MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS, TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Dr Tan Yigitcanlar
Queensland University of Technology, School of Urban Development, Brisbane, Australia tan.yigitcanlar@qut.edu.au

Dr Jung Hoon Han

Griffith University, Urban Research Program, Brisbane, Australia h.han@griffith.edu.au

Brisbane, Australia August 2009

0

MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS, TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Executive summary
Eco City and Ubiquitous City constitute the two distinctive facades of a contemporary city. Eco City forms the visible facade, where Ubiquitous City is the hidden infrastructure facade supporting information and services in order to support lifestyles. The integration of Eco City and Ubiquitous City is important to improve the sustainability and quality of life in cities. From the point of this integration view, the traditional quartet of urban planning human-architecture-city-society needs to be naturally evolve into human-architecture-digit-city-society, where information management plays a key role in contemporary cities (Wang, 2001; Wang et al., 2002).

There are a number of management and information technology related challenges exist in establishing Eco Cities. These issues and challenges bring the discussion of the need for establishment of Ubiquitous Cities and integrating them with Eco Cities to the table. Some of these major challenges include the followings (derived from Wang et al., 2002):

Building a comprehensive database for ecological elements of a city; Decision, information and management systems for an Eco City; Managing and monitoring infrastructure and services, and; Establishing active public participation.

In a U-Eco City, urban land, modern technology, industry and people create a mutually supportive and holistic environment for the 21st Centurys new urban development. Primary characteristics of a U-Eco City includes but not limited to the below so called 5Es five key aspects (derived from Kline, 2000):
1

Ecological integrity: U-Eco Cities regulate human activities by not only managing each type of activity but also protecting and restoring natural ecosystems; Economic security: U-Eco Cities support economic growth and security by addressing essential links, including education, training, environmental soundness and occupational safety; Enhanced quality of life: U-Eco Cities improve peoples quality of life by addressing their yearnings for decent, safe, enjoyable places to live, work and play; Empowerment with responsibility: U-Eco Cities are responsive to the needs of community residents, business people and visitors, and; Electronic infrastructure: U-Eco Cities provide the state of the art infrastructure and their digital monitoring and management systems.

Technological self-sufficiency and advancement of the U-Eco City concept at the same time must also be dynamic, not static, changing to meet the challenges of each new generation. Major challenges for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

Development cost; Retrofitting; More technology and mobility, more energy use; Too much transparency, limited privacy; Digital security, smart mobs; Technology upgrades and dependency/collapse; Urban privileged, and; Managing complex/high-tech urban environments.

U-Eco City presents a unique opportunity to foster an alternative model of city and urban development, one that is holistic, environmentally conscious and humane. Some of the major opportunities for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

Zero emission, zero car, waste and water are recycled; Compact urban development;
2

Improved quality of life and services; Sustained eco-system, better use of energy and natural resources; More legible and accessible built and natural environments; Opportunities to build new social spaces, and; New socio-cultural and economic interactions.

Technology convergence develops new standards for performance and accessibility for urban infrastructure, and helps lifecycle planning and management. Besides, this convergence process also has its downside. Particularly in their initial forms, converged devices are frequently less functional and reliable (e.g. a mobile phone camera may not perform better than a digital camera). As the array of functions in a single device escalates the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases (Jenkins, 2006). For example, an iPhone (which, by name implies that its' primary function is that of a mobile phone) can perform many different tasks, but does not feature a traditional numerical pad to make phone calls. Instead, the phone features a touchpad, which some users find it troublesome compared to a conventional phone keyboard. In fact technological convergence in some ways holds immense potential for the improvement of the quality of life and liberty, but also degrades it in others (Rheingold, 2000). Regardless, thanks to convergence and nano-technologies, in recent years an ever-wider range of technologies are being converted into single multipurpose devices.

Together with the technology convergence intelligent environmental management systems also provide a new opportunity for U-Eco city management. The main benefit of intelligent environmental management system adoption is that it provides a systematic process to address comprehensively all major environmental issues. Tasks that intelligent environmental management systems support include tracking activities, tracking waste, monitoring emissions, scheduling tasks, coordinating permits and documentation, managing material safety data sheets, conducting cost/benefit analysis, and choosing alternative materials, to name a few. An intelligent environmental management system integrates monitoring and simulation for environmental decision support in urban areas. The establishment of clear procedures and responsibilities, environmental management programmes, audits and other tools lead to the effective monitoring of environmental issues and solution of problems in a timely manner. An
3

intelligent environmental management system is a set of interacting processes or elements. Each process or element of the environmental management system takes one or more inputs and creates one or more outputs to be passed onto one or more other processes or elements (DEWHA, 2009). This evolution of management approaches requires new instruments and tools for strategic development, for information update and transmission, and for monitoring the development, and managing the whole planning and delivery process. At this point new generation intelligent urban management systems are needed to be developed particularly to be able to cope with the complexities of U-Eco Cities.

On the one hand, along with these opportunities, and many more, intelligent management systems for U-Eco Cities also present a number of challenges. These challenges include: strategically planning every stage of the U-Eco City development process; significant financial commitment to invest on developing, equipping and retrofitting new U-technologies to urban environments; developing a system that is resilient to adopt new technological changes quickly; and securing and safe guarding the whole system from external and internal security treats. Beyond technology revolutionising urban management for U-Eco Cities also requires several key instruments. These instruments include: a strong administration and will to plan and develop sound policies; legislations and regulations to legitimise and empower the process; a fiscal system based on user pays principle rather than tax payers funding of all services; strong financial and institutional structure to realise and coordinate Uinfrastructure and services; capability to manage both assets and knowledge that is key for the knowledge-based and sustainable development of cities (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008b; 2008c); and embracing an advocating, transparent and participatory approach for development. For a successful urban management strategic visioning and planning, as Neilson (2002) highlights, linking strategy and practice play a key role.

In a concluding remark, decisions regarding to telecommunications infrastructure investments in U-Eco City policy making could have a noteworthy impact on sustainable urban development by minimising environmental impacts and improving the quality of lives of residents. Around the world, local governments have been developing planning strategies focusing on long term telecommunications infrastructure development.
4

However, the rapid changes in the technology and telecommunications infrastructure, including technology convergence, do not make their work any easier in having a concrete long term development plan that contributes to the formation of sustainable urban futures.

MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS, TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Table of contents
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................... 1 Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. 7 Keywords ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 8 Ubiquitous Eco Cities ...................................................................................................................... 11 Telecommunications infrastructure .............................................................................................. 18 Convergence of ICT and infrastructure ......................................................................................... 23 Internet and media convergence ..................................................................................................... 24 Marketing convergence ................................................................................................................... 26 Telecommunications convergence .................................................................................................. 27 Implications of convergence technologies ...................................................................................... 28 Intelligent urban management systems ........................................................................................ 31 Urban management directions for U-Eco Cities.............................................................................. 40 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 41 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 44 References........................................................................................................................................ 44

MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS, TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Abstract
Efficient and effective urban management systems for Ubiquitous Eco Cities require having intelligent and integrated management mechanisms. This integration includes bringing together economic, socio-cultural and urban development with a well orchestrated, transparent and open decision making mechanism and necessary infrastructure and technologies. In Ubiquitous Eco Cities telecommunication technologies play an important role in monitoring and managing activities over wired, wireless or fibre-optic networks. Particularly technology convergence creates new ways in which the information and telecommunication technologies are used and formed the back bone or urban management systems. The 21st Century is an era where information has converged, in which people are able to access a variety of services, including internet and location based services, through multi-functional devices such as mobile phones and provides opportunities in the management of Ubiquitous Eco Cities. This research paper discusses the recent developments in telecommunication networks and trends in convergence technologies and their implications on the management of Ubiquitous Eco Cities and how this technological shift is likely to be beneficial in improving the quality of life and place of residents, workers and visitors. The research paper reports and introduces recent approaches on urban management systems, such as intelligent urban management systems, that are suitable for Ubiquitous Eco Cities.

Keywords
Ubiquitous Eco City, urban management systems, intelligent urban management systems, technology convergence, information and communication technology, urban telecommunication infrastructure

Introduction
During the last few decades rapid urbanisation trends changed urban system and structures across the globe dramatically (Yeung, 2000). Urban systems now have become increasingly complex and large in scale as local urban economies, social and political structures, transportation systems, and infrastructure requirements evolve hastily. Sustainable and efficient usage of scarce resources together with competing economic and social priorities are now parts of everyday decisions required to be made by local governments, which are obliged to hire a sound urban management system that increases the understanding of, and capacity to undertake, the strategic management of urban areas (Teriman et al., 2009). Urban management is basically a process of deliberately directing and facilitating urban development, and also an integration of the traditional ideas of planning, with its physical, economic and social concerns, and recently latched to management with its emphasis on efficiency (Davey, 1993). The application of innovative systems to support urban management and collaborative decision making offers considerably new opportunities particularly for ubiquitous cities, where such cities provide ubiquitous infrastructure and services for their residents and visitors (Galloway, 2003). In Ubiquitous Eco Cities (U-Eco Cities), like any other city, urban and infrastructure planning, development and management require complex information and input from institutions, stakeholders and users to deal with spatial, social, economic, and also multi-dimensional and complex characteristics of urban and environmental phenomena and problems (Lee et al., 2008).

