paraphrase, and it isnt your idea, then it doesnt belong to you. C. You have to credit the author with a reference and/or a citation. II. Examples and how to avoid plagiarism: A. Submitting material or work for evaluation, in whole or in part, which has been prepared by another individual(s) or commercial service. Which also means you cant pay someone (or have your mom write it) and represent it as your own. B. Quoting another person, whether actual words, phrases, complete sentences or paragraphs, or an entire piece of written work without acknowledgement of the source through customary or proper citation. C. But not only do you have to cite your sources, but you also have to do it correctly. The purpose for citing sources:

Credit where credit is due Others can verify your data

D. Using another persons idea, opinion, or theory, even if it is completely paraphrased in ones own words without acknowledgement of the source.

If you got an idea, opinion, or theory from somewhere else, you must cite the source.

E. Borrowing facts, statistics, or other illustrative materials that are not clearly common knowledge without acknowledgement of the source.

Unless facts and stats are within the realm of common knowledge, then you have to cite your sources. Generally speaking, common knowledge facts are widely known. Examples: President Clinton served two terms in office. Mount Washington in New Hampshire is 6288 feet high.

F. To avoid plagiarism, cite your sources correctly within the document (parenthetical citations) and at the end of your paper in the Works Cited. III. The sanction process and consequences for plagiarism and other academic misconduct: (Condensed from the SC Technical College System Student Code & Local Procedures)
A. Academic misconduct includes, but is not limited to, cheating on tests and

assignments; plagiarism; collusion; falsification of information; forgery, alteration, or misuse of college documents; and destruction of evidence (Student Code: Page 8).

B. An instructor who has reason to believe that a student enrolled in his/her class has committed an act of academic misconduct must meet with the student to discuss this matter. The instructor must advise the student of the alleged act of academic misconduct and the information upon which it is based (Student Code: Page 11-12). C. The student must be given an opportunity to refute the allegation. D. If the instructor, after meeting with the student, determines that the student has engaged in academic misconduct as alleged, the instructor should consult with his/her direct supervisor to decide on the appropriate sanction (see below). If the evidence of academic misconduct is inconclusive, the instructor should consult with the Dean for Students Office as well in determining the sanction. E. The instructor may impose one of the following academic sanctions: 1. Assign a lower grade or score to the paper, project, assignment, or examination involved in the act of misconduct. 2. Require the student to repeat or resubmit the paper, project, assignment, or examination involved in the act of misconduct. 3. Assign a failing grade for the course. 4. Require the student to withdraw from the course. F. If the student is found responsible for the academic misconduct, the instructor will submit within five working days of the meeting, a written report about the incident and the sanction imposed to the Dean for Students. G. The Dean for Students will send a letter to the student summarizing the incident, the finding, the terms of the imposed sanction, and informing the student that he/she may appeal the decision and/or the sanction by submitting a written request to the Dean for Students within seven working days of the date of the letter. H. If the student requests an appeal, the Dean for Students will schedule a time for the meeting. Witnesses may be interviewed, if applicable. The Dean for Students may 7

accept the sanction, impose a lesser sanction, or overturn the sanction. The student is notified of the outcome in writing. I. If the student does not accept the Dean for Students decision, he/she can appeal to the President of the College. The Presidents decision is final.

THE ACADEMIC WRITING AND RESEARCH PROCESS Although writing is a recursive process (circles back on itself) and seldom linear (step-bystep), fundamentally, writing is about vision and revision. The vision comes from understanding the assignment and then selecting an appropriate topic for the assignment objective. There are a few common student problems encountered in academic writing: 1) The student does not understand the writing assignment; 2) Although the student understands the assignment, the student does not follow the directions; 3) The topic selected is too broad or too narrow; 4) The narrative point of view the student chooses is inappropriate or inconsistent; and 5) Perhaps the most avoidable problem, the student waits too long to begin planning, researching, and writing, which doesnt leave enough time for revision. Beyond oversimplifying the writing process by stating that academic writing can be reduced to two steps--vision and revision--there are only a few substeps to successful academic writing. The following is a summary of those substeps. Please refer to Keys to Successful Writing: A Handbook for College and Career for comprehensive specifics on the process. VISION: 1. Know your purpose: Determine the precise purpose for the writing assignment. If it is not clear to you, ask your instructor for clarification. You will save yourself many anxious moments and much wasted time if you are putting your efforts into the correct assignment. The goal of your paper is to answer the question you posed as your topic. Your question gives you a purpose. The most common purposes in academic writing are to persuade, analyze/synthesize, and inform. Persuasive purpose In persuasive academic writing, the purpose is to get your readers to adopt your answer to the question. So you will choose one answer to your question, support your answer using reason and evidence, and try to change the readers point of view about the topic. Persuasive writing assignments include argumentative and position papers. Analytical purpose In analytical academic writing, the purpose is to explain and evaluate possible answers to your question, choosing the best answer(s) based on your own criteria. Analytical assignments often investigate causes, examine effects, evaluate effectiveness, assess ways to solve problems, find the relationships between various ideas, or analyze other peoples arguments. The synthesis part of the purpose comes in when you put together all the parts and come up with your own answer to the question. Examples of these assignments include analysis papers and critical analyses. Informative purpose In informative academic writing, the purpose is to explain possible answers to your question, giving the readers new information about your topic. This differs from an analytical topic in that you do not push your viewpoint on the readers, but rather try to enlarge the readers view. 9

