PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL

2011 Fourth Edition @All Rights Reserved American Association of Airport Executives
By Jeffrey C. Price Leading Edge Strategies and the Metropolitan State College of Denver, and Dr. Jeffrey S. Forrest, Metropolitan State College of Denver Stephen Quilty, A.A.E., wrote the original version of the modules with periodic updates by the AAAE Board of Examiners, AAAE staff, and industry experts. Revised Fall 2011.

Planning,Constructionand Environmental
Table of Contents ModuleObjectives................................................................................................................1 AirportSystemPlanning....................................................................................................3 NationalPlanofIntegratedAirportSystems(NPIAS).....................................................4 TheAirportsCapitalImprovementPlan(ACIP).....................................................11 StateandMetropolitanAirportSystemPlanning..................................................13 AirportMasterPlans........................................................................................................15 PurposeoftheMasterPlanandAirportLayoutPlan....................................................15 Phase1:PrePlanning..................................................................................................................18 Phase2:ElementsoftheMasterPlanStudies..................................................................22 Airside...................................................................................................................................41 SafetyAreas.....................................................................................................................................42 Markings,SignsandLighting...................................................................................................43 NAVAIDSandAirTrafficControl............................................................................................55 Airspace.............................................................................................................................................75 TerminalandLandsidePlanning................................................................................81 TerminalLayouts..........................................................................................................................81 TerminalDesignConsiderations............................................................................................85 CommonuseFacilities(CUF)/CommonuseTerminalEquipment...............97 MiscellaneousDesignConsiderations..................................................................................99 AmericanswithDisabilityAct ...............................................................................................105 AirportDesignGuidance..............................................................................................110 RunwayandTaxiwaySystem...............................................................................................112 DesignofOtherLandingFacilities......................................................................................119 EnvironmentalRegulationsandIssues...................................................................123 EnvironmentalRequirementsforAirportDevelopmentProjects........................124 EnvironmentAssessmentandAudit..................................................................................128 EnvironmentalRegulations...................................................................................................134 EnvironmentalEnforcement.................................................................................................151 SustainableDevelopment(SD)andtheGreenAirportInitiative..........................153 AirportCapacityandDelay..........................................................................................159 ImpactofCapacityRestraints...............................................................................................160 ManagingCapacity.....................................................................................................................162 DemandManagement ...............................................................................................................166 AirportNoiseandLandUseCompatibility.............................................................169 LegislativeActs............................................................................................................................170 FactorsinAirportNoiseMitigation....................................................................................173 FARPart150................................................................................................................................180 Part150StandardsofReview..............................................................................................184

FARPart161NoticeandApprovalofAirportNoiseAccessRestrictions.........200 AirportConstructionManagement...........................................................................204 References.........................................................................................................................209

ModuleObjectives
Your objective in reading this material is to be able to: 1. Explain the NPIAS and the ACIP process; 2. Describe the roles of States and Metropolitan areas in airport planning; 3. Explain the role of the Airport Master Plan, and describe the elements included in a Master Plan Study; 4. Recognize airfield markings, signs and lighting configurations, look and function; 5. Construct the Part 77 surfaces; 6. Describe terminal design considerations and key factors, such as passenger flow and services, and explain ADA, FTZ, ARFF and SRE requirements; 7. Identify key issues and characteristics of the airports runway and taxiway system and other landing facilities; 8. Determine which environmental regulations contribute to the requirements of airport operators; 9. Explain the environmental review process, including categorical exclusions, environmental assessments and environmental impact statements, as well as the exceptions to this process; 10. Recognize key capacity and delay issues, including those elements that contribute to delays in the system; 11. Describe the legislative acts relevant to airport noise and their resultant impact on airport operators; 12. Compare and contrast the Part 150 and Part 161 studies, and know the key elements of the Part 150 study; and 13. Explain the airport construction management process.

Introduction
The airport generally consists of three primary areas: landside, terminal and airside. The landside area consists of intermodal and ground access areas, such as ingress and egress routes to the terminal building, parking garages, rental car facilities, public transportation, and other airport support areas. Functional areas within a commercial service airport typically include passenger terminal ticketing counters, baggage claim areas, concessions, restrooms, public assembly areas, airline clubs, mechanical space, ground transportation, security screening, and administrative areas for the airport operator, airlines and other tenants. Passenger terminals also include intermodal transportation, vendor storage, employee daycare and workout facilities, pet areas, and business centers. Often, a general aviation terminal is co-located with an FBO and includes administrative areas, flight planning, pilot lounges, and meeting and training rooms. Airside includes the runways, taxiways and aircraft parking areas within the perimeter fence. Each area of the airport requires detailed planning efforts to maximize the long-term growth of the airport. Demands on the facility, as well as needs of the community and various local, regional, state, and federal requirements, must be understood and incorporated into the planning studies. The applicable requirements and associated standards should be incorporated into the planning effort so as to account for demand and capacity changes, stakeholder and community needs, financing, safety, security and environmental, to name a few. The planning function is a critical component of airport management. Large sums of money are involved, and long-term binding agreements and large parcels of land are often affected during the planning process. Once its built, it must also be maintained, making the planning process an integrated part of the entire airport system. Plans, once implemented, affect the airports revenue and expenses and may impact air carriers, tenants, vendors and the community. The planning process is comprised of several elements. Airport Master Plans are the primary document used at airports for long-range planning. Master plans represent the vision of the airport operator, the stakeholders, the local community, government agencies, planners and airport sponsors, up to 20 years out. Master plan updates, Airport Layout Plan updates and Capital Improvement Plans address shorter-term needs. Regardless of the short or long term nature, airport operators must address several elements in the planning and development of airport projects, including noise abatement, environmental and the demand the airport can expect in terms of aeronautical service and customer expectations. This module addresses the many elements involved in planning developments and handling environmental issues at airports. 2

AirportSystemPlanning
Airport planning is performed at national, state, regional and local levels and involves a number of factors, including the availability of funds, the role of the airport within the national airport system planning structure, whether the airport is part of a formal regional system of airports, and the needs and desires of the local community.
System plans identify the aviation facilities required to meet the needs at each planning level. They are formulated on the basis of overall transportation demands and are coordinated with other transportation planning and comprehensive land-use organizations.

System plans identify the aviation facilities required to meet the needs at each planning level. They are formulated on the basis of overall transportation demands and are coordinated with other transportation planning and comprehensive land-use organizations. In the U.S., airport planning is performed at several levels: 1. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS), an l0-year plan continually updated and published by the FAA, lists public use airports and their development programs. The needs identified are considered to be in the national interest and are eligible for federal financial planning and development assistance. 2. Statewide integrated airport systems planning identifies the general location and characteristics of new airports and the general expansion needs of existing facilities to meet statewide air transportation goals. This planning is performed or sponsored by state transportation or aviation planning agencies. 3. Regional/metropolitan integrated airport systems planning identifies airport needs for large regional/metropolitan areas. Needs are stated in general terms and incorporated into statewide system plans. This planning is done by regional/metropolitan planning agencies. 4. Airport Master Plans are prepared by the owner/operators of individual airports, usually with the assistance of consultants. They detail the specific, long-range plans of the individual airport within the framework of statewide and regional/metropolitan system plans. These plans identify the development needs at individual airports on the basis of forecasts of aviation activity, the potential environmental effects, community compatibility, and financial feasibility.