As Warf (1998:255) states telecommunication is one of the few topics in geography that richly illustrates the plasticity of space, the ways it can be stretched, deformed, or compressed according to changing economic and political imperatives. Over the past few decades, telecommunications networks have become an important infrastructure player, but they are not as readily apparent as other core physical infrastructure such as highways, roads, and water and power grids. Although, the invisible telecommunications infrastructure often follow the same routes of highways and railroads, current communications, whether voice, video, or data, are ultimately dependent on the existence of telecommunications infrastructure (Hackler, 2003a). Recent advancements in telecommunications technologies have had a direct impact on firms, particularly in

the service and high-technology related sectors, and the telecommunications infrastructure has become important to their production processes. These

developments also have had an indirect effect on the overall economy of cities because of the externalities they generate (Yimaz & Dinc, 2002).

Information

and

communication

technologies

(ICTs)

form

the

basis

of

telecommunications infrastructure. In the information and knowledge era, already upon us, ICTs play an increasingly important role in the planning, provision and management of urban physical infrastructure. Moreover it is evident that ICT networks as urban telecommunication networks are becoming the major urban infrastructure

management systems with the rapid development and wide-spread usage of internet. In a recent study, Lee et al. (2008) point out some challenges to apply digital convergence technologies in urban infrastructure particularly in Ubiquitous or Augmented cities where any citizen can access any infrastructure and services via any electronic devices regardless of time and location. This idea of advanced and easy accessibility to amenity and services has been reflected in many science fiction movies such as Matrix, Island and Minority Report. However, although there are some small scale practices, its comprehensive real world applications are yet to be developed.

As an integral part of the urban telecommunication networks, electronic or digital devices such as mobile phones, handheld computers and PCs become the key gadgets of our daily lives. In order to improve their functionality and increase the product sales these digital technologies have been subject to continuous and rapid development. One of the most significant advancements in the field is the ICT convergence that people intend to access needed urban amenity and services through a single device, so called a black box (Jenkins, 2006). This technology convergence has been well explored by urban planners, media companies, broadcasters, and information technology enterprises. The trend is found not only in electronic devices but also in business management such as call centres with several help desks that develop consistent customer care services.

Convergence of telecommunication technologies and internet services play a significant role in networking the functions of a city. Early work by Gottman (1983) developed a
9

popular notion of transactional city. In this study he anticipates the modern telecommunication technologies such as fibre optics, global positioning systems and wireless networks accelerate the complexity of spatial transformation known as spatial de-concentration, fragmentation and gentrification (Baum et al., 2006; Chhetri et al., 2009). Accessibility to the internet and the quality of the network service became also a critical need for the infrastructure development, analysis, planning, and design. In the US, information-related investments in urban infrastructure have become an increasingly vital component of national economic activity. In 1995 the annual spending on information systems by far (more than $60 billion) exceeded the total public sector spending on transportation (Wieman, 1998).

ICT networks are rapidly evolving and in the near future will likely to transform into a network supported by convergence technologies that supports urban management. Wieman (1998) pointed out how localised high-tech economic activity, supported by the early examples of technology convergence, boosts the demand on urban transportation systems. In his recent study Han (2008) investigated the evolution of the ICT development in the Republic of Korea, which rapidly becoming more ubiquitous and getting embedded into physical urban environment and supporting urban infrastructure. He discusses how technology convergence supports rather than diminishes the quality of life in urban spaces. Personal mobile phones, for instance, are integrated with the segments of urban services including public transport, ugovernment, u-learning and u-health services. The technology convergence improves the access to urban services and utilities for example by providing mobile phones with new technologies such as SMS, G3, MP3, GPS navigation, digital camera, smart card, ecommerce and e-payment.

Telecommunication and infrastructure networks are rapidly moving from systems based on wired technology to those that are wireless and seamless digital network systems (Dourish, 2004). However, the question of how the new technology convergence interwoven with the existing physical urban infrastructure such as roads, water and power supply, sewerage, and security system still remains unanswered. Although the ubiquitous computing network system (Weiser, 1991) has become one of the major phases in many contemporary agendas in terms of the design and engineering
10

of computer systems, its economic, social and environmental implications are yet to be explored. Given that significance, there is limited academic research that focuses on the specific implications of telecommunication technology convergence on urban infrastructure development and urban management.

This research paper aims to investigate the technological paradigm shift by which those urban infrastructures are evolved, how convergence arrangements are provided for current urban infrastructure systems by correct actions over time, and explore intelligent management systems for U-Eco Cities. The paper focuses on how rapid technology convergence brings spatial reconfiguration of activities at different levels such as for homes, neighbourhoods, cities, regions and nations as each different hierarchy of space and place need an appropriate technology and telecommunication infrastructure. This research paper also explores a range of technological convergences and discusses the impact of technology convergence on improving telecommunications infrastructure provision and benefits to the economy and broader society in U-Eco Cities. The research reported in this paper argues the critical role of urban management support systems for ubiquitous cities management and concludes by providing directions for successfully managing U-Eco Cities.

Ubiquitous Eco Cities

Eco City and Digital or Ubiquitous City constitute the two distinctive facades of a contemporary city. Eco City forms the visible facade, where Ubiquitous City is the hidden infrastructure facade supporting information and services in order to support lifestyles. The integration of Eco City and Ubiquitous City is important to improve the sustainability and quality of life in cities. From the point of this integration view, the traditional quartet of urban planning human-architecture-city-society needs to be naturally evolve into human-architecture-digit-city-society, where information management plays a key role in contemporary cities (Wang, 2001; Wang et al., 2002).

The modern Eco City concept originates from Ebenezer Howards theory of Garden City. The theory of Garden City reveals the ecological charms of harmonious joint

11

development of built and natural environments. A good example of such development is the Letchworth Garden City in England designed by Ebenezer Howard and built in 1903. Still after over a century, it remains to be one of the most desirable living spaces. Since the early Garden City examples urban planners have tried to integrate ecological ideologies and principles into urban design and development by considering cities as artificial ecosystems (Wang et al., 2002). For instance, Yanitsky (1987) sees an Eco City as a perfect living space and an ideal pattern for urban development. Similarly, Roseland (1997) advocates the idea of Eco City concept that it coexists with and contains others, rather than existing independently.

The Eco City theory views urban development from the point of ecosystem interactivity. The basic idea of city development is to fully exploiting the potentials of ecological construction under the existing resource environment for the purpose of building up efficient, harmonious, healthy and wealthy cities. It rejects the traditional way of low productivity and the modern way of excessive resource-consuming. Thus the Eco City ideology solves urban problems by considering an ecological point of view, this is to say, it aims to change the city into a low-entropy regular structure with perfect functionalities, sustainable efficiency and high-level environmental quality. An Eco City also aims to be a panacea for the problems caused by urbanisation activities and urban environmental transition. These transitions are summarised in Figure 1 below.

12

Figure 1. A stylised urban environmental transition (Nolmark, 2007: 13)

The Eco City development process benefits the ecological, environmental and social systems. Therefore, in a broad sense an Eco City is a sustainable city that establishes a harmony between built and natural environments. In a more specific sense, an Eco City is a city based on the improvement of productivity, using modern science and technologies such as eco-engineering, system engineering and information technology including the technological systems of Digital or Ubiquitous Cities (Wang et al., 2002).

There are a number of management and information technology related challenges exist in establishing Eco Cities. These issues and challenges bring the discussion of the need
13

for establishment of Ubiquitous Cities and integrating them with Eco Cities to the table. Some of these major challenges include the followings (derived from Wang et al., 2002):

Building a comprehensive database for ecological elements of a city; Decision, information and management systems for an Eco City; Managing and monitoring infrastructure and services, and; Establishing active public participation.

As Lee et al. (2008) defines Ubiquitous Cities (U-Cities) as cities that provide ubiquitous infrastructure (U-infrastructure) and ubiquitous services (U-services) for their residents, workers and visitors by utilising a range of ubiquitous technologies (Utechnologies). Life in an U-City can be exemplified by imagining public recycling bins that use radio-frequency identification technology to credit recyclers every time they toss in a bottle; pressure-sensitive floors in the homes of older people that can detect the impact of a fall and immediately contact help; cell phones that store health records and can be used paying for prescriptions (O'Connell, 2005: 1). Similar to the just-intime delivery system, which saves time and monetary cost by delivering materials when they are readily needed and by eliminating storage space otherwise needed to stockpile them, urban resources could be conserved in U-Cities by delivering and receiving services right in time with the support of a wired and wireless integrated network equipped with digital home systems and intelligent building systems (Kim, 2008).