2. Know the assessment tool: Become very familiar with the grading rubric. You should neither wonder how you are being assessed nor be surprised by the grade. 3. Know your audience: Unless otherwise specified, assume your instructor is your audience. Your audience will also determine your narrative point of view. Normally, for academic writing, you will be writing in the third person; however, as English instructors, depending on the assignment, we have all seen successful examples of students choosing a first and/or second person point of view. 4. Plan and prewrite: Generally speaking, the more time you spend planning and organizing, the less time you spend flailing. The first step to planning and organizing a paper is selecting a topic appropriate for the assignment. Always keep in mind that there are few perfect topics, and, although the assignment is important, it is not your lifes work. You have other things to do. It is always better to have a good topic and enough time to research, write, and revise than to have a perfect topic and not enough time to do the topic justice. 5. Draft your paper: This step is where good writers differ greatly. Some people write pretty well in a first draft and may revise slightly as they compose. Others compose a true first draft and revise the entire document at the end. It comes down to whatever works best for you. But if you find that your system generally isnt successful, it may be time to try another method. REVISION: 1. Edit your paper: Spell check, grammar check, then, if at all possible, let the paper sit for a few days so you look at it again with fresh eyes. More importantly, find a good proofreader, and be sure to give yourself enough time to make both major (substance and organization) and minor (grammar and format) revisions. 2. Check your format: Most college papers require Modern Language Association (MLA) or American Psychological Association (APA) format depending on the academic discipline. Your instructor will guide you regarding format. 3. Use a rewrite opportunity to your advantage: If your instructor has looked at your paper and offered corrections and suggestions, you would be wise incorporate the offered help. The only thing left to do is to turn your paper in on time. If you are a particularly fussy writer, you will never be satisfied with the final product; nevertheless, a deadline is a deadline. Whether you are submitting your paper electronically or printing it, dont be late. Half of a successful academic experience is showing up for class; the other half is turning papers and projects in on time. College instructors seldom accept late work for full credit, regardless of the reason. You worked hard on your paper. Get full credit for your product.

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CHECKLIST FOR WRITERS ____ I planned my paper before writing. ____ I revised my paper to be sure that the introduction to my paper captures the readers attention; my central idea is supported with specific information and examples that will interest my reader; the content of my paper relates to my central idea; my writing is organized in a logical manner; my sentences are varied and read smoothly; my word choice develops my purpose and tone; and the conclusion brings my ideas together without restating.

____ I edited my paper to be sure that correct grammar is used; words are capitalized when appropriate; sentences are constructed and punctuated correctly; and words are spelled correctly.

____ I reviewed my paper to make sure that it accurately reflects my intentions.

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MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA) FORMAT General guidelines: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Type your paper and print it out on standard-size white paper (8.5 X 11 inches). Double-space your paper. Use only Times New Roman font size 12. Set the margins of your document to 1 on all sides. Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, from the top and flush with the right 1 margin. You may omit the number on the first page. Page numbers will be your last name and the page number (Example: Hill 2). 6. Center your title on the line below the header with your name, and begin your paper immediately below the title. 7. Double-space the top left corner of the first page that lists your name, your instructor's name, the course, and the date. 8. Use italics throughout your essay for highlighting the titles of longer works or for providing emphasis. Instructions for formatting a paper: 1. Open a Word document 2. Click Format 3. Click Document 4. Set the top, bottom, right, and left margins to 1 5. Apply to the Whole Document 6. Click Format 7. Click Paragraph 8. Set Indentation and Spacing to 0 pt 9. Set Line Spacing to double 10. On the Toolbar, set the alignment for the body text to Align Text Left 11. When you are ready to title your paper, on the Toolbar, set the alignment for the title to Align Center Instructions for page numbers: Example: Davis 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Click Insert Click Page Numbers Select Position Top of Page Select Alignment Right Uncheck Show Number On First Page Click the mouse cursor in the header Place the mouse cursor to the immediate left of the page number but inside the text box of the page number. 8. Type your last name and put one space between your name and the page number. 9. Be sure the font size and type for both the page number and your name are Times New Roman 12 12