Airport Master Plans detail the specific, long-range plans of the individual airport within the framework of statewide and regional/metropolitan system plans.

The basic guiding principle of the planning process is the development of a safe and efficient airport system using uniform design and operational standards. The Federal Airport Act of 1946 established the requirement for the formulation and annual revision of the five-year National Airport Plan (NAP). The 1946Act also created the Federal-Aid Airport Program (FAAP), in order to bring about, in conformity with the NAP, the establishment of an adequate, nationwide system of public airports. This process was repealed in 1970 with the introduction of the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 which, established requirements for a coordinated National Airport System Plan and the Airport Development Aid Program (ADAP).The Airport and Airway Improvement Act of 1982, as amended by various other acts throughout the 1980s and 90s, resulted in the National Airport System Plan being replaced by the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems, and eventually, the Airport Improvement Program (AIP). Title 14 CFR Part 151 Federal Aid to Airports addresses the requirements of the National Airport Plan (now the NPIAS), as well as the processes to apply for, receive and implement the funds from an FAA grant. Title 14 CFR Part 152 Airport Aid Program was developed after the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 and further expanded the requirements of Part 151.

NationalPlanofIntegratedAirportSystems(NPIAS)
The NPIAS identifies more than 3,400 existing and proposed airports that are significant to national air transportation and are thus eligible to receive federal grants under the Airport Improvement Plan (AIPA). An airport can be included in the NPIAS if it is publicly owned, if it is privately owned but designated as a reliever by the FAA, or if it is privately owned with scheduled air service of at least 2,500 annual enplanements. Other airports in the NPIAS include all GA Reliever airports, all airports receiving scheduled air carrier transport to where a Freight Forwarder, FBO, etc., is under contract with the U.S. Postal Service, or any public-use airport where a unit of the Air National Guard or a reserve component of the Armed Forces is permanently based or located adjacent to and operates permanently assigned aircraft out of the airport. Other airports that do not meet the above criteria may be included if they are:

The NPIAS identifies more than 3,400 existing and proposed airports that are significant to national air transportation and are thus eligible to receive federal grants under the Airport Improvement Plan (AIP).

See http://www.faa.gov/airports/aip/

1. Part of a State Airport System Plan; 2. Serving a community more than 30 minutes from the nearest NPIAS airport; 3. Forecast to have 10 or more based aircraft within the next 5 years; and 4. There is an eligible public sponsor willing to undertake ownership and development of the airport. Airports that do not meet any of the aforementioned criteria may still be included through special justification, such as: 1. A determination that the benefits of the airport will exceed its development costs; 2. Written documentation describing isolation; 3. Airports serving the needs of American Indian communities; 4. Airports needed to support recreation areas; and 5. Airports needed to develop or protect important national resources. Published every two years, the plan includes the cost of eligible, airport development that the Secretary of Transportation considers necessary to provide a safe, efficient and integrated system of public-use airports adequate to meet the needs of national defense, the U.S. Post Office and civil aeronautics. The NPIAS Report identifies for Congress and the public those airports included in the national system, the role they serve, and the amounts and types of airport development eligible for federal funding under the AIP over the next five years. Only AIP-eligible development is included in the NPIAS. There are approximately 20,000 airports in the U.S., accounting for an estimated 40 percent of all commercial aviation and 50 percent of all general aviation activity in the world. Twenty-six percent of the airports are classified as public use and 74 percent, the majority, are classified as private use. 1,834 public-use airports (and approximately 14,000 private-use airports) are not included in the NPIAS because they do not meet the minimum entry criteria, are located at inadequate sites, or cannot be expanded and improved to provide a safe and efficient airport. The NPIAS includes estimates of the amount of AIP funding needed to fund infrastructure development projects that will bring the design of these airports up to current standards and add capacity to congested airports. However, the listing of any location, airport, or development item does not legally obligate the federal 5

The NPIAS Report identifies for Congress and the public those airports included in the national system, the role they serve, and the amounts and types of airport development eligible for federal funding under the AIP over the next five years.

The NPIAS includes estimates of the amount of AIP funding needed to fund infrastructure development projects that will bring the design of these airports up to current standards and add capacity to congested airports.

government to provide funds or imply environmental approval of such projects. Further, the NPIAS is not really a plan as it does not include a timetable for development, assign priorities or propose funding levels. Airport Master Plans and state system plans provide the cost estimates that are included in the NPIAS. These plans are usually funded in part by the FAA, are consistent with FAA forecasts of aeronautical activity, follow FAA guidelines, and have been reviewed and accepted by FAA planners who are familiar with local conditions. Efforts have been made to obtain realistic estimates of development needs that coincide with local and state, capital improvement plans. The guiding principles of federal involvement in airports have remained unchanged since the Federal Airport Act of 1946. To meet the demand for air transportation, the airport system should adhere to the following guidelines: 1. Airports should be safe and efficient, located at optimum sites, and developed and maintained to appropriate standards; 2. Airports should be affordable to both users and the government, relying primarily on user fees and placing minimal burden on the general revenues of local, state, and federal government; 3. Airports should be flexible, expandable, and able to meet increased demand and to accommodate new aircraft types; 4. Airports should be permanent, with the assurance that they will remain open for aeronautical use over the long term; 5. Airports should be compatible with surrounding communities, maintaining a balance between the needs of aviation and the requirements of residents of neighboring areas; 6. Airports should be developed in concert with improvements to the air traffic control system; 7. The airport system should support national objectives for defense, emergency readiness, and postal delivery; 8. The airport system should be extensive, providing as many people as possible with convenient access to air transportation, typically not more than 20 miles travel to the nearest NPIAS airport; and 9. The airport system should help air transportation contribute to a productive national economy and international competitiveness.
Airport should be safe and efficient, located at optimum sites, and developed and maintained to appropriate standards.

Airports should be compatible with surrounding communities, maintaining a balance between the needs of aviation and the requirements of residents of neighboring areas.

NPIAS development categories include: safety and security, reconstruction, standards, environment, terminal building, surface access and airfield capacity.