In recent years a shift from U-City to U-Eco City has occurred and a number of integration frameworks have been developed. Figure 2 shows an example framework. U-Eco City is defined as a city that provides its residents with high quality of life while using minimal natural resources by making substantive use of ubiquitous information technologies (Yigitcanlar, 2009). The U-Eco City concept creates environments in cities where residents can enjoy access to high-speed networks and enhanced information services at anytime regardless of location through a ubiquitous computing network. Kirkwood (2008) elaborates this definition further by stating:

14

The significance of the U-Eco City project for the private and public sectors as well as government agencies is in providing the ubiquitous infrastructure itself thus enabling the U-Eco City concept to advance, generating a larger service market for next-generation communication technologies as well as establishing a range of cities of good life and happiness for citizens. A further area of significance would be the establishment of an industry world benchmark in ubiquitous city design and holistic environmental planning of the U-City. This is important to capture the future global market in U-Eco City planning as well as to establish a set of metrics to describe and evaluate the legislative framework, performance activities and capacity for change and evolution of the U-Eco City (pp. 13-14).

Figure 2. A framework for the integration of U-City and Eco City (Wang et al., 2002: 5)

15

The U-Eco City concept has taken root in contemporary urban planning as a new technology and ecology model. The U-Eco City concept enhances global competitiveness and connectivity of the public and private sectors through the combination of the hardware construction industry, ICT and their ubiquitous interaction with residents and the natural environment. This ubiquitous interaction and the resulting form of the UEco City are expected to overcome the limitations of current city development approaches and physical city implementation and ongoing management by municipal entities. Current city development approaches to organise the urban fabric use formal spatial patterns for buildings, open space, transportation and infrastructure. The U-Eco city concept uses open technological systems and with an urban management centre (UMC) sitting at its very core, it controls and manages the entire city (Kirkwood, 2008).

In a U-Eco City, urban land, modern technology, industry and people create a mutually supportive and holistic environment for the 21st Centurys new urban development. Primary characteristics of a U-Eco City includes but not limited to the below so called 5Es five key aspects (derived from Kline, 2000):

Ecological integrity: U-Eco Cities regulate human activities by not only managing each type of activity but also protecting and restoring natural ecosystems; Economic security: U-Eco Cities support economic growth and security by addressing essential links, including education, training, environmental soundness and occupational safety; Enhanced quality of life: U-Eco Cities improve peoples quality of life by addressing their yearnings for decent, safe, enjoyable places to live, work and play; Empowerment with responsibility: U-Eco Cities are responsive to the needs of community residents, business people and visitors, and; Electronic infrastructure: U-Eco Cities provide the state of the art infrastructure and their digital monitoring and management systems.

This new, U-Eco City, urban form also has a number of challenges and opportunities. Technological self-sufficiency and advancement of the U-Eco City concept at the same

16

time must also be dynamic, not static, changing to meet the challenges of each new generation. Major challenges for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

Development cost; Retrofitting; More technology and mobility, more energy use; Too much transparency, limited privacy; Digital security, smart mobs; Technology upgrades and dependency/collapse; Urban privileged, and; Managing complex/high-tech urban environments.

A U-Eco City presents a unique opportunity to foster an alternative model of city and urban development, one that is holistic, environmentally conscious and humane. Some of the major opportunities for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

Zero emission, zero car, waste and water are recycled; Compact urban development; Improved quality of life and services; Sustained eco-system, better use of energy and natural resources; More legible and accessible built and natural environments; Opportunities to build new social spaces, and; New socio-cultural and economic interactions.

To address abovementioned challenges and opportunities planning and development of a U-Eco City require an integrated and sustainable mechanism. Therefore, linking strategy (planning) and practice (development) is crucial for the development of successful U-Eco Cities. Strategic visioning and planning of U-Eco Cities need to consider knowledge-based development in order to establish a strong economic, social and spatial base (Figure 3). Additionally management of a U-Eco City requires an intelligent urban management system which is based on a sound telecommunication infrastructure benefiting from the convergence of ICT and infrastructure networks.

17

Figure 3.Sustainable urban planning & development process (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 17)

A current research undertaken by Yigitcanlar (2009a) has revealed that U-Eco City is a new sustainable city form/type, where ubiquitous technologies have the potential to revolutionise planning, development and management of these new cities (p.26). The U-Eco City concept, along with ubiquitous infrastructure and services, offers new opportunities for pathways towards sustainable urban development. However, integrated and intelligent systems need to be considered for the management of U-Eco Cities as just-in-time delivery of goods and services contribute significantly to the sustainable development by mainly minimising unnecessary resource use.

Telecommunications infrastructure
Not so long ago telecommunications infrastructure was not considered in business or household location decisions. Our lifestyles have been changed dramatically during the past few decades, due to rapid technological advances, the convergence to digital forms of computing, media, and communications, and also globalisation. Consequently,
18

telecom has become a complex menu of choices and providers from which business and households choose (Malecki & Bous, 2003). Modern economic productivity benefits from the proliferated use of telecommunications networks and information technologies such as computers and software. This trend has not only altered the business practices of all industries that use these as inputs but also sponsored the growth of new businesses that we now refer to as high-tech industry (Hackler, 2003a). Today firms and also households, many of which rely on constant high-speed, or broadband, connections among far-flung operations, demand not only fast connections, but also redundant links that prevent any downtime or discontinuities, in service. Telecommunications is the leading factor in location decisions of companies today and is accounted as among the top criteria for locating a facility (Lawless & Gore, 1999).

Many cities around the world today highly take advantage of advanced telecommunications infrastructure and such infrastructure has become a growing concern of local government and industry. From computer manufacturing to software development and from biotechnology to aviation industries, many cities seek high-tech growth, where advanced telecommunications infrastructure supports such

development, which is associated with prosperous urban regions (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008a). The Silicon Valley in Northern California, Route 128 surrounding Boston, the Silicon Hills in Austin, Texas, and One-North in Singapore are the most prominent examples of advanced telecommunications infrastructure hardwired in high-tech locations (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008b). As mediators of all aspects of the reflexive functioning and development of aforementioned cities, convergent media,

telecommunications and computing grids (known collectively as `telematics) are thus basic integrating infrastructures underpinning the shift towards intensely

interconnected planetary urban telecommunications networks (Graham, 1999).

Infrastructure networks such as telecommunications support not only cities to develop networks within themselves, but also provide a vehicle to get connected with other cities and join in the world city network. And beyond this telecommunications infrastructure also supports cities in the tough global competition and helps them develop their competitiveness further (Yigitcanlar & Velibeyoglu, 2008). According to Rutherford (2005:2391) [in] the same way as the supply of producer services in world
19

cities can be seen largely to reflect demand for those services from multinational corporations, in a competitive market environment, the supply of telecommunications infrastructure in and between world cities comes from expressed or anticipated demand for high performance telecommunications network connections to interlink multinational corporate and producer service firm headquarters and offices in cities around the world. Basically without a quality telecommunications infrastructure, a city would become pretty much disconnected from or less connected to the rest of the world city network and, therefore, would lose much of its competitiveness and world city status.

Taylor (2003) sees the connections between offices and cities as the skeleton upon which contemporary economic globalisation has formed, and Rutherford (2005) following up on this analogy argues that measures of intercity relations should include the infrastructural backbones which form the actual basis of the skeleton. Moreover, technological advances play a key role in the provision of telecommunication infrastructure or in other words backbones and skeletons, for example fibre optic network development, which is according to Walcott and Wheeler (2001: 321) hairthin threads of glass utilizing laser light pulses in digital computer code, with multiple glass fibres in each cable some sending messages from A to B and others from B to A are the standard physical paths for global internet telecommunications for major numeric data and word and graphic information. The telecommunications infrastructure particularly plays a crucial role in the development and management of U-Eco Cities.

For attracting industries, particularly knowledge-based or high-tech ones, being able to meet the telecommunications service requirements is a necessity. Wiemann (1998: 22) argues that broadband information infrastructure is now as important to a growing array of high-tech firms as railroads were to nineteenth-century steel and textile mills. Similarly, cities that are vying to be silicon havens are using tactics to enhance their telecommunications assets, from developing smart buildings (i.e. high-bandwidth commercial real estate) to increasing bandwidth available to business. For the latter case, some cities even lobby telecommunications service providers to improve existing telecommunications infrastructure, and some are building their own improved
20

telecommunications infrastructure. These local communities perceive that an improved telecommunications infrastructure is a necessity in the new information economy because telecommunications infrastructure may be both an economic and social advantage. As Dwyre (1998: 47) views a solid telecom network is key to economic development: building industry and manufacturing, improving agriculture, education, health, social services, transportation, and other crucial elements that make up a nations economy.