Instructions for the first page: In the top left of your first page: 1. 2. 3. 4. Your first and last name Your instructors name Class and class number Date Parenthetical Citations (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/557/03/) Authors name mentioned in the sentence: Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263). Authors name not mentioned in the sentence: Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263). Paraphrase of the authors words: Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263). Multiple authors: Smith, Yang, and Moore argue that tougher gun control is not needed in the United States (76). The authors state "Tighter gun control in the United States erodes Second Amendment rights" (Smith, Yang, and Moore 76). Electronic sources:

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One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo is "...a beautiful and terrifying critique of obsession and colonialism" (Garcia, "Herzog: a Life," par. 18). Works Cited Format Book by one author: Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford U.P., 1967. Book by two authors: Caper, Charles and Lawrence T. Teamos. How to Camp. Philadelphia: Doubleday, 1986. Book by more than two authors: Ellis, Doris et. al. History of Japan. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1989. Basic Electronic Source Format Name of Site. Date of Posting/Revision. Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site (sometimes found in copyright statements). Date you accessed the site [electronic address]. Garcia, Elizabeth. "Herzog: a Life." Online Film Critics Corner. 8 May 2002. The Film School of New Hampshire. 2 May 2008. <http://www.filmnewhampshire.edu/criticscorner> Allende, Isabel. "Toad's Mouth." Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock Beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Twice-Told Tales. Ed. George Parsons Lathrop. Boston: Houghton, 1883. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/ttt.html>.

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Sample Research Paper (Courtesy of Anna, Eng 102) Anna Smith Dr. Poliquin English 102-001 May 3, 2013 Othello and Racism In Shakespeare's day, African slavery was not yet widespread in the Englishspeaking world, and prejudice based on race had not yet crystallized into the forms most familiar to later audiences. However, one need look no further than the text of Othello itself to demonstrate that prejudice against dark skin was already known. Blacks were most familiar to Europeans as infidel Muslims. Black as a color was associated with evil and the Devil. When blacks showed up in dramatic works, they were usually villains. Shakespeare's decision to make a black man his tragedy's hero was highly unusual (Hall 14-15). Othello's race has drawn varied reactions over the centuries. For instance, Thomas Rymer, attacking the play in 1693, argued that one of the plays defects is the implausibility of a Moor leading the Venetian military and a high-born woman falling in love with such: With us a Black-amoor might rise to be a Trumpeter; but Shakespear would not have him less than a Lieutenant-General. With us a Moor might marry some little drab, or Small-coal Wench: Shakespear, would provide him the Daughter and Heir of some great Lord, or PrivyCouncellor... (Heims 49). Charles Gildon makes a principled rebuttal: 'Tis granted, a Negro here does seldom rise above a Trumpeter.... But then that proceeds from the Vice of Mankind, which is the Poet's Duty...to correct, and to represent things as they should be, not as they are. Now 'tis certain, there is no reason in the nature of things why a Negro of

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Smith 2 equal Birth and Merit should not be on an equal bottom with a German, Hollander, French-man, &c (Heims 77). In the nineteenth century, as race became a more prominent issue, critics more often focused on Othello's color (Heims 97). Charles Lamb wrote that while on the page, Desdemona's laying aside every consideration of kindred, and country, and color for the sake of love reflected well on her; nevertheless, on the stage the interracial relationship came off as revolting (102). Coleridge, on the other hand, felt that a beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable Negro would indicate a disproportionateness, a want of balance in her, and that therefore Othello is merely a brown-skinned North African (114). Iago used a similar argument when planting the seed of jealousy in Othello's mind: the fact the Desdemona rejected men: Of her own clime, complexion, and degree, / Whereto we see, in all things nature tends (3.3.236-237) implies that there is something wrong with her, that she is not the chaste and virtuous woman she appears to be. John Quincy Adams managed to view the whole play through the prism of race and nationality and concluded, [T]he moral of the tragedy is, that the intermarriage of black and white blood is a violation of the law of nature (125). It is hard to argue that race is the central theme of the play. One might as well accept Rymer's flippant conclusion that the moral of the tale is a warning to all good Wives, that they look well to their Linnen (48). However, in the twentieth century, changing attitudes toward many historically oppressed groups have led critics to pay more attention to related issues in literary works, and some critics have more specifically examined Shakespeare's treatment of race in the play. Some have argued that the play itself endorses racist stereotypes of the black man (Hall 83). This, however, is more