Items included in the NPIAS are the result of local airport sponsors and their planning efforts. The local FAA Airports Division Office is heavily involved in these local planning efforts and in ensuring that applicable projects are included in the NPIAS. Regional Airports Division Managers are responsible for making decisions with respect to input and revisions to the NPIAS, except recommendations proposed for commercial service airports. Recommendations for commercial service airports must be approved by the Director of the Office of Airport Planning and Programming before being included in the NPIAS. The NPIAS does include unfunded development, as it is designed to focus on needed improvements, rather than availability of money. FAA Order 5090.3C recommends that the availability of funds not be considered a factor in creating the plan, as the allocation of funds occurs at the time of project implementation. Nor does the FAA recommend including development in which sources of funding are secured through PFCs, bonds or other sources; if the project is not justified by aviation forecasts; if the project is not feasible for the airport or is not supported by the airport sponsor, or if the project is revenue producing (unless all other development needs are first met). With these considerations in mind, the NPIAS does not reflect all of the needs of a particular airport. Deciding what projects go into the NPIAS is a function of individual Airport Master Plans and Airport Layout Plans, aviation forecasts, existing runway capacity and annual airport capacities, airport dimensional standards (i.e. airport design guidance), as related to each airports critical aircraft, and other factors, such as land acquisition, NAVAIDs and ramp space. Certain landside projects, such as projects at air carrier airports that are included as part of the Airport Master Plan, can also be included in the NPIAS. For further information on this process and regarding which airports maybe included in the NPIAS, refer to FAA Order 5090.3C. Projects listed in the NPIAS are categorized by the purpose of the development and the type of airport. The three general categories of work are: Purpose (safety, rehabilitation, capacity, standards), physical component (runway, taxiway, apron, equipment acquisition) and the type of work (construct, expand, improve). Examples of development include: lighting, marking, pavement rehabilitation, runway and taxiway extension, terminal rehabilitation or expansion, noise

Deciding what projects go into the NPIAS is a function of individual Airport Master Plans and Airport Layout Plans, aviation forecasts, existing runway capacity and annual airport capacities, airport dimensional standards (i.e. airport design guidance) as related to each airports critical aircraft, and other factors, such as land acquisition, NAVAIDs and ramp space.

mitigation, acquisition of ARFF or snow removal equipment, landside access roadways, safety areas, runway protection zones, etc. NPIASCategories NPIAS development categories include: safety and security, reconstruction, standards, environment, terminal building, surface access and airfield capacity. Safety and security projects include development that is required by federal regulation, as well as airport certification procedures or design standards, and are intended primarily for the protection of human life. Projects included in the safety category are obstruction lighting and removal, acquisition of fire and rescue equipment, and improvements to runway safety areas. Security projects include perimeter fencing, security devices, and other security enhancements, such as modifications to terminals to accommodate explosive detection equipment. Reconstruction includes development to replace or rehabilitate airport facilities, primarily pavement and lighting systems that have deteriorated due to weather or use and which have reached the end of their useful lives. Reconstruction is included in the NPIAS when normal maintenance procedures are no longer economical and effective. Standards projects refer to FAA airport design standards and include development to bring existing airports up to design criteria recommended by the FAA. This development category remains the largest, accounting for 27 percent of the NPIAS. Many commercial service airports were designed more than 50 years ago to serve relatively small and slow aircraft, but are now being used by larger and faster turboprop and jet aircraft, resulting in runway and taxiway relocations to provide greater clearance for aircraft with larger wingspans. Aircraft parking areas must be adapted to accommodate larger aircraft. Standards development at general aviation and reliever airports is generally justified to accommodate a substantial number of operations by a critical aircraft with sizes and operating characteristics that were not foreseen at the time of original construction. If this work is not undertaken, aircraft may be required to limit fuel or passenger loads because of inadequate runway length. The FAA usually requires an indication that an aircraft type will account for at least 500 annual itinerant operations at an airport before development is included in the NPIAS to accommodate it.

Reconstruction includes development to replace or rehabilitate airport facilities, primarily pavement and lighting systems that have deteriorated due to weather or use and which have reached the end of their useful lives.

Standards projects refer to FAA airport design standards and include development to bring existing airports up to design criteria recommended by FAA.

Standards development at general aviation and reliever airports is generally justified to accommodate a substantial number of operations by a critical aircraft with sizes and operating characteristics that were not foreseen at the time of original construction.

The environment category includes projects designed to achieve an acceptable balance between airport operational requirements, environmental requirements, and the expectations of residents of the surrounding area for a quiet and clean environment.

The environment category includes projects designed to achieve an acceptable balance between airport operational requirements, environmental requirements, and the expectations of residents of the surrounding area for a quiet and clean environment. This development supplements the large noise reductions that have been achieved by quieter aircraft and the use of noise abatement procedures. Much of the funding goes to relocating households and providing soundproofing of residences and public buildings in underlying aircraft approach and departure paths, but the majority of funding (80%) goes to land acquisition or easements to compensate property owners for overflights. Terminal building costs are incurred for development to accommodate more passengers and different aircraft (small regional jets and new, large aircraft). This development category is the third largest, accounting for 18 percent of the NPIAS costs. The NPIAS only includes the portion of terminals that are eligible for federal aid (about 50 to 60 percent) and excludes revenue-generating areas used exclusively by a single tenant or by concessions, such as gift shops and restaurants. Surface Access includes the portion of airport ground access (highways and transit) that is within the airport property line and eligible for grants under the AIP. This includes curbside improvements and improving passenger access to the airport terminal from surface transportation facilities.B Airfield Capacity is development to improve an airport for the primary purpose of reducing delay and/or accommodating more passengers, cargo, aircraft operations, or based aircraft. This development category includes new runway, taxiway, and apron construction and extensions. Runway development that is warranted to relieve congestion but precluded because of political and environmental considerations is not included. New Airports are recommended in the NPIAS for communities that generate a substantial demand for air transportation and either do not have an airport or have an airport that cannot be improved to meet minimum standards of safety and efficiency. In addition, new commercial service and reliever airports are recommended for communities where existing airports are congested and cannot be expanded to meet the forecast demand for air transportation. This category accounts for three percent of all NPIAS development.
B

Airfield Capacity is development to improve an airport for the primary purpose of reducing delay and/or accommodating more passengers, cargo, aircraft operations, or based aircraft.

Note that revenue producing parking lots are not included.

Other- This category of development accounts for less than one-half of one percent of the total development in the NPIAS. It includes fuel farms, utilities, and construction and rehabilitation of parking lots, general aviation and reliever airports.

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TheAirportsCapitalImprovementPlan(ACIP)
NPIAS priorities are guided by a national priority system, which also guides the distribution of funds. Project prioritization is primarily handled through FAA Order 5100.39 Airport Capital Improvement Program. The FAA uses a numerical system as one tool for prioritizing airport development. The values generated by the National Priority System (NPS) equation serve only to categorize airport development in accordance with agency goals and objectives. The NPS is the combination of quantitative and qualitative evaluations of airport development to establish and justify AIP expenditures. While the NPIAS identifies for Congress and the public the composition of a national airports system and the development and cost necessary to expand and improve the system, the ACIP provides the additional detail, including anticipated sources of funding and a prioritization of projects. With the extensive demands for money, the FAA must distribute funds to the regions in a way that ensures that the highest priority projects are being funded. The ACIP is intended to help accomplish this objective (see Figure 1). It is a needs-based, three- to five-year plan for funding of airport planning and development projects.

The values generated by the National Priority System (NPS) equation serve only to categorize airport development in accordance with agency goals and objectives.

With the extensive demands for money, the FAA must distribute funds to the regions in a way that ensures that the highest priority projects are being funded.