Telecommunications is an important ingredient to cities, particularly U-Eco Cities, wanting to have a knowledge economy growth. Basically telecommunications infrastructure is attractive to high-tech industry; locations with large concentrations of high-tech industry are more likely to have greater telecommunications capacity. In many cases the relationship between telecommunications infrastructure and economic development are also mutually reinforcing. This is to say economic growth can spur telecommunications investment because of the increase in demand from new business, and telecommunications investment provides a foundation for further economic growth (Hackler, 2003b).

Beyond creating the necessary conditions for a robust economic structure and stimulating the growth of productive activity telecommunications infrastructure in UEco Cities also can produce substantial public benefits (i.e. social welfare, e-democracy, and social development). The impacts of telecommunications infrastructure on household welfare take several forms: impacts on income, access to services, and the consumption value of infrastructure. Below are some of the benefits of advanced telecommunications infrastructure to broader community (Guild, 2000: 280):

As with firms, households may realise higher incomes through productivity and increased opportunities for employment of their labour through better communications; Investment in infrastructure projects also raises incomes through direct employment creation in construction and operations; Rural households benefit through better terms of trade for their output and better access to public services, and;
21

The most direct impact on social welfare is through actual use of infrastructure services, as they are an important component of household consumption.

Some advanced telecommunications can be advantageous, particularly, to remote areas, although not necessarily for use directly by business. The major applications are likely to be for delivering higher quality education and health services. Better education, training, and health services can help upgrade the human resource capacity that is often the greatest problem in remote areas (Fox & Porca, 2001). However, opportunities to use new electronic technologies to extend ones social and economic actions across space are thus being configured highly unevenly within and between the material geographies of contemporary cities. For instance, the `wiring of cities with the latest fibre optic networks is also extremely uneven. On that point Graham (1999) writes:

...It is characterised by a dynamic of dualisation. On the one hand, seamless and powerful global-local connections are being constructed within and between highly valued spaces, based on the physical construction of tailored networks to the doorsteps of institutions. On the other hand, intervening spaces even those which may geographically be cheek-by-jowel with the favoured zones within the same city seem, at the same time, to be largely ignored by investment plans for the most sophisticated telecommunications networks. Such spaces threaten to emerge as `Network ghettos, places of low telecommunications access and concentrated social disadvantage (p.929).

In terms of social implications of telecommunications network Hanafizadeh et al. (2009) highlight the digital divide as one of the key issues to be dealt with in telecommunication infrastructure provision. The digital divide is the differences between individuals, households, companies, or regions related to the access to and use of ICT (Vehovar et al., 2006). The various factors may cause the divide such as historical, socio-economic, geographic, educational, behavioural, generation factors, or the physical incapability of individuals (Curtin, 2001). Whitacre and Mills (2007) argue that as residential internet access shifts toward high-speed connections, a gap emerges in rural high-speed access relative to urban high-speed access, and the potential causes of
22

this high-speed digital divide include ruralurban differences in people, place, and infrastructure.

Recent developments in both technology and conceptualisation of the needs of the economy and people are providing new opportunities for cities and their administrations to develop new generation telecommunications networks. Particularly ubiquitous urban infrastructure developments are among the significant moves in this direction. In the light of global connectivity and increasing communication options available for accessing and exchanging information the vision for future

communications is information anytime, anyplace and in any form, based on the idea of an open electronic market of services, where an unlimited spectrum of communication and information services will be offered, ranging from simple communication services up to complex distributed multimedia applications. In this ubiquitous context the instant provision of services and the customisation and configuration of existing services become fundamental issues (Magedanz et al., 1996).

Ubiquitous urban infrastructure, particularly in the field of telecommunication, as stated by Arseni et al. (2001), is witnessing the impetuous evolution and expansion of two kinds of systems. The first is the universal wireline network that is now able to provide sophisticated multimedia services. The second comprehends the cellular or wireless network and is able to satisfy user mobility demand, providing standard telephone services and low-speed data transmission. Especially in U-Eco Cities the new generation telecommunication systems are integrating these wireline and wireless networks in a single, advanced infrastructure. On top of this network integration, the convergence of technology also revolutionises the way telecommunications

infrastructure is delivered and accessed. And beyond this it contributes to the formation of the next generation telecommunications infrastructure.

Convergence of ICT and infrastructure

Management of ubiquitous urban infrastructure partially depends on intelligent planning support, monitoring and management systems that heavily benefits from ICTs

23

and technologies convergence. U-infrastructure management in the areas of education, transport, power supply, sewerage and waste treatment, and water supply constantly rely on the ICTs convergence to enhance its quality and customer service delivery. As Britchie et al. (1987) point out:

...A shift, from land, material, and energy to knowledge, information, and intellect as key factors of production, increased the interdependence between manufacturing, commerce, and consumption and the new information channels [including] the traditional transport systems (p.449).

The convergence technologies used in urban infrastructure help local economic growth through u-business, improve local service delivery through u-government, advance connectivity to local and global networks through wireline and wireless devices, and provide access to education through u-education. These technologies also minimise unnecessary travels and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by offsetting material and energy consumption and expediting more efficient use of current form of physical infrastructure. Many local governments have been investing in the latest telecommunication convergence such as wireless internet network technologies (WiMAX) in order to improve the shift from polluting manufacturing industries to clean knowledge industries. Another example is the intelligent streetlights that are being provided with existing streetlights with RFID and wireline and wireless

communications technologies in order to minimise the energy consumption (Lee & Leem, 2009). These intelligent streetlights benefits from the convergence technology of construction and information and communications (C-ICT).

Internet and media convergence

Internet is one of the most powerful technologies to access information in the modern society. Internet provides a channel for users to undertake many tasks including doing business, studying online, communicating with others, entertaining such as watching videos, TV shows, listening to music, downloading and uploading pictures, music and videos (Cunningham & Turner, 2005). For instance people can easily access the latest

24

audiovisual data downloaded from youtube.com in anytime if they can access the internet. Technology convergence makes them to access the information regardless time and space using a converged digital device so called back box. Jenkins (2006) describes the technology convergence as a black box which multiple products are integrated with one product taking each of their technical advantages. Convergence leads a technological shift or a new technological process, but it also integrates educational, cultural, and social paradigms. The convergence also shows the way in which individuals interact with each other and use various media platforms in order to create new experiences, new forms of media and content (Cunningham & Turner, 2005).

To date technology convergence of the internet media and contents significantly improve our learning activities. For example, a number of primary schools in Australia use Nintendo DS with a touch-panel interface for mathematics education. Students of these schools showed higher performance than those who do not use such innovative education tools. Similarly the Wii was sold over 50 million units in the world by March 2009. In Australia, the Wii exceeded the record set by the Xbox 360 to become the fastest selling games, exercise and education console in Australian history (Moses, 2006). This innovative device is based on the technology convergence which integrates a games console, moving sensor and internet browser. The integrated activities can be visible in U-Eco city using these converged technologies. For instance the programmable street is provided with multiple functions such as lighting, security monitoring, commercial advertisement, solar energy and audio-visual objects.

During the last decade, convergence of ICTs also created a new form of urban spaces. Public telephone booth and public transport ticketing office are disappeared and replaced by a mobile phone with converged technologies. The new generation mobile phones are now equipped with more advanced features such as touch screen, video recording, global positioning system (GPS) navigation, internet and emailing, data storage and security mechanisms. Today it is possible for a mobile phone to access to information on urban utilities and real-time monitoring of the environment (Yigitcanlar, 2009b). These ubiquitous devices can be used in real-time planning and management

25

and can contribute to conservation of urban natural resources, urban growth management and sustainable urban development (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008c).

Marketing convergence
Technology convergence in the area of marketing and business is also apparent. The notion of multi-play is often used in a convergence of ICT services and products and often adopted to U-Eco city planning. The multi-play is needed when an individual accesses different telecommunication services, such as broadband internet access, cable television, telephone, and mobile phone service rather than traditionally only using one or two of these services (Cunningham & Turner, 2005). The multi-play technology convergence consists of dual, triple or quadruple play options depending on the specific application area:

A dual play service needs to provide two ICT services such as high-speed Internet (ADSL) and telephone service over a single broadband connection. Highspeed Internet (cable modem) and TV service provided by a single broadband connection is an example for this type (ANSI, 1998); The convergence can be accompanied by the underlying telecommunications infrastructure. An example of this is a triple play service, where communication services are bundled, which allows consumers to access TV, internet and telephone through a single subscription (Flew, 2008), and; A quadruple play service is similar to the triple play service of broadband internet access, television and telephone, but is based on wireless technologies. This service is sometimes referred to as the Fantastic Four or Grand Slam (Baumgarter, 2005).