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Smith 3 difficult to support than the contention that Shakespeare introduces the standard preconceptions about Africans through the racist discourse of Iago and Brabantio. . .but that he does so only to explode these prejudices in the course of the play (Hall 15). The case that the play itself is racist rests on how Iago's accusations speedily transform Othello from the dignified noble Moor of the first two acts into a man consumed by jealousy, so emotionally overwrought that he suffers an epileptic fit, a man who hits his wife and ultimately strangles her (Hall 15). Some see this as Othello revert[ing] to the expected image of 'black savage' (Hall 15). In his last speech, Othello identifies himself with the base Indian and malignant Turk, indicating that he has forfeited his status as an honorary white by murdering Desdemona (Hall 15-16). Emilia, furthermore, in the last scene when she would be expected to have the audience's sympathy, reproaches Othello in racially colored language: he is the blacker devil, as ignorant as dirt, and Desdemona was too fond of her most filthy bargain. Is the audience encouraged to become complicit in her views even though they are charged with racial hatred (Hall16)? It seems that if Shakespeare had set out to depict a black savage reverting to type, he could have made that point much more clearly. Skura, in Reading Othello's Skin, points out that no one ever says that [Othello] lapses into being a hot African, or a Moor . . .. They are shocked because they never thought that he, of all people, was capable of such behavior (306). However, even if Shakespeare didn't intend to present Othello as a stereotypical African, he could have done so unconsciously. As a consequence, critics have had to evoke external stereotypes to prove Othello's racism. This technique is problematic because critics cannot agree on the characteristics of the stereotype Othello is

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Smith 4 supposed to fulfill each critic's stereotype derives from his own arbitrary selection from available pretexts and because Othello really doesn't have a lot in common with the typical stage Moor of the day (305-306). For instance, Othello has more in common with Titus in Titus Andronicus than the barbarous Moor (306). It is Titus, Skura says, who kills his own son and calls it piety, who is driven mad and ends more barbaric than Othello (306). Even if the charge that Othello is a stereotypical depiction of an African is spurious, there are other aspects of the play that fall uncomfortably upon modern ears. An example is the way pretty much everyone in the play refers to Othello by his ethnicity, as the Moor. It is right in the title (The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice) and even occasionally in the stage directions: Ex. Moor, Desdemona, and Attendants (2.3.259). This seems dehumanizing, reminiscent of the way Olaf in Richard Wrights Big Black Good Man never thinks of Jim by name, but usually as the black giant. And to Iago in particular, Othello is almost always the Moor (Hall 83). Yet characters who clearly love and respect Othello (Cassio, Desdemona) use the epithet as well, all emphasizing Othello's status as an exotic outsider in Venice (Hall 103). Also disquieting to moderns is the way blackness is clearly viewed as ugly and scary. Brabantio asserts that Desdemona was afraid of Othello due to his appearance. He questions the plausibility of whether a girl such as she would have Run from her guardage to the sooty bosom / Of such a thing as thouto fear, not to delight (1.2.70-71). It is preposterous that she could fall in love with what she fear'd to look on (1.3.98). Brabantio does not seem to be the best authority on Desdemona's feelings, but Othello later agrees with Iago's statement that when she seem'd to shake and fear your looks, / She

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Smith 5 lov'd them most (3.3.207-208). Othello apparently buys into the general feeling that black is unattractive, and suffers some insecurity on this account that makes it seem more likely to him that Desdemona is unfaithful (Heims 191). When listing reasons she might have cheated, his color tops the list: Haply, for I am black,/ And have not those soft parts of conversation/ That chamberers have . . . (3.3.263-265). Even when the duke tells Brabantio, If virtue no delighted beauty lack./Your son-in-law is far more fair than black, he is not challenging the perception of black as ugly, but saying that virtue is more important than outward appearance (Hall 82). While Shakespeare lacked a twenty-first century sensitivity to that sort of thing, he's clearly aware of race and racial prejudice. Indeed, between Iago, Roderigo, and Brabantio, one can catalog many of the stereotypes and prejudices that were already thriving in European brains. Act I is particularly interesting in this respect. Already black men are believed to be oversexed (Hall 14). Roderigo informs Brabantio that his daughter has been transported to the gross clasps of a lascivious Moor (1.1.126). Blacks are seen as beastly (14). Twice Iago compares Othello to an animal, first when he tells Brabantio, Even now, now, very now, an old black ram / Is tupping your white ewe, and more extensively when he compares Othello to a Barbary horse and insinuates that Desdemona has married into a family of horses: [Y]ou'll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse; you'll have your nephews neigh to you; you'll have coursers for cousins and gennets for germans (1.1.88-89; 110-113). Blackness, and blacks by extension, is associated with the devil (Hall 14). Brabantio's speculations immediately turn to sorcery as an explanation of how Othello won his daughter. Practices of cunning hell are the only possible explanation for a match so unnatural (82).

