NASA-CR-201404

Genetic Design

Algorithms

in Conceptual

of a Light-Weight, Low-Noise, Tilt-Rotor Aircraft

Final Report NASA Grant NAG 2-882

Valana Arizona State

L. Wells University

June

1996

Abstract
This and report outlines and and research optimization tool, applies outlines the GA accomplishments of rotorcraft. a procedure method in the for using acoustic area the of using the design genetic algorithms (GA) design of

for the

design

It discusses

genetic

algorithm conceptual

as a search

optimization

GA in the

helicopters,

to the

of rotors.

Introduction
design represents reflect Other the of rotor team one bias, decisions systems example experience, made often of this and relies type personal and on partially design preferences of design are based performance as complex, regarding qualitative features. decision-making. of the of the designer blades. for the arbitrary, and field on complicated rotor provides a basis decisions Selection Such and analytical final and made by

Conceptual members section(s) naturally sign team. for the timization design.

of a design

to determine

important

of airfoil choices the deopblade very models Some

by designers weight,

aerodynamics, procedure, This design

dynamics, usually process who

numerical

or graphical,

can be characterized make other the rarely than final have the decisions

somewhat the

time-consuming. These designers, parameters nor ally included of a rotor in the is acoustic

geometry in the "rules

operating generprocess.

system, analytical

experience observation performed

or training of a few during the

of acoustics,

calculation,

of thumb," design

evaluation

conceptual

Consequently, one of the more important tends to receive little or no attention most. vide genetic technique into other appeared the ability problem[3]. (an integer It seems apparent, means and (GA) then, that design a logical for making highly-complex may provide developed computer engineering discrete, selection

attributes during the a need decisions, for the

of a rotor system--its phase of design which for but (such a tool which which can also and of such

noise signature-can affect it the can easily not only proThe tool. its way of GA of blades choice is incorporate

exists

multi-objective algorithm Computer

goal functions a basis genetic programs[l]. problems[2]. integer, of airfoil and section algorithms

as low-noise mid-1960's

low-weight). a design found as a programming

development in the methodology Applications among variables optimization

scientists

for constructing fields, particularly in aerospace to combine Thus, variable), the

The tool.

gradually of GA have the in a single as easily

as an optimization

only recently optimization as the

Significant continuous GA-based (a discrete

advantages or number

variable)

can be handled

by the

of disk loading it can be used more widely-used variables

(a continuous variable). Because the genetic algorithm is not calculus-based, as a global optimizer of highly-non-smooth and discontinuous functions. The numerical because optimization of their procedures reliance on the cannot readily handle non-continuous derivatives. computation of numerical

or functions

Genetic
algorithms

Algorithms
mimic the patterns concept methodology presented of natural by selection and and reproduction fittest" has into since an as an been accepted characteristic optimization expanded search by and

Genetic algorithm

of biological Goldberg[5] optimization into binary combination An some these jective high erations. exchange includes and not initial

populations. originated and others.

This The

of "survival Holland[4] has

of the

in work

developed

technique. Design variables form the "genes" strings. These strings are then concatenated of variables generation number is decoded a fitness value are search value The which represent an individual placing of the This problem. be used The string values through is created from the by randomly

of a given design and are mapped to form the "chromosome" for a design "l"s point. and "0"s variables along the chromoof these From to the obwith genprocess designs, a trait in each

for a given values, function fitness

of individuals. binary is assigned

design fitness

individuals

a set of mapping Individual as parents

relationships. chromosomes for subsequent

to each

individual. and follows

is analogous

in a numerical more procedure likely used

optimization to survive in GA

a structured

probabilistic

information

among the members of the population of design crossover, where a "child" design inherits traits where a bit in the chromosome in engineering design string