The next level of service used in U-Eco cities is the integration of radio-frequency identification (RFID) into the quadruple play, which adds the capability for home equipment to communicate with the outside world and schedule maintenance of its own (Fisher & Monahan, 2008). RFID tags are applied to an object incorporated into a product, an animal or a person for the purpose of identifying, reading and tracking

26

information by using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and some can far beyond the line of sight of the reader. This technology convergence in marketing helps connect people to other consumers so that they may share their reviews and, at the same time, engaged with the service providers in ways in which they have not been as readily accessible by others in the past.

Telecommunications convergence
Telecommunication convergence is closely related to urban infrastructure such as telecommunications infrastructure and transport system. Convergence is a key concept to coordinate a range of urban network services such as physical networks or components thereof that channel fluxes through conduits or media to their nodes such as receivers (Neuman, 2006). Technology convergence required of supporting super ordinate systems connected to the networks. These networks include transportation, pipes, wires and cables in the channels through which their products are sold and serviced. A highly mobile nature of portable technology provides immobile physical networks with convergence incorporating telecommunication devices such as portable video and media devices, GPS navigation devices, portable internet surfing and mobile telecommunications devices into a single device, the black box designed to remove the need to carry multiple devices while away from office or home.

Telecommunication infrastructure network which is interconnected by web of sensors, actuators, wireline and wireless communications networks, and computer systems could benefit from a convergence in a form of combination of different telecommunication media in a single operating platform (OBrien & Soibelman, 2004). Convergence in fact allows companies no longer confined to their own markets. Fixed, mobile, and internet protocol (IP) service providers can offer content and media services, and hardware and software providers can offer services directly to the end user (Telecom Media Convergence, 2007). These days most of the content or service providers are consistently looking for new digital infrastructure and more effective distribution channels. For instance, the new G3 mobile phone technology uses technology convergence that provides the combination of telecom, data processing and

27

imaging technologies. Previously separate technologies such as voice including telephone features, data including productivity applications, and video including teleconferencing now share resources and interact with each other (Jenkins, 2006). In U-Eco city environment the present voice over IP (VoIP) and bluetooth technologies are merged into a wireless internet network so called WiMAX for seamless mobility between VoWiFi and cellular networks (Telephony Online, 2009). These mobile service provisions give rise to the ability to access to most of the telecommunications channels including voice, internet, video and content without requiring tethering to the network via cables (Williams, 2008). Given the recent advancements in WiMAX and other leading edge technologies, it is fair to say the ability to transfer information over a wireless link at combinations of speed, distance and non line of sight conditions is rapidly improving. Therefore, the whole range of technology conversion becomes increasingly invisible, intangible and pervasive and likely to improve the quality of lives of the users (Firmino et al., 2008).

Implications of convergence technologies

The technology convergence is classified into the following fundamental groups by their common features in implementing and processing specific information: (a) sensing, e.g. data input; (b) network, e.g. data transfer; (c) interface, e.g. data representation; (d) processing, e.g. data processing, and; (e) security, e.g. data safety measures. A recent research by Lee and Leem (2009) take these five broad technology categories and divides them into ten types of specific bundle technologies based on their key implications, and then subdivides them into 25 segment digital devices (Table 1).

Table 1. Structure of technological convergence classification (Lee & Leem, 2009: 13)
Broad Classification Specific Classification Sensing Remote and Surroundings Sensing Context Awareness Broad Area Information Faceted Classification Sensing Generals Image Based Tag Wireless Tag Digital Camera Sensor

28

Collection (Topography) Location Information Collection

Radar and Laser Sensor Time of Flight Map Matching Landmark Navigation Internet Address Standards Wired Communication Broadband Wireless Communication

Network

Broadband Convergence Network

Mobile Telecommunication Wireless PAN (Personal Area Network) Wired PAN (Personal Area Network) Mobile TV

Interface

Codec Technology Display Processing Software

Video Codec Audio Codec Visual Display Embedded Software USN Middleware Control Middleware Cryptograph and Certification Technology

Processing

Ubiquitous Middleware

Security

Information and Infrastructure Security

Information Management Technology Hacking and Virus Prevention Technology Security Management Technology

The implementation of convergence technologies on urban infrastructure is already understood clearly and somehow the development is underway in most parts of the developed world. Rapid new economic growth associated with new technology and new infrastructure is clearly now taking its roots in the global knowledge economy (Wieman, 1998). Managing and monitoring the urban infrastructure could be relatively easy by deploying appropriate wireless infrastructure, making it accessible and inexpensive to users, and refining software, portals and so on (Aurigi, 2006). Convergence technology solutions including performance monitoring, distance working and seamless production can be incorporated into broad planning initiatives focusing on improving the efficiency of existing urban infrastructure planning, provision and management.

According to Jenkins (2006) due to the speedy progress of technology conversion it has been long thought that, eventually, users will access all services and information from
29

urban infrastructure networks and services through one single mobile device, such as a black box tool. The question arises from Jenkins (2006) claim is that how urban technology practice can identify the next black box tool to invest in and provide necessary urban infrastructure systems and procedures for it. When multiple systems or networks merged together, their intersection points can become quite problematic. The multi-level technology convergence is indicative of the many technical, institutional, and other services. This complexity is compounded by different disciplines that identify themselves as the responsible players in any given category of infrastructure (Neuman, 2006). The major problems of the implications of black box are grouped under three broad categories.

First of all, black boxes are often in and out of popularity, and the consumers are left with numerous technologies that can perform the same task, rather than a dedicated device for each task. For example, a consumer may own both a smart card and a credit card with a microchip to use public transport, subsequently owning two e-cards. This is for sure does not comply with the streamlined goal or spirit of the 'black box theory, and instead it creates a clutter for the users (Rheingold, 2000).

Secondly, technological convergence tends to be experimental in nature. This leads consumers purchasing technologies with additional functions that are sometimes harder, in some cases even impractical, to use them compare to a device specifically designed for each function (Jenkins, 2006). For instance, Nokia, like iPhone and many other mobile phone brands, has a mobile phone in the market with an in-built GPS navigation. However many users find more practical to use an automobile built-in GPS rather than a mobile phone on a GPS. In some cases technology convergence might be unnecessary or unneeded; however, still an advanced and specialised device for each task might not be affordable for all users. Furthermore, although users primarily make use of a specialised media device for their needs, other black box devices that perform the same task can be used as well under different circumstances, locations or situated contexts. For example, as the Cheskin Research (2002) report underlines:

...Your email needs and expectations are different whether you are at home, work, school, commuting, the airport, etc., and different devices are
30

[available] to suit your needs for accessing content depending on where you are your situated context (p.8).

Lastly, technology convergence provides a single platform or system to access and use urban infrastructure. However, the physical infrastructure is instead diverging whilst the platforms on the infrastructure are converging. Urban services can offer the same content in a number of forms. An example of this is the underground subways. A subway is a public transport zone, but it is also a space for socialising, shopping, advertising and delivering fluxes such as goods, services, information, energy and people. Branding is important and encourages expansion of one concept, rather than the creation of new ideas (Jekins, 2006). This is totally opposite for physical infrastructure, which is diversified in order to accommodate the convergence of ICTs. The physical built environment needs to be specific to each type of function, otherwise branding would not work effectively. In a black box situation, a user should only need to purchase one form of media and should be able to do everything with it.

Intelligent urban management systems

The traditional idea of urban management consists of the good management and planning of a city, entrusted to the institutional actors (UNDP, 1997). Increasing awareness of the complexity of the modern urban setting has led to the questioning of management approaches founded on institutional, administrative and geographical compartmentalisation. (Stubbs et al., 2000). The concept of urban management is extensive. Following Borja and Castells (1997), there are five main challenges to managing an urban community: (i) to provide an economic base, (ii) to build urban infrastructure, (iii) to improve the quality of life, (iv) to ensure social integration, and (v) to guarantee governance. The quality of the management depends not only on how well each of these challenges is met, but also on their integration to create coherence in urban development.

The changing context, in which our societies are evolving, places new pressures on all the professionals engaged in managing urban and regional development and the built

31

and natural environments. Today, and into the future, planners and managers of urban and regional development face, on the behalf of our governments and communities, the complex demands of (Neilson, 2002: 97):

The scale of demographic changes underway in our societies and the way these may impact upon our cities and regions; An increasing recognition that in modern globalised economies our cities are the engines of economic growth; The need to manage urban growth and change to increase our cities and regions capacity to compete in globalised markets , and; The need to create learning cities capable of operating in the rapidly expanding world of knowledge economy and utilizing information and knowledge to advance economic, environmental and social progress.

Giddens (1984) describes urban environments act as crucibles where a multitude of interactions not only take place, but also make place for large numbers of individuals. To underline the importance of foresighted in place making and urban management Handy (1994: 18) states that [l]ife will never be easy, nor perfectible, nor completely predictable. It will be best understood backwards but we have to live it forwards. In their research Stubbs et al. (2000) finds that a new conceptualisation of management for responding to complex urban issues that confound bounded problem-solving is necessary.