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Smith 6 So in the first scene Shakespeare introduces all this racist discourse, this image of Othello as a marauding seducer, and then Othello himself appears, allowing the audience to form some independent judgments on him (Hall 82). Othello is calm in the face of Brabantio's accusations, refuses to fight, and defends himself eloquently before the Senators. Rather than showing himself the lascivious Moor, he supports Desdemona's request to accompany him to Cyprus not / To please the palate of my appetite. The effect is to emphasize the contrast between the black-on-the-outside hero and the black-on-theinside villain (Heims 190). Overall, the evidence that Othello is itself a racist play is thin. Given the modern heritage of slavery and imperialism justified by supposed white superiority, all of which was mostly still in the future in 1600, twentieth and twenty-first century critics are understandably uneasy when confronted with a play in which a black man in a jealous rage murders his white wife. However, there is little in the play itself to indicate that Othello's actions are meant to be characteristic of his race, and although historical reactions to the play have sometimes betrayed racism, most critics have seen Othello as the victim of the universal passion of jealousy. In fact, the insistence of some historical critics that Othello was meant to be a tan North African suggests that they saw nothing characteristically black in his behavior. Insofar as Othello's race has anything to do with his downfall, it is in the way Iago exploits his sense of being an outsider and his sense of not being good enough for Desdemona, if Desdemona is really as good as she seems (Hall 105). Racial prejudice in Othello mainly functions as a signifier of fools and villains.

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Smith 7 Works Cited Hall, Joan Lord. Othello: A Guide to the Play. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999. Heims, Neil, ed. Othello. New York: Bloom's Literary Criticism, 2008. Shakespeare, William. Ed. Tucker Brooke and Lawrence Mason. Othello. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947. Skura, Meridith Anne. Reading Othello's Skin: Contexts and Pretexts. Philological Quarterly 87.3-4 (2008): 299-334. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 2 May 2012.

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Standards for Graded Essays Superior (100%-90%) Ideas are clearly developed and supported. Ideas reflect a mature level of thought as evidenced by originality and/or insight. The thesis is focused and developed throughout the essay. The essay exhibits clear organization with a logical flow of ideas and incorporates effectively selected transitional words or phrases. Paragraphs are unified, complete, and coherent. Sentence structure includes appropriate variety and emphasis, and reflects logical relationships. Word choices are accurate and effective. Grammatical, mechanical, and format errors are totally absent or rare. The superior paper distinguishes itself from the good paper by a more assured prose style, more creativity in form and content, and more effective uses of writing strategies. Good (89%-80%) Ideas are supported, indicate a mature level of thought, and are consistently clear. The thesis is clear and consistently developed. The essay exhibits clear organization and presents a logical flow of ideas with appropriate transitional words or phrases. Paragraphs provide adequate support and organization. Sentence structure is varied. Word choice is accurate. There are very few grammatical, mechanical, or format errors. Satisfactory (79%-70%) Ideas are usually supported and clear. The essays organization reflects a logical flow of ideas. A sense of purpose and a controlling idea are evident, even if not fully sustained. Paragraphs are adequately developed, but transitions are not used consistently. Most word choices are effective. There are occasional grammatical, mechanical, and/or format errors. Unsatisfactory (69%-60%) Ideas are not supported systematically and are frequently unclear. The essays organization is inadequate; the introduction and/or conclusion are absent or fail to function properly. The middle section contains undeveloped paragraphs and/or lacks patterns of effective development, while transitional words or phrases are inappropriate or absent. A thesis, if present at all, lacks restriction and/or unity. There is little or no sentence variety. Word choices are often inappropriate. Several serious grammatical, mechanical, and/or format errors occur. Paper marginally addresses the assignment. Failing (59%-0%) Ideas lack support from specific details and are consistently unclear. Organization is flawed. The introduction and/or conclusion may be absent or may not function. No thesis is stated, or, if present, it is not sustained. Paragraphs lack full development and/or unity. Transitions are not used. Frequent errors in grammar, mechanics, and/or format occur. Paper does not address the assignment. Paper submitted late or not at all. * A paper may be marked down for serious flaws in content, mechanics, or format; however, a paper may also be marked up for superior analysis or particular excellence in originality or insight.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF GRAMMAR I. Grammar: What is it? A. The study of how words and their component parts combine to form sentences. B. The study of structural relationships in language or in a language, sometimes including pronunciation, meaning, and linguistic history. C. The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language. D. The system of rules implicit in a language, viewed as a mechanism for generating all sentences possible in that language. E. A descriptive/normative or prescriptive set of rules setting forth the current standard of usage for pedagogical or reference purposes. F. Grammar terms: 1. Diction word choice (correct, clear, effective) 2. Syntax the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses 3. Inflection a. Word or syllable emphasis b. The change of pitch or loudness of voice 4. Dialect a. Regional accents or usage b. A regional variety of language distinguished by features of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation from other regional varieties and constituting together with them a single language 5. Linguistics the scientific study of language II. Parts of Speech A. Nouns 1. Person, place, thing or idea 2. Types of nouns a. Proper a specific person, place, or thing. Always capitalized. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, class subjects with a number, organizations, languages, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. Algebra II, Carlos, Queen Marguerite, Middle East, Jerusalem, Malaysia, Presbyterianism, God, Spanish, Buddhism, the Republican Party b. Common everything else. Not capitalized unless it is the first word in a sentence. c. Concrete words that represent objects one can see, hear, touch, smell, taste with the senses. d. Abstract anything one cannot see, hear, touch, smell, or taste. e. Compound is made up of two or more words used together. One word: shoelace, keyboard, flashlight, applesauce, notebook, bedroom Hyphenated: editor-in-chief, great-grandfather