points. The reproduction from both of its parent thereby introducing

mutation,

is changed, numerical

seen in either Many current

parent. efforts

employ

optimization

to improve

upon the results of standard design processes. The genetic algorithm does not replace these numerical methods. Instead, it provides a tool for searching a larger and more difficult design a global require complex space than is easily of highly evaluations handled and design by the calculus-based and discontinuous a rapid procedures. functions search they GA continuity. in the can be used it does as not optimizer gradient and non-smooth space, do not the GA search because

has no requirement GA provides compute has no way where genetic cannot

for functional

For a highly direction of the a search of a given GA in or when uniform result hard[5]) Crossley[6] a genetic of the design a design design means the direction

multi-modal

global optimum. Because genetic at a local design, can be character, a problem from outlines algorithm global space optimum. therefore, and, prone but

algorithms In fact, a GA

gradients,

do not the has fitness.

complete

of determining optimum population the

optimality become can (GA however, where

guarantee

In addition,

to premature it lacks error, search The and method

convergence[5] for in the these region then, types select the

near-optimum is difficult especially a large technique, several can usually [8] describe rotorcraft

individuals. initial

Premature algorithm

convergence to approach above, design of the

statement methods can

sampling

randomly-generated As described the population the in conceptual Once combination genetic from

population. in the region

for resolving

difficulties. and will move of variables. an optimal is appropriate

optimum. is large

contains

search

is narrowed,

calculus-based variables. References of helicopters

continuous

[6], [7] and and other

the use of the with results

algorithm the research

in conceptual into various

along

of improving the performance of the basic algorithm. The remainder of the report will focus on the approachto and results from using GA in designing rotors for low acoustic signature.
3
The

Genetic
design

Algorithms
involves of those both

in the
a means noise

Design
for analyzing In the case hand,

of Low-Noise
a candidate here, based the system performs which variables

Rotor
design the on and the

Systems
a method component known and design to the most of the mutation for

process the The and best

choosing consists variables. operations next

candidates. of the

presented

analysis

of a prediction genetic selects with

level

of a rotor systems) design

algorithm, the no actual

on the knowledge

other

crossover themselves.

individuals

(or rotor of the

will serve requiring evaluation

as parents For the

generation

part, the procedures operate the fitness of each individual selected values for the design

in isolation, with the in a generation, and variables.

GA routine the fitness

only knowledge knowing only

3.1

Acoustic

Fitness
design the phase, system. level the analysis other used design tools used must provide many realistic potential cannot is made blade values design for the points high

In the conceptual performance must simply the because be considered, fitness Predicting

of a given of time the

On the of detail in the

hand,

because

in evaluating point

performance

be too

considerations. individual noise

Consequently, requires knowledge

a compromise population. of the rotor

in determining (includ-

of a given

thickness

planform

ing twist), airfoil section, and tip Mach derived from BVI, demands a description tion the et. that on the rotor blades. loading shown fairly Modern prediction good results practice are followed authors by an aerodynamics have calculation,

number. Loading of the complete, in rotor usually used using noise with the

noise prediction, time-dependent includes prediction Gallman aid of a CFD including

including that loading distribua wake tool. code. [9] and analysis from Several Spiegel, good, for Results

prediction to a noise

aerodynamic al.[lO]. Though benefit

as input this method,

the quality occurs design points

of the data at the

resulting expense take within

from the above of time. hours

methodology method time span.

may be quite which since Thus, to run

only

A prediction of computer time

is useful thousands a compromise

conceptual of design

applications must

cannot

be analyzed

a reasonable

philosophy was followed rotor blade. The analysis an attempt levels. The as the Reference ness function

in developing the fitness evaluation procedure for the low-noise utilizes a combination of "exact" and approximate techniques in accurate, noise and performance initial stages of the design as long are correctly predicted.

to obtain reasonable, though not completely reduced level of accuracy is tolerable at the noise levels among the the various rotor designs [11] describes for use with

relative

prediction methodology used in preparing the acoustic fitgenetic algorithm. The thickness and harmonic loading

noise are computed exactly, with the aerodynamicpressurescalculated using a blade element/panel method combination. Blade-vortex interaction (BVI) noise is estimated using a formula introduced by Hardin[12].
3.2
The which