Around the globe increasing awareness of the complexity of the modern urban setting and abovementioned demands have led to the questioning of management approaches founded on traditional institutional, administrative and geographical

compartmentalisation (Stubbs et al., 2000). Urban environments act as crucibles, where a multitude of interactions not only take place, but also make place for large numbers of individuals (Giddens, 1984) and therefore managing such places plays a critical role in establishing sustainable cities. It has been proved that traditional urban management practices lack of comprehensively tackling urban, economic, social and environmental problems (Jones et al., 2002).

32

Starting from late 1970s it is clearly accepted that automated information systems or intelligent management systems in local governments contribute significantly to the decision process of top policy making and management team by providing them with accurate information and decision directions (Dutton & Kraemer, 1977). In recent years, the growing need for an effective urban management approach led into the development of the notion of intelligent urban management. This new urban management approach rises from improving communication within and between agencies and the public about the highly connected and emergent nature of problems which management responsibility has been assumed (Stubbs et al., 2000). One of the characteristics of the intelligent urban management is that it improves the communication within and between agencies about the highly connected and emergent nature of problems by benefiting from digital technologies. The most recent view of intelligent urban management is shaped by the principles of real-time, effective, efficient reliable and responding to the emerging issues of sustainable development in the urban environment. There are not much comprehensive intelligent urban management systems available at the moment. The big challenge is to make such system work in ambitious U-Eco Cities.

Regardless of whether intelligent or not a sound urban planning and management system should provide: safe, healthy and cohesive communities; sustainable natural resource management; a supportive environment within which business can develop and which assists in opportunities for economic growth; and appropriate urban structure and form so as to provide equitable access to service and amenities. Jones et al. (2002) summarise the important aspects of shaping the new or intelligent planning and urban management systems. These key aspects include (p.190-191):

Changing attitude and understanding in urban development and economic growth; Coordinating and planning the development through a professional and resourced single body; Increasing participation in the planning process; Providing equal access to services such as education and health; Supporting systems for service planning and delivery;
33

Strengthening and providing coordinated urban management services between key infrastructure providers; Meeting the demands of varying interest groups; Operating a regulatory framework for the control, monitoring and assessment of the development; Considering all the costs of urban growth such as financial, social and environmental, and; Bringing transparency and accountability to the management system.

Additionally, much like in the case of U-Eco Cities an intelligent urban management system as support systems highly benefits from the state of the art technologies in planning, decision making and management. These advanced technologies include Utechnologies, ICTs, decision support systems, digital information systems, strategic choice tools, and E-service technologies (i.e. for E-commerce, E-government and Eeducation). In recent years such technologies made online and web-based platforms and decision support systems accessible for technicians, policy makers and the public for urban planning, development and management purposes.

Decision making is complex by nature, particularly at a large city context. For example Figure 4 illustrates the range of factors need to be taken into consideration in decision making, which include different agencies to develop awareness on the aspects of the complex phenomenon of air quality.

34

Figure 4. A multi-institutional picture of air quality (Stubbs et al., 2000: 1809)

35

The literature points out that the complexity of an urban management system could be simplified by using a set of indicators for urban management constitutes an instrument for observation and for decision (Joerin et al., 2001). This simplification gives urban stakeholders a model of city development at a given time and for a definite territorial space (Allen, 2001). The indicators are used as a common base of comparison between the territorial entities. A set of indicators has three strategic purposes in urban management (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006):

Monitoring: a continuous audit of the land in time, comparing its condition at various moments. The indicators give a series of updated images of reality (von Stokar et al., 2001); Controlling: an evaluation of the distance that separates the condition at a defined moment from defined objectives or target values. The indicators measure the distance to the defined objectives (Spangenberg et al., 2002) , and; Benchmarking: a comparison between territorial entities to find the best practices (von Stokar et al., 2001).

Figure 5 below depicts a conceptual intelligent urban model developed for the City of Saint-Jean by benefiting from indicator sets (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006).

36

Figure 5. An example urban management model (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006: 211)

So far there are a number of intelligent urban management systems are developed in dealing with various urban issues. One of the most common application areas of these management systems is the urban environmental management. Intelligent

environmental management systems are broadly defined as computer-based technologies that support environmental management systems. The main benefit of
37

intelligent environmental management system adoption is that it provides a systematic process to address comprehensively all major environmental issues. Tasks that intelligent environmental management systems support include tracking activities, tracking waste, monitoring emissions, scheduling tasks, coordinating permits and documentation, managing material safety data sheets, conducting cost/benefit analysis, and choosing alternative materials, to name a few. An intelligent environmental management system integrates monitoring and simulation for environmental decision support in urban areas. The establishment of clear procedures and responsibilities, environmental management programmes, audits and other tools lead to the effective monitoring of environmental issues and solution of problems in a timely manner. An intelligent environmental management system is a set of interacting processes or elements. Each process or element of the environmental management system takes one or more inputs and creates one or more outputs to be passed onto one or more other processes or elements (DEWHA, 2009). This is depicted in Figure 6, which can be viewed as a broad intelligent environmental management system framework.

Figure 6. Intelligent environmental management system framework (DEWHA, 2009: 31)

38

Another common application area of intelligent management systems is the urban transport management, which is necessary for solving problems caused by traffic congestion through a synergy of new information technology for simulation, real-time control, and communications networks. More specifically, this term refers to the application of advanced information processing, communications, sensing and computer control technologies to the driver-vehicle-road infrastructure system with the aim of improving travel efficiency and mobility, enhancing safety, conserving energy, providing economic benefits and protecting the environment (Regan et al., 2001). Urban transportation planning and management is facing challenges and opportunities in the rapid developments of intelligent transportation systems. Such systems are characterised by real time information feedback in their operations and management, and by increasing levels of automation of their various components. The challenges to planning and management stem from the increased range and added complexity of the choices available to transportation planners (Kanafani et al., 1993).

The main aim of an intelligent urban transport management system is to strengthen public transport systems to reduce the negative impacts of air pollutants through advanced traffic management, to directly involve citizens in planning their own trips based on environmental friendly routes and finally, to train young citizens and increase the environmental awareness of citizens in general to develop a new urban mobility culture. It also aims is to coordinate transport infrastructure and demand management through the highest possible use and integration of information and its real time processing, based on the principle of environmental protection in the degraded areas. The operation of numerous key components of intelligent urban transport management systems, such as real-time traffic surveillance and management, incident management, traveller information, natural and human hazard evacuation, heavily relies on the support of an effective and efficient communication system (Boxill & Yu, 2000). Table 2 below lists some of the key intelligent transportation technologies and intelligent transportation applications.

39

Table 2. Intelligent transportation technologies and applications

Intelligent Transportation Technologies Wireless communications Computational technologies Floating car data or floating cellular data Sensing technologies Inductive loop detection Video vehicle detection Intelligent Transportation Applications Electronic toll collection Emergency vehicle notification systems Cordon zones with congestion pricing Automatic road enforcement Collision avoidance systems Dynamic traffic light sequence

Urban management directions for U-Eco Cities

In response to the evolution of the urban context, during the last decade we have witnessed radical changes in management and communication (Geertman & Stillwell, 2003). The new urban management techniques are highly dynamic and derived from economic management principles and information technologies. In the light of current changes the key challenges for the management of U-Eco Cities can be grouped under several groups.

Firstly, as urban management is becoming more flexible, based on the integration of a strategic global scheme and local management dynamics, the management of highly complex U-Eco Cities are expected to respond both local and global concerns (Carmona & Burgess, 2001; Ingallina, 2001). Urban management generally addresses a number of urban projects (Borja & Castells, 1997) or spatial or territorial planning (von Stokar et al., 2001), which are flexible tools for management and communication established at the conurbation level. The rising sustainability concerns and more and more transparency for public participation are making the management process of U-Eco Cities even more complicated than they already are (Borja & Castells, 1997; le Gal`es, 1998; Shafer et al., 2000).

Secondly, urban management deals more with powerful databases and information systems. To face the considerable volume of data, tools are needed to establish overviews of the goals and provide an appropriate level of synthesis. In an U-Eco City actors (decision makers, technicians, administrators, users, and so on) must be able to

40

access all the relevant data without getting lost in the details, nor swamped with information that does not provide a clear picture and is not directly useful for decision making (Allen, 2001; Joerin et al., 2001).

Lastly, the evolution of management approaches requires new instruments and tools for strategic development, for information update and transmission, and for monitoring the development, and managing the whole planning and delivery process. At this point new generation intelligent urban management systems are needed to be developed particularly to be able to cope with the complexities of U-Eco Cities.