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B. Pronouns 1. Takes the place of a specific noun or pronoun 2. Types of pronouns a. Personal Number singular or plural Person 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Gender female, male, or neuter (she, he, it) Case nominative (subject of a verb) or objective (object of a verb or preposition) b. Demonstrative This, that, these, and those are demonstrative pronouns that substitute for nouns when the nouns they replace can be understood from the context. Also indicate whether they are replacing singular or plural words and give the location of the object. c. Indefinite Replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. Can be singular, plural, or both d. Relative (From Purdue Online Learning Lab) The most common relative pronouns are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that, and which. Please note that in certain situations, "what," "when," and "where" can function as relative pronouns. Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which are a type of dependent clause. Relative clauses modify a word, phrase, or idea in the main clause. The word, phrase, or idea modified is called the antecedent. e. Intensive Consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a specific noun or pronoun f. Reflexive Have the same forms as the intensive pronouns and indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. Made up words: theirself(s), theirselves, him self, her self, ourself g. Interrogative The interrogative pronouns (who/whom/whose/which/what) introduce questions. C. Adjectives 1. Adjectives are words that describe or modify a noun. 2. The articles a, an, and the are adjectives. D. Verbs 1. Shows action or a state of being 2. Action verbs 24

Two words: police officer, seat belt, high school, word processor, post office, book bag

E.

F.

G. H.

a. Transitive an action verb that requires an object John hit the ball. b. Intransitive an action verb that does not require an object John smiled. 3. Linking a. Connects a subject and its complement, either a predicate nominative or a predicate adjective. b. Are often forms of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). Jenny was the prom queen. (Predicate nominative, renames the subject) Jenny is intelligent. (Predicate adjective, describes the subject) Adverbs 1. Modify/describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs 2. Answer the questions how, when, where, why, in what way, how much, how often, under what condition, to what degree 3. The easiest adverbs to recognize are those that end in -ly. a. Some adjectives end with -ly also, but remember that adjectives can modify only nouns and pronouns. b. Adverbs modify everything else. c. An adverb can be placed anywhere in a sentence. Prepositions 1. A preposition links nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence. 2. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition. 3. A preposition always has an object. Conjunctions 1. Conjunctions are used to link words, phrases, and clauses. 2. Coordinating conjunctions memorize them!!! (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Interjections 1. An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. 2. Example: Lions and tigers and bears! Oh, my!

III. Parts of a Sentence A. Subject and Predicate 1. The subject states whom or what the sentence is about. John hit the ball 2. The predicate tells something about the subject. Jim and Katie will go to the prom together. 3. To determine the subject, first determine the verb and then ask who or what before the verb. Who hit the ball? What would taste good right now?