Figure1.AirportCapitalImprovementProcess

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The ACIP components that are used to determine project priority include the NPS Equation, the airport code (used to identify the role and size of the airport), the ACIP project code, which includes the purpose, component and type of project, and the category definition. There are 8 Category definitions, 17 Components and 39 Types. The Category Definitions include: 1. Safety/Security (projects related to Title 14 CFR Part 139 (Airport Certification) or Title 49 CFR Part 1542 (Airport Security); 2. Statutory emphasis (runway grooving, friction treatment, and distance-to-go signs on all primary and secondary runways at commercial service airports; vertical visual guidance systems on all primary runways at commercial service airports; and runway lighting, taxiway lighting, sign systems, and marking for all commercial service airports); 3. Reconstruction/Rehabilitation (development required to preserve, repair, or restore the functional integrity of the airside servicing area; 4. Environment (projects related to the National Environmental Policy Act NEPA, FAR Part 150, or other laws governing environmental matters, such as the Clean Air Act); 5. Planning (studies that are necessary to define and prioritize airport development needs); 6. Capacity (items that improve an airport or system of airports for the primary purpose of accommodating more passengers, cargo, aircraft operations or based aircraft); 7. Standards (development at existing airports intended to attain recommended airport design standards based on the current design category); and 8. Other (development items necessary for the safe and efficient airport operations, such as people movers, ground access projects, parking lots, fuel farms and projects converting military airfields to civil use as authorized under the Military Airport Program (MAP).C

Statutory emphasis (runway grooving, friction treatment, and distance-to-go signs on all primary and secondary runways at commercial service airports; vertical visual guidance systems on all primary runways at commercial service airports; and runway lighting, taxiway lighting, sign systems, and marking for all commercial service airports).

Projects funded through MAP are those that are necessary to ensure that military airfields meet civil standards and are able to meet the needs of the civil aviation users. Aircraft hangars, terminal buildings, fuel farms, utility system modification, surface parking, and roads can be funded from the MAP, development not generally AIP eligible.

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When formulating regional ACIP project prioritization and funding recommendations, FAA planners are encouraged to take into account five other factors including: (1) financial considerations, (2) sponsor performance, (3) planning factors, (4) legal and regulatory requirements and (5) state and local factors.

Additional factors in the rankings include local innovations, environmental issues, and airport growth. The numerical priority rating is intended to be used in conjunction with qualitative factors to select airport development projects. Use of qualitative factors that supplement a projects numerical rating must be documented. When formulating regional ACIP project prioritization and funding recommendations, FAA planners are encouraged to take into account five other factors including: (1) financial considerations, (2) sponsor performance, (3) planning factors, (4) legal and regulatory requirements and (5) state and local factors.

StateandMetropolitanAirportSystemPlanning
Airport system planning is a tool used by state and regional, metropolitan planning agencies. System plans are designed to provide information and guidance on the extent, kind, location and timing for public airports, in order to produce a viable, balanced and integrated air transportation system.1 This strategy provides information to guide detailed planning for comprehensive land use, ground transportation, and other metropolitan developmental activities. A Metropolitan Air System Plan (MASP) or a State Aviation System Plan recommends the general location and characteristics of new airports and the nature of development and expansion for existing ones. It identifies the principal role of each airport in the area and estimates proposed activity. The system plan further shows the timing and the estimated cost of development. It integrates airport system planning into the areas policy and coordination efforts, particularly for ground transportation, land use, and the urban environment. MASP system planning is a process that allows public and political entities to provide input on the comprehensive planning efforts at the local, regional, state and national levels. Some regional system plans are eligible for FAA funding. The primary purpose of airport system planning is to understand the interrelationship of the airports within a specific region. The process takes into account the requirements of the aviation community, as well as the demographics, economy, and availability of surface transportation within the region. The process should be consistent with state or regional transportation goals, land use, and environmental sensitivities. The process is similar to the development of an Airport Master Plan, in that it usually includes an inventory of the current aviation 13

system, identifies existing and future air transportation needs, demand forecasts and consideration of airport development to meet demand. An implementation plan is the final element. FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5070-7,The Airport System Planning Process, provides guidance on understanding the effectiveness of state and metropolitan planning, defines a systematic approach to planning in accordance with eligibility criteria for the Airport Improvement Program, enables state and metropolitan planning agencies, airports, consultants and the FAA to define products throughout the planning process, and provides guidance in response to changes in the marketplace and in the aviation industry. The role of the FAA in airport system planning is similar to its role in the Airport Master Plan process and includes the development and approval of the scope of work, ensuring the project adheres to federal guidance, providing technical guidance and expertise, coordination with other federal planning agencies, approving forecasts and airport layout plans, incorporating the plan into the NPIAS, assisting in the development of the ACIP and coordinating funding recommendations among the various planning agencies and airports. State Aviation Agencies often provide funds for airport development programs, guidance and CIP information on airports within the system.

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AirportMasterPlans
An airport master plan is a comprehensive study of an airport and usually describes the short-, medium-, and long-term development plans to meet future aviation demand. The category of study that includes master plans and master plan updates can, therefore, be thought of as a continuum that varies by level of detail and associated effort.2 In 2007, the FAA updated AC 150/5070-6B Master Plan Advisory Circular to reflect several realities. Airports were creating fewer comprehensive master plans, and the AC had not kept pace with the changes in planning techniques. The FAA determined that the AC was dated but not out-of-date and that the AC continues to provide a good approach to the planning process. The FAA also expects that with the changes made in this update, the Master Plan should consistently be used to establish goals and objectives for the airport, with less planning done in follow-up work. The new master plan approach places an emphasis on goal setting, doing the right thing in both the master plan and with respect to environmental requirements; it identifies forecasting tools and addresses security issues with respect to the TSA. The new AC provides a flexible approach that can be applied to airports of all sizes.

The new master plan approach places an emphasis on goal setting, doing the right thing in both the master plan and with respect to environmental requirements; it identifies forecasting tools and addresses security issues with respect to the TSA.

PurposeoftheMasterPlanandAirportLayoutPlan
Airport Master Plans are prepared to support the modernization of an existing airport or the construction of a new airport. The Master Plan is the sponsors strategy for the development of the airport. The goal of the master plan is to provide a framework to guide future airport development that is cost-effective and satisfies the needs of the airport, the market, and the community, while balancing environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Each master plan should carefully document and justify proposed development, taking into consideration the environmental, economic and technical concepts and alternatives. The Master Plan also provides a graphical presentation of the airport and the anticipated land uses in its vicinity; establishes a realistic implementation schedule, along with an achievable financial plan. Master planning must be sensitive to both environmental evaluations and must satisfy local, state and federal regulations. As a planning document, the Master Plan can document studies for future aeronautical demand to support local spending, debt, land use 15

The goal of the master plan is to provide a framework to guide future airport development that is costeffective and satisfies the needs of the airport, the market and the community, while balancing environmental and socioeconomic impacts.