Fitness
actual fitness

Function
of an individual by f = giNs + A2NBv: + _
i

is determined

through

the value

of an objective

function

can be described

C_(max[O,g,(x)])

In the above equation, thickness and loading, coeiTicients penalty it meets any chosen function which

Ns and NBVl represent and by the blade-vortex the noise sources is used constraints. to ensure,

the measures of noise produced interactions, respectively. appropriately. that the The third rotor is not

by the steady A] and A2 are represents stalled or that a

to weight

term

for example,

imposed

3.3

Genetic

Algorithm

Methodology
crossover on these basic ge-

The genetic algorithm-based and mutation. The code operators netic and with algorithm A tournament

design code utilizes the three basic operators--selection, is customized for the current application with variations order" operators which alter the performance of the

"higher

and help to avoid premature selection method chooses approach, two

convergence (as described above). individuals which will contribute to succeeding are selected without replacement from the and that with the better is evaluated in the same

generations. current fitness

In this

individuals

population. These of the two survives

individuals are evaluated for fitness, for the crossover step. A second pair

manner, and the superior individual from that inal two. The process continues until the new roulette-wheel dividuals entire population. or rank-order rather This avoids selection than problems at a time comparing the with

pair is '_nated" with the better of the origgeneration is filled. Unlike more traditional tournament fitness scaling selection which can compares lead two inthe an is relative fitness of one individual against to premature

methods[5],

convergence. As an additional "elitist" tournament selection retained The gence. and design When it replaces code can the employ

hedge against premature convergence, in which the best individual from the least fit member a further in the best of the scheme individual next to stall is noted generation. the onset after

the code can use current generation of premature

convera G-bit

no improvement

five generations,

improvement[5] method, a gradient-like current best individual in the population, a time the ment, patterns in the string. in effect, into the forces The single bit change

bitwise improvement approach, the G-bit improvement routine producing of the best the current best fitness string The

is used. For the varies one bit at is entered G-bit new into string

population,

replacing population.

the worst a mutation

member on the

generation. in order

improve-

individual

to introduce

Generation 1 2 5 10 15

Airfoil 0012 0012 0012 0012 0012

Blades 4 5 5 5 5

Solidity .115 .110 .120 .120 .120

Twist (degrees) -11 -11 -13 -15 -15

Tip Speed (ft/sec) 700 700 665 680 670 Rotor

DL (lb/ft 2) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 System

Taper .4 .4 .8 .8 .8

Power (HP) 2126 2074 2061 2146 2096

Table

1: Evolution

of Low-Total-Noise

The and

To use the genetic algorithm, the seven design variable list contains one discrete variable---the of blades. loading, are The other variables, with length the Better design blade disk continuous, quantities. string a total the resolution

variables are coded airfoil section--and blade of the taper, binary However,

into binary one integer rotor variables with the different

strings. variable-tip speed, the be current could

the number

twist,

solidity, string even

determining

level of continuity obtained total are string length

in these

resolution space

of the continuous

by increasing

for each

variable.

of 27 bits,

of 22T, or 134,000,000

indi,_iduals

represented.

Results
[11] shows results for GA design of a low-thickness-noise rotor, a low-loading-

Reference noise rotor. The the

rotor, a rotor system with low thickness and loading noise, and a low-total-noise Included here are results for the low-total-noise rotor system, which includes the loading terms design and in the variables blade-vortex objective along equal with interaction function the were power for a nominal noise chosen case. required components to make Table to hover in the the BVI 1 shows fitness and the function. the steady of coefficients rotor

thickness, loading

approximately

evolution generations.

for several

(Note that "DL" refers to the disk loading.) that with the lowest noise signature of the generations evolve. According normally tip the velocity strength before to the allows of the any presented the real blade results, design. sections tip vortex. the because of excess CPU time