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B. Simple subject and simple predicate 1. Simple subject: The subject minus the words that modify it. A slice of pizza would be good right now. 2. Simple predicate: The verbs or verbs that link up with the subject. Mr. Tompkins is campaigning for mayor and will most likely win the election. C. Phrases and clauses 1. Phrase: a group of words without a verb 2. Clauses: a group of words with a subject and a verb An independent clause has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a sentence. John hit the ball. A dependent or subordinate clause has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. Although it was his first time at bat, John hit the ball. D. Participles and Participial Phrases A participle is used as an adjective and ends in various ways. A present participle always ends with ing as does the gerund, but remember that it is an adjective. A past participle ends with ed, n, or irregularly. Participles modify nouns and pronouns and can precede or follow the word modified. (Do not confuse participles that end in ing with gerunds. Participles are used as adjectives; gerunds are used as nouns.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The bike had a broken spoke. Her smiling face made everyone happy. The frightened child was crying loudly. The people were frightened by the growling dog. The squeaking wheel needs some grease.

A participial phrase is made up of a participle and any complements (direct objects, predicate nominatives, predicate adjectives, or modifiers) like the gerund. A participial phrase that comes at the beginning of the sentence is always followed by a comma and modifies the subject of the sentence. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Taking my time, I hit the basket. Shouting angrily, the man chased the thief. Exhausted from the hike, Jim dropped to the ground. Grinning sheepishly, the boy asked for a date. Trying to open the gate, I tore my coat.

E. Gerunds and Gerund Phrases A gerund looks like a verb but functions like a noun. A gerund can be a subject (Eating is fun.); a direct object (I like eating.); a predicate nominative (A fun time is eating.); an appositive (A fun time, eating, takes much time.); an indirect object (I give eating too much time.); or an object of a preposition (I give much time to eating.) 26

The gerund phrases in the following sentences are used as subject, direct object, predicate nominative, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My hobby is working with irises. (Predicate nominative) I like pruning the fruit trees. (Direct object) I had only one desire, leaving for home. (Appositive) Writing a good novel is hard work. (Subject) With his snoring in his sleep, his wife couldn't get any rest. (Object of a preposition)

F. Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases An infinitive is the present-tense form of a verb preceded by the word to. An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Examples: 1. To exercise is a healthful habit. (noun) 2. Here is laundry to wash. (adjective) 3. The choir was ready to sing. (adverb) An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and the related words that follow it. Examples: 1. Sandra went to buy groceries. 2. Gilbert wanted to read the book. IV. Punctuation Basics A. End Marks 1. Periods are used at the end of a sentence that makes a statement or expresses a command. Today is the first day of the school year. 2. Question marks indicate the end of a direct question. Either way, how can we lose? 3. Exclamation points are used at the end of a sentence to indicate enthusiasm, surprise, disbelief, urgency, or strong feeling. No! I dont believe you just said that! Yessss! B. Internal Punctuation 1. Commas use (The basic rules. There are more!) a. In a series John hit two singles, a double, and a home run. b. Before a coordinating conjunction that separates independent clauses. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (FANBOYS) -- memorize them!!! John hit a hard grounder, but he was thrown out at first.

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c. After an introductory dependent (subordinate) clause Although John hit a hard grounder, he was thrown out at first. d. To set off a nonessential element Lets get advice from John, who has a lot of experience with this kind of problem. They have sufficient knowledge, dont they, to figure this problem out on their own. We are convinced, nevertheless, that they can do this on their own. e. In direct address No, sir, we cannot give you a refund on that. I can count on your vote, Susan. f. To set off the year when it follows the month and day On September 11, 2001, the world, as we know it, changed forever. g. To set off the name of a state, a country, or the equivalent when it directly follows the name of a city or county Six years ago we moved to Charlotte, North Carolina, to be closer to family. h. Between two consecutive adjectives that modify the same noun (If you can put the and between the adjectives, separate the adjectives with a comma. Tom is a generous, compassionate man. 2. Colons : a. Before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand by itself. Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on: There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time. The charter review committee now includes the following people: the mayor, the chief of police, the fire chief, and the chair of the town council. b. To separate an independent clause from a quotation (often of a rather formal nature) that the clause introduces: The acting director often used her favorite quotation from Shakespeare's Tempest: "We are such stuff as dreams are made on; and our little life is rounded with a sleep." c. After a salutation in a business letter . . . Dear Senator Dodd: 3. Semicolons ; a. In place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out. Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then. I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in the contract. b. Before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word. You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better. c. To separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas. 28