controls and other policies. Finally, the Master Plan should set the stage for future planning processes by monitoring key conditions and permit changes in plan recommendations as needed. Each master plan study must focus on the specific needs of the airport for which a plan is being prepared, and the scope of a study must be tailored to the individual airport. Therefore, in a given study, certain master planning elements may be emphasized, while others may not be considered at all. Although the FAA does not require airports to prepare master plans, it strongly recommends that they do so.3 The master planning process will vary with the size, complexity, and role of the study airport and may include a variety of supporting studies. However, all master planning studies will fall within one of two basic types: Airport Master Plans or Airport Layout Plan (ALP) Updates.4 Master planning studies that address major revisions are commonly referred to as Master Plans. Those that change only parts of the existing document and require a relatively low level of effort tend to be known as Master Plan Updates. In common usage, however, the distinction refers to the levels of effort and detail of master planning studies. In most cases, the master plan will include the following elements: (1) pre-planning, (2) public involvement, (3) environmental considerations, (4) existing conditions, (5) aviation forecasts, (6) facility requirements, (7) alternatives to development and evaluation, (8) Airport Layout Plans (9) a facilities implementation plan, and (10) a financial feasibility analysis. An update of the ALP drawing is an element of any master plan study. Keeping the ALP current is a legal requirement for airports that receive federal assistance. An update of the ALP drawing set will reflect actual or planned modifications to the airport and significant off-airport development. An accompanying ALP Narrative Report should explain and document those changes and should contain at least the following elements:5 1. Basic aeronautical forecasts; 2. Basis for the proposed items of development; 3. Rationale for unusual design features and/or modifications to FAA Airport Design Standards; and
Master planning studies that address major revisions are commonly referred to as Master Plans. Those that change only parts of the existing document and require a relatively low level of effort tend to be known as Master Plan Updates.

In a given study, certain master planning elements may be emphasized, while others may not be considered at all.

An update of the ALP drawing set will reflect actual or planned modifications to the airport and significant offairport development.

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4. Summary of the various stages of airport development and layout sketches of the major items of development in each stage. Whenever the fundamental assumptions of the previous master plan have not changed, an ALP drawing set update is an appropriate alternative to a full master plan. If there have not been any major changes in airport activity or improvements that have had unanticipated consequences, a master plan update is not necessary. Another situation in which only an ALP update would be appropriate is the examination of a single development item, such as runway, safety area improvements. As indicated above, an ALP update typically involves fewer elements than a full, master plan study, including only the aviation demand forecasts, an assessment of facility requirements, a facility implementation and financing plan, and an airport layout plan drawing set. If additional steps are required to complete the ALP update, a full, master plan study is probably a better choice.6 Although master plans include the full list of elements previously discussed, the complexity of each element is dependent upon the size, function and particular issues and problems faced by each airport. The scope of work for the master plan update should address the appropriate level of detail for each element. Essentially, each master process is intended to produce: 1. A technical report containing the analyses conducted in the development of the plan; 2. A summary report that brings together facts, conclusions and recommendations for public review; 3. An updated, ALP plan drawing set; 4. A webpage with information about the airport and key elements of the master plan; and 5. A public information kit that can include visual aids, models, brochures or computer presentations to support the airport development program. While each Master Plan must be accepted by the FAA, it does not constitute their approval. It does not commit the federal government to participate in any proposed development, or certify that any development is environmentally acceptable. The FAA reviews the elements of the master plan to ensure that sound 17

While each Master Plan must be accepted by the FAA that does not constitute their approval. It does not commit the federal government to participate in any proposed development, or certify that any development is environmentally acceptable.

planning techniques have been applied. The FAA only approves the Forecast and the Airport Layout Plan. Demand forecasts must resolve any inconsistency between forecasted levels and the Terminal Area Forecasts (TAF) which are produced by the FAA. The ALP must conform to FAA design standards and approval of the ALP suggests that the proposed developments are safe and efficient.

Phase1:PrePlanning
In tailoring a study to the needs of an individual airport, planners and airport sponsors must make two major decisions: what type of study to conduct and what level of detail to develop for the individual elements of the study. The airport sponsor usually identifies the need for a planning study based on existing shortcomings in the plan or the introduction of a new type of aircraft, critical environmental problem or change in the strategic vision of the airport. The airlines, tenants, federal, state or regional planning agencies, or the airport sponsor may all identify the need for a master plan update. The type of study is determined by the elements that need to be included and the level of effort involved. Usually, the FAA and the airport sponsor make this decision jointly. ConsultantSelection The current version of FAA AC 150/5100-14, Architectural, Engineering and Planning Consultant Services for Airport Grant Projects, provides important guidance on consultant selection. Another useful reference is Guidelines to Selecting Airport Consultants, published by the Airport Consultants Council (ACC), an aviation industry trade association.7 The consultant selection process is governed by the Brooks Act, which requires the selection to be based on qualifications and an award to be made according to a fair and open selection process. The grant assurance addressing Engineering and Design Services, specifically states that the airport sponsor must award each contract or sub-contract for program management, construction management, planning studies, feasibility studies, architectural services, preliminary engineering, design, engineering, surveying, mapping, or related services under Title IX of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 (Brooks Act), or an equivalent qualification-based requirement. 18

The airport sponsor usually identifies the need for a planning study based on existing shortcomings in the plan or the introduction of a new type of aircraft, critical environmental problem or change in the strategic vision of the airport.

The consultant selection process is governed by the Brooks Act, which requires the selection to be based on qualifications, and an award to be made according to a fair and open selection process.

As a general rule, airport sponsors hire consultants to prepare planning studies. Before soliciting Statements of Qualifications (SOQs), Request for Qualifications (RFQs), or Requests for Proposals (RFPs) from consultants, the airport sponsor should have a clear understanding of the issues that have defined the need for the study. These requests can be distributed by a number of methods, including public announcement, direct requests, and personal discussions. The selection process begins with an invitation to submit information via an RFP or an RFQ. The invitation should include the project title, the general scope of work, a submission deadline, submittal content requirements and an airport contact. Interested consultant or engineering firms normally respond with a submittal that includes information demonstrating its understanding of the project; evidence of the firms ability to perform the work; profiles of the firms principals, staff, and facilities; and references. If requested, statements regarding the firms fiscal stability may also be provided. If sponsors anticipate an Environmental Assessment (EA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), they should consult with the local FAA Airports Office to determine the appropriate time to begin the consultant selection process. If a sponsor or the local FAA Airports Office anticipates the need for an Environmental Assessment, the sponsor should select a qualified, environmental contractor to prepare the EA. When the sponsor or the FAA has substantial concerns, the EA may suggest that an action may cause significant impacts, the appropriate FAA Airports office should select the contractor to prepare the EA.8The consultant selection process includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Project identification and advertisement; Prequalification of firms (optional); Request preliminary proposals; Preliminary short list selection; Formal proposals requested (and qualifications, if not prequalified earlier); 6. Final selection and ranking; 7. Negotiation and contract agreement; and 8. Obtainment of FAA concurrence.

If sponsors anticipate an Environmental Assessment (EA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), they should consult with the local FAA Airports office to determine the appropriate time to begin the consultant selection process.