Conclusions
In the 21st Century global and local forces, such as climate change, resource consumption and depletion, energy security, oil vulnerability, globalisation, knowledge economy, global financial crisis, and technological developments, are rapidly re-shaping our cities. In this reshaping process developing pathways towards sustainable urban development has been one of the most crucial topics in recent years (see Newton, 2008). In this regard U-Eco City, infrastructure, service and technology developments offer new opportunities. Such developments revolutionise the urban planning, development and management by providing a new direction for intelligent urban management. For example intelligent management of urban infrastructure and services provide just-in-time delivery of goods and services and contribute significantly to the sustainable development of our cities by mainly minimising unnecessary resource use. Similarly U-infrastructure and services supported by convergence telecommunications technology and infrastructure by improving community and environmental health contribute to the formation of healthy cities.

On the one hand, along with these opportunities, and many more, intelligent management systems for U-Eco Cities also present a number of challenges. These challenges include: strategically planning every stage of the U-Eco City development process; significant financial commitment to invest on developing, equipping and retrofitting new U-technologies to urban environments; developing a system that is

41

resilient to adopt new technological changes quickly; and securing and safe guarding the whole system from external and internal security treats. Beyond technology revolutionising urban management for U-Eco Cities also requires several key instruments. These instruments include: a strong administration and will to plan and develop sound policies; legislations and regulations to legitimise and empower the process; a fiscal system based on user pays principle rather than tax payers funding of all services; strong financial and institutional structure to realise and coordinate Uinfrastructure and services; capability to manage both assets and knowledge that is key for the knowledge-based and sustainable development of cities (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008b; 2008c); and embracing an advocating, transparent and participatory approach for development. For a successful urban management strategic visioning and planning, as Neilson (2002) highlights, linking strategy and practice play a key role.

On the other hand, decisions regarding to telecommunications infrastructure investments in U-Eco City policy making could have a noteworthy impact on sustainable urban development by minimising environmental impacts and improving the quality of lives of residents. Around the world, local governments have been developing planning strategies focusing on long term telecommunications infrastructure development. However, the rapid changes in the technology and telecommunications infrastructure, including technology convergence, do not make their work any easier in having a concrete long term development plan that contributes to the formation of sustainable urban futures.

Technology convergence develops new standards for performance and accessibility for urban infrastructure, and helps lifecycle planning and management. Besides, this convergence process also has its downside. Particularly in their initial forms, converged devices are frequently less functional and reliable (e.g. a mobile phone camera may not perform better than a digital camera). As the array of functions in a single device escalates the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases (Jenkins, 2006). For example, an iPhone (which, by name implies that its' primary function is that of a mobile phone) can perform many different tasks, but does not feature a traditional numerical pad to make phone calls. Instead, the phone features a touchpad, which some users find it troublesome compared to a conventional phone keyboard. In fact
42

technological convergence in some ways holds immense potential for the improvement of the quality of life and liberty, but also degrades it in others (Rheingold, 2000). Regardless, thanks to convergence and nano-technologies, in recent years an ever-wider range of technologies are being converted into single multipurpose devices.

The recent telecommunications infrastructure planning strategies in U-Eco City initiatives are aiming to reduce labour, administrative and material costs to manage the urban infrastructure and utilities across cities and towns. Many countries around the world, particularly in Korea and Japan, technology convergence is now focusing more on enhancing efficiency of urban services by providing a higher quality of life such as one-stop services for a number of urban networks and platforms. The

telecommunications infrastructure policies are also targeting to increase the public recognition and business opportunities through the evolution of convergence over time.

Technological convergence helps people access more features in a short amount of time through a single device. This means more cutting edge R&D investment for service providers to remain competitive in the market. With the advancements in technology comes the ability for technological convergence, which Rheingold (2000) believes that it alters the social-side effects in virtual, social and physical worlds as they are being collided, merged and integrated. Therefore, further studies are needed to scrutinise the impacts of technology convergence upon the production of sustainable urban space and policies within the structure of a socio-spatially sustainability approach. Additionally, the following questions are worthwhile to further investigate on: How wireline, wireless and seamless technologies can be integrated into a sustainable urban environment model? How ICTs can be converged effectively in order to monitor and manage energy consumption? And, how can we measure ICTs efficiency in the construction and daily operation of urban infrastructure?

Lastly, the key importance of telecommunications infrastructure and convergence technologies in economic and social development of cities, particularly U-Eco Cities, should not be ignored, as Beaverstock et al. (2000: 126) writes cities accumulate and retain wealth, control, and power because of what flows through them, rather than what they statically contain.
43

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to the Ubiquitous City Research Cluster (UCRC) of Hanbat National University, Daejeon, Korea for supporting this research.

References
Allen, E., (2001). INDEX: software for community indicators. In: Brail, R.K., Klosterman, R.E. (Eds.), Planning Support Systems. ESRI Press, Redlands, pp. 22961. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) (1998). Network and Customer Installation Interfaces Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) Metallic Interface. Arseni, P., Boggia, G. and Camarda, P. (2001). Modeling telecommunication infrastructures integrating wideband wireless and wired networks. Simulation 78(3): 173-184. Aurigi, A. (2006). New Technologies, yet same dilemmas? Policy and design issues for the augmented city, Journal of Urban Technology, 13(3), pp.5-28. Baum, S. Haynes, M. Gellecum, Y. and Han, J. H. (2006). Advantage and disadvantage across Australias extended metropolitan regions: A typology of socio-economic outcomes, Urban Studies, 43(9): 15491579. Baumgartner, J. (2005). Cable consortium mobilizes quad-play with Sprint, CedMagazine.com, November 02. Beaverstock, J., Smith, R. and Taylor, P. (2000). World-city network: a new metageography? Annals of the Association of American Geographers 90(1): 123134. Borja, J., and Castells, M., (1997). Local and global: management of cities in the information age. Earthscan, London. Boxill, S. A. and Yu, L. (2000). An Evaluation of Traffic Simulator Models for Supporting ITS Development Centre for Transportation Training and Research, Texas Southern University , Houston, TX.

44

Britchie, J. Hall, P. and Newton, J. (1987). The Transition to an Information Society. In Brotchie et al (Ed.), The Spatial Impact of Technological Change. London: Croom Helm. Cheskin Research (2002). Designing Digital Experiences for Youth, Market Insights Series, Fall. Chhetri, P. Han, J. and Corcoran, J. (2009). Modelling Spatial Fragmentation of the Brisbane Housing Market. Urban Policy and Research, 27(1): 73-89. Carmona, M., and Burgess, R., (2001). Strategic Planning and Urban Projects. Delft University Press, Delft. Cunningham, C. and Turner, G. (2005). The Media and Communications in Australia (second edition. In T. Flew (Eds.), New Media: an Introduction, Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Curtin, J. (2001). A digital divide in rural and regional Australia?. Current issues brief 1, Information and Research Services, Department of the Parliament Library, Australia. Davey, K. (1993). Elements of urban management, New York: World Bank. DEWHA (2009). Environmental Management System Tool. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA), Sydney, Australia. Dourish, P. (2004). What we talk about when we talk about context. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 8(1): 19-30. Dutton, W. and Kraemer, K. (1977). Technology and urban management: the power payoffs of computing. Administration & Society, 9(3), pp. 305-340. Dwyre, D. (1998). Newsatellite services to bridge the gap. Telecommunications 32(12):47-49. Firmino, R. Duarte, F. and Moreira, T. (2008). Pervasive Technologies and Urban Planning in the Augmented City. Journal of Urban Technology, 15(1): 77-93. Fisher, J. and Monahan, T. (2008). Tracking the social dimensions of RFID systems in hospitals. International Journal of Medical Informatics 77(1): 176-183. Flew, T. (2008). New Media: An Introduction: 3rd Edition. Melbourne. Oxford University Press. Fox, W. and Porca, S. (2001). Investing in Rural Infrastructure. International Regional Science Review 24(1): 103-133.