This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee. d. Between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence. When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep. If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her. 4. Parenthesis ( ) a. To enclose explanatory material that is independent of the main thought of the sentence. By Saturday (or sooner if possible) we will complete the project. b. To set off a nonessential element when dashes would be too emphatic and commas might create confusion. Production is up in our Springfield (Missouri) plant. c. To set off references and directions. When I wrote you last (see attached letter dated May 2), I explained the situation as I understand it. d. To enclose dates that accompany a persons name. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is acknowledged by many experts as the greatest playwright who ever lived. e. To indicate page numbers for internal citations Wordsworth weighed in on this debate (Seeley 712). 5. Brackets [ ] (from grammar.ccc.commnet.edu) a. You can use them to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language: Lew Perkins, the Director of Athletic Programs, said that Pumita Espinoza, the new soccer coach [at Notre Dame Academy] is going to be a real winner. b. If you are quoting material and you've had to change the capitalization of a word or change a pronoun to make the material fit into your sentence, enclose that changed letter or word(s) within brackets: Espinoza charged her former employer with "falsification of [her] coaching record." Also within quotations, you could enclose [sic] within brackets (we italicize but never underline the word sic and we do not italicize the brackets themselves) to show that misspelled words or inappropriately used words are not your own typos or blunders but are part of an accurately rendered quotation: Reporters found three mispelings [sic] in the report. 6. Dashes a. Although the dash has a few specific functions of its own, it most often serves in place of the comma, the semicolon, the colon, or parenthesis. 29

b. Use dashes in place of commas to set off a nonessential element that requires special emphasis. c. For a stronger but less formal break, use a dash in place of a semicolon between closely related independent clauses. d. For a stronger but less formal break, use a dash in place of a colon to introduce explanatory words, phrases, or clauses. e. Use dashes in place of parentheses when you want to give the nonessential element strong emphasis. 7. Diagonal / a. Occurs (without space before or after) in certain abbreviations and expressions of time. c/o care of Please check the figures for fiscal year 2002/03. b. Used to express alternatives. an on/off switch a go/no go decision c. May be used to indicate a person has two functions or a thing has two components. the owner/manager zoned for commercial/industrial activities C. Dialogue and Quotations 1. Quotation Marks a. To set off direct quotations I clearly told him, Dont touch my motorcycle. b. To set off words or phrases for special emphasis Although the scientist was supposed to be an expert, he kept saying nucular rather than nuclear. c. To display the titles of certain literary and artistic works. articles and feature columns in newspapers and magazines, titles of essays, short poems, lectures, sermons, songs, short musical compositions. d. Quotation marks and other punctuation Periods and commas always go inside the closing double or single quotation mark. -- The boss said, Please forward to me every email labeled Expedite. -- All he said to me was Were through, my brother told me. Semicolons and colons always go outside the closing quotation mark. Question marks and exclamation points go inside the closing quotation mark when it applies only to the quoted material. -- The lawyers first question was, How long have you known the defendant? -- When will the boss ever say, You did a great job on that? 2. Ellipsis . . . a. Used to indicate omissions in quoted material. (Example from Grammar Girl)

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Here's a quote from the book Our Mutual Friend by Charles Dickens: I cannot help it; reason has nothing to do with it; I love her against reason.

Now far be it from me to edit Dickens, but if I were a journalist under a tight word limit looking at that quotation, I'd be tempted to shorten it to this: I cannot help it . . . I love her against reason.

That middle partreason has nothing to do with itseems redundant, and taking it out doesn't change the meaning. Most style guides don't call for an ellipsis when you omit something at the beginning or end of a quotation, but occasionally you need one. For example, if you leave out something at the beginning of a sentence, but your remaining quotation starts with a capital letter, you need an ellipsis to show the reader that the quotation is beginning in the middle of the original sentence. Aardvark said, . . . Squiggly never caught a fish. [Perhaps the original quotation was Even though he was on the lake all day, Squiggly never caught a fish.]

Ellipses with question marks and exclamation points: Where did he go? . . . Why did he go out again? [Material is removed between the two sentences] Where did he go . . . ? Why did he go out again? [Material is removed before the first question mark. Note the space between the last ellipsis point and the question mark.]

Treat exclamation points as you would question marks. Ellipses with commas and semicolons: Aardvark went home, . . . and Squiggly decided to meet him later. Aardvark went home . . . ; Squiggly would meet him later. [Note the space between the ellipsis and the semicolon.]

b. If words are left off at the end of a sentence, and that is all that is omitted, indicate the omission with ellipsis marks (preceded and followed by a space) and then indicate the end of the sentence with a period . If one or more sentences are omitted, end the sentence before the ellipsis with a period and then insert your ellipsis marks with a space on both sides. As in this example. A coded ellipsis (used in the construction of this page) will appear

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tighter (with less of a space between the dots) than the use of period-spaceperiod-space-period. (grammar.ccc.commnet.edu)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Academic Writing Guide: A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Academic Papers. City University of Seattle, Sept. 2009. Web. 10 July 2012. <http://www.vsm.sk/ Curriculum/academicsupport/academicwritingguide.pdf>.

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