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A selection panel should evaluate the responses according to the criteria outlined in the airports invitation. An unbiased and technically qualified panel should accomplish the consultant selection. The firms qualifications should be judged on the basis of experience in similar work, professional credentials and in conformance to the RFQ document. Subject to local law and policy, a review of the technical qualifications of numerous firms is appropriate, but the actual solicitation of technical proposals should be limited to a few firms. The preparation and presentation of quality, technical proposals are time-consuming and costly. The selection panel should not be expected to make a thorough assessment of the technical proposals or to conduct effective interviews when a multitude of consultants are involved. The selection panel should develop a short list of three to four qualified firms but also identify the most qualified firm. These firms are then invited to submit or make further presentations to the selection panel. In evaluating the presentations or additional submissions, a 1-2-3 ranking of the firms is made by the panel, although other scoring systems may also be employed. Contract negotiations are typically initiated with the top-ranked firm, and, if successful, a contract award is made after concurrence is obtained from the FAA. If negotiations are not successful, then discussions are formally terminated with the top-ranked firm and begin with the firm ranked second. If the master plan is funded by federal appropriations, fees for consulting services have to be reviewed by the FAA. The normal agreement between the airport operator and the consultant is a firm, fixed-price contract. This is advisable whenever the level of effort can be fairly well predicted and where reasonable prices can be established. The fixed-price arrangement is preferable and is most often used for master planning projects. It not only imposes a minimum administrative burden but also provides an incentive for effective cost control and contract performance. If the level of effort or duration of the project is uncertain, a cost-plus-fixed-fee contract, or a time-and-materials contract, may be necessary. Contracts that are based on a cost plus percentage of cost are not allowed in federally financed projects.

The preparation and presentation of quality, technical proposals are timeconsuming and costly.

If negotiations are not successful, then discussions are formally terminated with the top ranked firm and begin with the firm ranked second.

The normal agreement between the airport operator and the consultant is a firm, fixed price contract.

The second decision in designing an effective planning study is to determine the level of detail or depth of analysis for each element.

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DevelopmentofStudyDesign The second decision in designing an effective planning study is to determine the level of detail or depth of analysis for each element. The airport sponsor and the selected consultant should negotiate these basic decisions as the scope of work of the contracts is established.9 The airport sponsor, consultant, the FAA and other key players, as needed, work together to scope the project, which means to identify the issues to be addressed in the master plan and to determine the types of analyses and level of effort needed to address each issue. Specific topics that should be addressed include: 1. Goals and objectives: This discussion should answer key questions, such as, Why is this master plan study being conducted? and What are the key issues that need to be addressed in the future development of the airport? 2. Data availability: Available forecasts produced by state and regional plans, the FAA TAF reports and current inventory data should be identified, as should data to be collected/developed by the consultant. 3. Forecast horizons: Although 5-, 10-, and 20-year time frames are typical for short-, medium-, and long-term forecasts, some studies may want to use different time frames. Planning Activity Levels (PALs), specifying greater, future levels of aviation activity are increasingly used as an alternative to forecast years. 4. Environmental considerations: Sponsors should identify whether an EA or EIS will be required, or whether categorical exclusions should apply, and consult with the FAA to determine the appropriate time to include the environmental consultant in the process. Some states may have environmental documentation requirements that are separate but comparable to those required to meet federal requirements. 5. Schedules: The schedule should indicate decision points where continued work would require FAA or airport sponsor approval to proceed. 6. Deliverables: The specific work products, along with the level of detail required in each, should be identified. 7. Coordination and Public Involvement Program: Less complex studies usually require less public involvement, whereas complex studies, particularly those with contentious development issues, require much larger public involvement or outreach programs. 21

8. Budget: The scope of work and associated fees are determined concurrently, but there are often scope items that may require fees that exceed the sponsors budget. The sponsor and the consultant must then modify the scope of work, the fees or the budget until all three are agreed upon.

Phase2:ElementsoftheMasterPlanStudies
Historically, master planning focused on the elements of the plan, but the process has evolved to include a robust, public involvement. Current planning methodologies also have placed a greater emphasis on environmental impacts. PublicInvolvementProgram After consultant selection, the creation of a public involvement (i.e., outreach) program is the first step in a master plan study. Throughout the master plan process, the public involvement program shares information and collaborates on decision-making. The public involvement program should include elected and appointed officials, residents, travelers, tenants and members of the general public. Collectively, this group is known as the stakeholders. Stakeholder input has its greatest impact at the beginning of the study before key planning decisions are made or are heavily invested in. If significant decisions are made before the stakeholders have had a chance to participate, an atmosphere of distrust may result. Public involvement can include committees, public information meetings, small group meetings and briefings, a project website and a public awareness campaign. The selection of a specific platform depends on the particular complexities associated with the airport, the expected public interest in the master plan, the practices and policies of the airport sponsor, and budget considerations. In addition, it may be necessary to consider the special needs and sensitivities of low-income and minority populations, consistent with the provisions in Executive Order 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations. Although the public involvement program is important to the master plan effort, planners must balance the need for stakeholder involvement with the costs of such a process. Complex, large, or unfocused stakeholder groups often result in contradictory input, unrealistic 22

The public involvement program should include elected and appointed officials, residents, travelers, tenants and members of the general public. Collectively this group is known as the stakeholders. Stakeholder input has its greatest impact at the beginning of the study before key planning decisions are made or are heavily invested in.

Although the public involvement program is important to the master plan effort, planners must balance the need for stakeholder involvement with the costs of such a process.

While the TAC provides input and insight on technical issues and is composed of individuals with relevant technical backgrounds, the CAC serves as a sounding board and information exchange group for stakeholders.

planning alternatives, increased study costs, and frustrated participants, who struggle to communicate with the study group.10 Committees that facilitate public involvement usually include a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) and a Citizens Advisory Committee (CAC).While the TAC provides input and insight on technical issues and is composed of individuals with relevant technical backgrounds, the CAC serves as a sounding board and information exchange group for stakeholders.11 Traditional public information meetings, those done in a presentation format with consultants presenting information and the community listening and providing feedback, are less effective than an "open house" format. The open house format, with interactive information stations staffed by knowledgeable individuals is a very effective method to engage the public and stakeholders in soliciting their opinions.12Small group meetings and briefings are informal sessions used to discuss plan alternatives and may coincide with meetings by community boards, elected officials or civic organizations. An effective Public Awareness Campaign is essential to a successful master plan process. The campaign often includes informational and educational materials, such as fact sheets, flyers, press releases, newspaper ads and web pages with interactive self-guided presentations. Electronic versions of key documents may also be made available online. IdentifyingtheStakeholdersandKeyIssues While the stakeholders will vary from airport to airport, the following groups should be considered as airport stakeholders: 1. 2. 3. 4. Users and tenants; Groups and individuals from within the sponsors organization; FAA personnel from the appropriate regional and field offices; Resource agencies and other governmental units with regulatory or review authority; and 5. Other interested groups. Individuals from each stakeholder group must be able to represent the interests of their groups in discussions with the master plan team. Ideally, they should also represent a consensus viewpoint, rather than a special interest, minority opinion. 23

Small group meetings and briefings are informal sessions used to discuss plan alternatives and may coincide with meetings by community boards, elected officials or civic organizations.