45

Galloway, A. (2003). Resonances and everyday life: ubiquitous computing and the city. Accessed on 6 Oct 2003 from www.purselipsquarejaw.org/mobile/cult_studies_draft.pdf. Graham, S. (1999). Global grids of glass: on global cities, telecommunications and planetary urban networks. Urban Studies 36(5-6): 929-949. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. Cambridge: Polity Press. Geertman, S., and Stillwell, J., (2003). Planning support systems: an introduction. In: Geertman, S., Stillwell, J. (Eds.), Planning Support Systems in Practice. Springer, Berlin, pp. 322. Gottman, J. (1983). The coming of the transactional city. Institute of Urban Studies, University of Maryland, College Park. Guild, R. (2000). Infrastructure Investment and Interregional Development: Theory, Evidence, and Implications for planning. Public Works Management Policy 4(4): 274-285. Hackler, D. (2003a). High-tech growth and telecommunications infrastructure in cities. Urban Affairs Review 39(1): 59-86. Hackler, D. (2003b). Invisible infrastructure and the city: the role of telecommunications in economic development. American Behavioral Scientist 46(8): 1034-1055. Han, J. (2008). U-Eco City Philosophy, Vision and Demand, invited research paper. International Symposium on Land, Transport and Marine Technology: New Growth Engine for the Future, Seoul, South Korea, November 5-6th 2008. Hanafizadeh, M., Saghaei, A., and Hanafizadeh, P. (2009). An index for cross-country analysis of ICT infrastructure and access. Telecommunications Policy 33(1): 385405. Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future. London: Hutchinson.Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide New York: New York University Press. Ingallina, P., (2001). Le Projet Urbain. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. Joerin, F.,Rey, M.C., Nembrini, A., and Desthieux, G., (2001). Information et participation pour lamenagement du territoire. Revue Internationale de Geomatique 11(3/4): 309332.
46

Jones, P., Tauleelo, T., and Kohlhase, J. (2002). Growing pacific town and cities: Samoas new planning and urban management system. Australian Planner, 39(4), pp. 186193. Kanafani, A., Khattak, A., Crotty, M. and Dahlgren, J. (1993). A planning methodology for intelligent urban transportation systems. California Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH). Research Reports: Paper UCB-ITS-PRR-93-14. Kim, T. (2008). Planning for knowledge cities in ubiquitous technology spaces, In Creative Urban Regions: Harnessing Urban Technologies to Support Knowledge City Initiatives, edited by T. Yigitcanlar, K. Velibeyoglu and S. Baum. London: Information Science Reference, pp. 218-230. Kline, E. (2000). Planning and creating eco-cities: indicators as a tool for shaping development and measuring progress. Local Environment, 5(3): 343-350. Kirkwood, N., (2008). Research on U-Eco City. Final consultancy report. Centre for Technology and Environment, Harvard University, Boston, MA. le Gal`es, P., (1998). Regulation, territory and governance. Int. J. Urban Regional Res. 22(3): 482506. Lawless, P. and Gore, T. (1999). Urban regeneration and transport investment: a case study of Sheffield 1992-96, Urban Studies 36(1): 527-545. Lee, S. Yigitcanlar, T. Han, J. and Leem, Y. (2008). Ubiquitous urban Infrastructure: Infrastructure Planning and Development in Korea. Innovation: Management, Policy & Practice 10(3): 282-292. Lee, S. and Leem, Y. (2009). Philosophical and Conceptual Characteristics of Ubiquitous City Strategies and Projects. CUPUM'09, Hong Kong, 16-19 June 2009. Magedanz, T., Rothermel, K. and Krause, S. (1996). Intelligent agents: an emerging technology for next generation telecommunications. INFOCOM 96, March 24-28, San Francisco. Malecki, E. and Bous, C. (2003). Telecommunications Infrastructure in the South-eastern United States: Urban and Rural Variation. Growth and Change, 34(1): 109-129. Moses, A. (2006). Wii breaks Xbox 360 sales record (14/12/2006). The Sydney Morning Herald. Neilson, L. (2002). Instruments of governance in urban management. Australian Planner, 39(2), pp. 97102.

47

Neuman, M. (2006). Infiltrating infrastructures: On the nature of networked infrastructure. Journal of Urban Technology, 13(1): 3-31. Newton, P. (2008).Transitions: pathways towards sustainable urban development in Australia. Melbourne: Springer. Nolmark, H. (2007). Re-thinking Sustainable Urban Development in an Era of Globalisation, Resource Constraints and Climate Change. Centre for Sustainable Urban and Regional Futures, University of Salford, November 2007. OBrien, W. and Soibelman, L. (2004). Technology and Engineering Dimensions: Collecting and interpreting new information for civil and environmental infrastructure management. In R. Zimmerman and T. Horan (Eds.), Digital Infrastructures: Enabling Civil and Environmental Systems through Information Technology. London: Routledge. O'Connell, P. (2005). Korea's high-tech utopia, where everything is observed. New York Times, 5 October 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/05/technology/techspecial/05oconnell.htm l?ex=1286164800&en=4a368c49e8f30bd2&ei=5088. Regan, M., Oxley, J., Godley, S. and Tingvall, C. (2001). Intelligent Transport Systems: Safety and Human Factors Issues. Victoria, Australia: Royal Automobile Club of Victoria. Repetti, A. and Desthieux, G. (2006). A Relational Indicatorset Model for urban land-use planning and management: Methodological approach and application in two case studies, Landscape and Urban Planning 77(1): 196215. Rheingold, H. (2000). Smart Mobs: the next social revolution, Perseus, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp 157-82. Rutherford, J. (2005). Networks in cities, cities in networks: territory and globalisation intertwined in telecommunications infrastructure development in Europe. Urban Studies, 42(13): 23892406. Shafer, C.S., Lee, B.K., and Turner, S., (2000). A tale of three greenway trails: user perceptions related to quality of life. Landscape Urban Plan. 49(1): 163178. Spangenberg, J.H., Pfah, S., and Deller, K., (2002). Toward indicators for institutional sustainability: lessons from an analysis of Agenda 21. Ecol. Indicators 2, 6177.

48

Stubbs, M., Lemon, M. and Longhurst, P. (2000). Intelligent urban management: learning to manage and managing to learn together for a change. Urban Studies 37(10), 1801-1811. Taylor, P. (2003). World city network: a global urban analysis. London: Routledge. Telecom Media Convergence (2007). Telecom Media Convergence. Retrieved on 15 June 2009 from http://www.tmforum.org/TelecomMediaConvergence/4645/home.html. Telephony Online (2009). Simplifying fixed/mobile convergence (FMC) for businesses. Retrieved on 15 June 2009 from http://telephonyonline.com/global/commentary/simplifying-fixed-mobileconvergence-0330/?cid=hcom. Teriman, S., Yigitcanlar, T. and Mayere, S., (2009). Urban sustainability and growth management in South-East Asian city-regions: the case of Kuala Lumpur and Hong Kong. Planning Malaysia, 7(1): 47-68. UNDP, (1997). Participatory local governance. United Nations Development Programme Publications, New York. Vehovar, V., Sicherl, P., Husing, T., and Dolnicar, V. (2006). Methodological challenges of digital divide measurements. The Information Society 22(5): 279290. von Stokar, T., Frick, R., Schultz, B., Keiner, M., Rey, M., and Mettan, N., (2001). Planification Directrice Cantonale et Developpement Durable. Publications de lOffice du Developpement Territorial, Berne. Walcott, S. M. and Wheeler, J. O. (2001). Atlanta in the telecommunications age: the fiber-optic information network. Urban Geography 22(4): 316-339. Wang, L., Wu, H. and Song, H. (2002). A framework of integrating digital city and ecocity. School of Business, Hubei University, Wuhan, China. Wang, H. (2001). Digital City and Urban Sustainable Development, China Population Resources and Environment, 11(2), 114-118. Warf, B. (1998). Reach out and touch someone: AT&Ts global operations in the 1990s, Professional Geographer 50(1): 255-267. Weiser, M. (1991).The computer for the twenty-first century, Scientific American, 265(3): 94-10.

49

Whitacre, B. and Mills, B. (2007). Infrastructure and the ruralurban divide in highspeed residential internet access. International Regional Science Review 30(3): 249-273. Williams, I. (2008). Huawei pushes fixed-mobile convergence. Retrieved on 15 June 2009 from http://identitymanagement.itweek.co.uk/vnunet/news/2230131/huaweipushes-fixed-mobile. Wieman, C. (1998). The high-tech transition: technology and the prospects for improving infrastructure performance, Journal of Urban Technology, 5(2): 21-46. Yeung, Y. (2000). Globalization and networked societies: urban-regional change in Pacific Asia. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. Yilmaz, S. and Dinc, M. (2002). Telecommunications and regional development: evidence from the U.S. States. Economic Development Quarterly 16(3): 211-218. Yigitcanlar, T., Velibeyoglu, K. and Baum, S., (Eds.) (2008a). Knowledge-based urban development: planning and applications in the information era. Hersey, PA: Information Science Reference. Yigitcanlar, T., Velibeyoglu, K. and Baum, S., (Eds.) (2008b). Creative urban regions: harnessing urban technologies to support knowledge city initiatives. Hersey, PA: Information Science Reference. Yigitcanlar, T., Han, J. H. and Lee, S. H. (2008c) Online Environmental Information Systems, In A. Frederic (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of Decision Making and Decision Support Techniques, Hersey, PA: IGI Publishing. Yigitcanlar, T. and Velibeyoglu, K. (2008). Knowledge-based urban development: local economic development path of Brisbane, Australia. Local Economy, 23(3): 197 209. Yigitcanlar, T., (2009a). Ubiquitous eco cities: a new sustainable city form? Paper presented at the Urban Design Seminar, 11 February 2009, Gold Coast City Council, Australia. Yigitcanlar, T., (2009b). Planning for smart urban ecosystems: information technology applications for capacity building in environmental decision making. Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban Management, 3(12): 5-21.

50