The individual described in the table population. This case was terminated though the population tip speed by the coefficient, should resulting rotor fact

represents after 15 to

requirements, GA suggests This However, may the about

continued than that one the

a higher lift the

would higher

expect

in an optimized trailing

be driven solution

to operate can be drawn

at lower

thereby be allowed design.

reducing to evolve

further

conclusions

5
The design

Conclusions
research

and

Further
the feasibility The

Study
of utilizing genetic a relatively method procedure, new methodology for the discrete, seems

demonstrates rotor

of a low-noise and continuous

system.

algorithm design

can incorporate and it, therefore,

integer,

variables

into one optimal

particularly The paper examines The guaranteed design not the variables noise

appropriate for use in the selection of rotor design and operational parameters. presents solutions for the design of rotors with lowered acoustic signatures, and, the results trade-offs provide to be optimal all of them required several in the are in order low-noise sense "good" that to achieve rotor solutions. blade a low-noise solutions. the very the design. Though lowest none noise of these rotor solution is is lowest-noise in the design a lowterm

it represents

space,

In general,

lowest power solution, although the noise-lowering trends in some of the decrease the power required to hover as well. If it is desired to design low-power rotor, the fitness function can be defined to include a power In this way, the genetic The results presented of a multi-objective the speed fitness of the calculation, GA

and

with an appropriate coefficient. multi-objective design problems. easily rotor incorporate systems. To low noise improve

algorithm is well-suited to handle here indicate that the method will fitness method, in particular under function work in the continues design of the of in the

as part upon acoustic

development

of an improved

for determining the sponsorship

harmonic loading noise and the BVI noise. References [6], [7], [8], and [11] were prepared this grant.

all or in part

References [1] Holland, J. H., "Genetic K., algorithms," Scientific robust American, optimization pp. 66-72, tool," July AIAA 1992. 93-0315,

[2] KrishnaKumar, January [3] Lin, and C.-Y. integer 1993. and

"Genetic

algorithms-a

Hajela,

P., "Genetic

algorithms

in optimization vol.

problems

with

discrete 1992.

design J. H., D. E.,

variables,"

Engineering in Natural

Optimization,

19, pp. 309-327, MIT and Press, Machine 1992.

[4] Holland, [5] Goldberg, Addison

Adaptation Genetic 1989.

and Artificial in Search,

Systems.

Algorithms

Optimization

Learning.

Wesley,

[6] Crossley, W. A., Using Genetic tual Design of Rotorcraft. PhD [7] Crossley, gorithms W. A., 1995. Wells, V. L., design

Algorithms as an Automated Methodology thesis, Arizona State University, August and Laananen, systems," D. H., "The potential

for Concep1995. of genetic vol. al24,

for conceptual

of rotor

Engineering

Optimization,

pp. 221-238,

[8] Crossley, W. A., genetic algorithms Vertical [9] Gallman, interaction Lift

Regulski, J., Wells, V. L., and Laananen, D. H., and sizing codes for conceptual design of rotorcraft," Design Conference, Y. (San Francisco), January

"Incorporating in AHS/NASA

Aircraft

1995.

J. M., Tung, C., Yu, noise with applications

H., and to higher

Low, S. L., "Prediction of blade-vortex harmonic control," AIAA-93-4331, 1993.

[10] Spiegel,P. and Rahier, G., "Theoretical study and prediction of bvi noise including closeinteractions," in Proceedings of the Inter_mtional Technical Specialists Meeting
on Rotorcraft Royal Acoustics and Rotor October Fluid Dynamics, American Helicopter Society and Aeronautical Society, 1991. of rotor blades using and Aeroacoustics of

[11] Wells, V. L., Han, A. Y., and Crossley, W. A., "Acoustic design a genetic algorithm," in A GARD Symposium on Aerodynamics Rotorcraft, [12] Hardin, noise," pp. 35.1-35.10, October 1994.

J. C. and Lamkin, Journal of Aircraft,

S. L., "Concepts for reduction vol. 24, pp. 120-125, February

of blade/vortex 1987.

interaction