EnvironmentalConsiderations Evaluating environmental factors helps the sponsor to thoroughly evaluate airport development alternatives and to expedite environmental processing. Planners should understand that environmental factors and alternatives should be tailored to each airports size, unique setting, and operating environment, and will typically not be as detailed as in subsequent environmental reviews, such as an EA or EIS. The consideration of environmental factors typically results in an over view of the airports environmental setting, the identification of potential environmental impact of airport development alternatives, and the identification of environmentally related permits that may be required for recommended development projects.13 The FAA recommends that the planning process consider the needs of subsequent environmental review processes. Environmental considerations should not be addressed in a stand-alone chapter but should be incorporated into the appropriate chapters, such as existing conditions and alternatives, development and evaluation.FAA Order 5050.4 should be consulted as a guide to help planners identify the potential environmental impact specific to the study airport that should be considered as planning continues.14 During the master plan scoping process, planners and environmental specialists should attempt to identify key environmental issues that will be involved in analyzing airport development alternatives to ensure that the master plan budget provides enough resources to cover the cost of this analysis. Approximately 40 federal laws, executive orders, and regulations protect particular parts of the environment, such as the Clean Air, Clean Water, and Endangered Species Acts, and an Executive Order on the Protection of Wetlands. Also, many state and local environmental laws and regulations should be considered during the master planning process.15 During the master plan scoping process, planners should identify potential, shortterm, capital development projects that might be recommended in the master plan and that are known to trigger additional environmental processing, such as safety related projects.16 Planners should recognize the need to achieve a balance between the manmade and the natural environment. Although every proposed development project will have some impact on the natural environment, the use of prudent planning 24
Planners should recognize the need to achieve a balance between the manmade and the natural environment.

Planners should understand that environmental factors and alternatives should be tailored to each airports size, unique setting, and operating environment, and will typically not be as detailed as in subsequent environmental reviews, such as an EA or EIS.

Approximately 40 federal laws, executive orders, and regulations protect particular parts of the environment, such as the Clean Air, Clean Water, Endangered Species Acts, and an Executive Order on Protection of Wetlands.

criteria, along with sound environmental data and analysis, will help to minimize unavoidable, environmental impact and avoid delays in project design and construction.17 As part of the master plan alternatives analysis, planners and environmental specialists should identify the potential environmental impact of each development project. Categories of potential impacts are defined in FAA Order1050.1, Environmental Impacts: Policies and Procedures, and FAA Order 5050.4, FAA Airports, guidance for complying with NEPA. ExistingConditionsandIssues(akaInventory)
The first step is to collect all types of data pertaining to the airport service area. This step includes a historical review of the airport and its facilities, airspace structures and navigation aids (navaids), airport-related land use, aeronautical activity, and socioeconomic factors.

After the organizational and preplanning phase, an inventory of pertinent data is made. The first step is to collect all types of data pertaining to the airport service area. This step includes a historical review of the airport and its facilities, airspace structures and navigation aids (Navaids), airport-related land use, aeronautical activity, and socioeconomic factors. Socioeconomic factors include demography, disposable personal per capita income, and economic activity, status of industries, geographic factors, competitive position, sociological factors, political factors, and community values. The background section should provide a brief overview of the history of the airport, describe its aeronautical role in the national aviation system, and identify its role in the communitys infrastructure. The following classifications are typically used in this element of the master plan: 1. Airfield/Airspace: runways, taxiways, lighting, marking, signing, existence of remain-overnight-parking (RON), historical data on weather obstructions and noise abatement. 2. Commercial Passenger Terminal Facilities: building space, the size of major functional areas, number of gates, aircraft parking areas, restaurants, concession space and passenger screening areas. 3. General Aviation Facilities: quantity and type of hangars, transient aircraft parking, tie-down locations, GA terminal facilities, FBOs, flight schools, maintenance shops and the based aircraft mix (single-engine, multi-engine, turboprop, jet). 4. Cargo Facilities: quantity and area of cargo building and aircraft parking. 25

5. Support Facilities: quantity and type of airport support facilities such as Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting station, airport administrative areas, airline flight kitchens, fuel storage, and FAA facilities, such as control towers. 6. Access, Circulation and Parking: the quantity and type of ground access systems and commercial areas, access road, service roads, parking and curb space, the availability of public transportation services, bus, rail, taxi and limousines. 7. Utilities: major infrastructure, such as water, sewer, communications, heating and cooling, fuel lines, fiber-optic cables and power. 8. Non-Aeronautical Facilities: recreational facilities, industrial parks, storm water retention and snow storage areas, agricultural areas and retail businesses associated with the airport should also be included. Also included in the existing conditions is a review of the regional settings and surrounding land use. It is important to collect information about the political boundaries beyond the airport property line and identify the airport service area and the presence of other airports that may compete with the study airport. Additionally, airport planning historically only looked at the potential, environmental impact of development, while present practice is to consider alternatives and follow up environmental action in mind. Noise, air and water quality levels are common environmental concerns but so are hazardous waste generation, wetlands, disposal of toxic materials, and endangered and threatened species of plants and animals. Historical, architectural, archaeological and cultural resources must also be considered. Airport financial data, such as the airport business model (how grants are funded/how rates and charges are set and collected), operating revenues and expenses, and capital funding should all be included. AviationDemandForecasts Forecasts of future levels of aviation activity are the basis for effective decisions in airport planning.18Aeronautical demand is forecast for short, intermediate, and long-range time frames and is used to determine the need for new or expanded facilities. Forecasts are expected to be realistic and based upon current data. In general, the more complex the master plan update, the more complex the forecasting effort is likely to be. Short-term forecasts, for up to five years, are 26

It is important to collect information about the political boundaries beyond the airport property line and identify the airport service area and the presence of other airports that may compete with the study airport.

Short-term forecasts, for up to five years, are used to justify near-term development and support operational planning and environmental improvement programs. Medium-term forecasts, with a six- to tenyear time frame, are typically used in planning capital improvements, and long-term forecasts (beyond 10 years) are helpful for general planning.

used to justify near-term development and support operational planning and environmental improvement programs. Medium-term forecasts, with a six- to tenyear timeframe, are typically used in planning capital improvements, and longterm forecasts (beyond 10 years) are helpful for general planning. A number of forecasts are readily available for use in developing and evaluating the master plan forecast. These forecasts include the Terminal Area Forecast, state aviation system plans, and other planning efforts.19Certain documents also provide guidance on conducting forecasts, including ACRP reports on aviation forecasting, a specific guidance document titled Forecasting Aviation Activity by Airport, published by the FAA, FAA Aerospace Forecasts (which provides U.S. economic and aviation outlooks), local data sources (city and county plans) and federal and state data sources that provide economic analysis. As mentioned previously, forecasts are subject to the approval of the FAA. The elements used in the demand forecasts are shown in Table 1.

Required Operations (annual) Itinerant Air Carrier Air Taxi and Commuter (Regional) General Aviation Military Local General Aviation Military Passengers (annual) Enplanements Air Carrier Commuter Enplanements Originating Connecting

Included Where Appropriate Domestic vs. International Annual Instrument Approaches IFR vs. VFR Operations Air Cargo Aircraft Operations Touch and Go Operations (Training) Helicopter Operations Average Load Factor Fuel Use Passenger and Cargo Data Domestic vs. International General Aviation Passengers Helicopter Air Taxi Other Number of Student Pilots Number of Hours Flown

Aircraft Based Aircraft Average Seats/Aircraft Aircraft Mix Critical Aircraft Table 1. Elements used in aviation demand forecasts for airport planning. 27

An aircraft operation is defined as a takeoff or a landing at an airport. The definition includes touch and go operations, which count as two operations one landing and one takeoff. An operation is further classified as either local or itinerant. Local operations are arrivals and departures of aircraft, which operate in the local traffic pattern or within sight of the tower. They are known to be departing for, or arriving from, flights in local practice areas within a 20-mile radius of the airport and/or control tower. Local operations also include simulated instrument approaches or low passes at the airport. A forecast of Annual Instrument Approaches (AIA) is needed for planning or upgrading navigational aids and landing systems. Itinerant operations are arrivals and departures other than the local operations. Estimates of the local and itinerant aircraft operations are developed for each of the four, major, civil airport user categories: Air Carriers, Commuters, Air Taxi, and General Aviation. A fifth category, Military, is estimated for those airports having significant levels of that activity. The Airport Traffic Control Tower routinely keeps the activity data if one exists on the field. Enplaning passengers are the total number of paid passengers departing on commercial aircraft. Originating and transfer passengers are included, as are air taxi or charter passengers. Not included are non-revenue passengers such as airline employees or thru passengers (departing on aircraft with the same flight number that they arrived, and not requiring re-boarding). Separate forecasts are developed for both domestic and international passengers. Passenger enplanement forecasts are made for each of the three, civil user categories: Air Carrier, Regional Carrier, and Air Taxi. Enplaning air cargo includes the total tonnage of priority, non-priority, and foreign mail, express, and freight (property other than baggage accompanying passengers) departing on aircraft at an airport, including originations, stopovers, and transfer cargo. A large amount of air cargo and airmail is moved by the regular air carriers, as well as the all-cargo operators, and should be included in the forecasts. Since the design of an airport is contingent upon the type of aircraft using the facility, a forecast identifying the future mix is necessary. Aircraft mix refers to the categories of aircraft: less than 12,500 pounds, from 12,500 pounds up to 60,000 pounds, and those over 60,000 pounds. An aircrafts weight, wingspan, and speed are tied directly to the length, width, and strength of runways 28
A large amount of air cargo and airmail is moved by the regular air carriers, as well as the all-cargo operators, and should be included in the forecasts.

Local operations also include simulated instrument approaches or low passes at the airport. A forecast of Annual Instrument Approaches (AIA) is needed for planning or upgrading navigational aids and landing systems.

An aircrafts weight, wingspan, and speed are tied directly to the length, width, and strength of runways and taxiways.

and taxiways. Helicopter operations at the airport also have design considerations and should be forecasted. Aviation demand forecasts typically identify the airports design, aircraft and fleet mix, and for commercial service airports, the number of passenger enplanements. GA airports include forecasts for based aircraft, both the number and type, and cargo airports or airports with significant cargo operations include forecasts for cargo tonnage. While forecasts generally provide an average over the course of a year, most airports have peak periods during which demand far surpasses those averages. These peaks are critical at commercial service airports serving as hubs or having substantial international traffic. Master plan forecasts must include appropriately defined peak period activity, such as peak-hour, average-day, peak-month, for the planning of facilities such as terminal buildings and ground access systems.20 FactorsAffectingDemandForecasts The art of aviation demand forecasting has undergone considerable study and advancement in recent years. Found to be of particular significance, the following factors are used to forecast the demand for individual airport master plans and to update and refine those forecasts: 1. Economic Characteristics. A communitys economic character affects its air traffic-generating potential. This factor is particularly important in connection with business travel by commercial and general aviation aircraft and with air cargo traffic. Manufacturing, service industries, primary and resource businesses, agricultural flying, instructional flying, and aircraft sales all generate air transport activity both within and outside the airport area. 2. Demographic Characteristics. The size and composition of an airport communitys populationand its potential growth rateare basic ingredients in creating demand for air transportation services. These characteristics include an areas population profile and changes in its age, educational, and occupational distribution. Demographic factors influence the level of airport traffic, its composition, and its growthin terms of both incoming traffic from other states, regions, or cities, and traffic generated by the local or regional populations. The discretionary purchasing power available to an airports market area residents 29

GA airports include forecasts for based aircraft, both the number and type, and cargo airports or airports with significant cargo operations include forecasts for cargo tonnage.

Demographic factors influence the level of airport traffic, its composition, and its growthin terms of both incoming traffic from other states, regions, or cities, and traffic generated by the local or regional populations.

over any period of time is a good indicator of consumers financial ability to travel. This is known as the disposable personal income. Distinct, local preferences for particular modes of transportation may exist, but in some cases, alternative modes of transportation may not be available or economically feasible. The higher the levels of disposable, personal income, the more likely the demand for air transportation services will exist. 3. Geographic Attributes. The geographic distribution and distances between populations and centers of commerce within the market area served by an airport may have a direct bearing on the type and level of transportation services that will be demanded. The physical characteristics of the land and local climatic differences may also be important, sometimes limiting aviation demand. On the other hand, physical and climatic attractions often stimulate holiday traffic and tourism. The relationship of the airport undergoing the master plan process to other airports and to the routes and airways in the regional and national systems may have a strong bearing on types and levels of aviation services that might be demanded at the master plan airport. 4. Aviation Related Factors. A number of other factors might affect aviation demand at an airport. Fuel price fluctuations, changes in items such as the regulatory environment, the levels and types of taxes, fees, and currency restrictions, business activity, industry trends, mergers, consolidations and new marketing agreements are such factors. In addition, local attitudes toward the environmental effects of aviation may affect demand and should be considered in forecasting or updating forecasts. Similarly, the granting of new routes for international air service can induce important changes in the volume of traffic at the specific airports receiving the international service. (5) Other Factors. There are a number of actions that local airport authorities or operators take that have the conscious or unintended effect of either stimulating or retarding growth in aviation demand. The types of ground access and support services provided, user charges, and plans for future development can each affect future growth of aviation demand. Economic fluctuations such as fuel price changes, currency and trade restrictions, political developments, international tension, changing regulations and environmental impacts should all be Steps in the Forecast Process.

Aviation Related Factors: Fuel price fluctuations, changes in items such as the regulatory environment, the levels and types of taxes, fees, and currency restrictions, business activity, industry trends, mergers, consolidations and new marketing agreements are such factors.

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Steps in this process include the identification of parameters and measures to forecast, review of previous forecasts, determination of data needs, identification of data sources, collection of the data, selection of the forecast methods, preparation of the forecasts, and evaluation and documentation of the results.

The actual forecast steps vary from airport to airport, depending on the issues to be addressed and the level of effort required to develop the forecast. Steps in this process include the identification of parameters and measures to forecast, review of previous forecasts, determination of data needs, identification of data sources, collection of the data, selection of the forecast methods, preparation of the forecasts, and evaluation and documentation of the results. Planners should refer to a report prepared by the FAAs Office of Aviation Policy and Plans (APO110), Forecasting Aviation Activity by Airport, dated July, 2001, to help them determine which approach to use.21 The forecast process includes: (1) the identification of aviation activity measures, (2) review of previous forecasts, (3) gathering the data and (4) selecting the appropriate forecast methods. The most common forecast techniques include: 1. Regression Analysis a statistical technique tying aviation demand to enplanements, population and income levels. 2. Trend Analysis and Extrapolation uses the historical pattern of aviation activity to project future trends. 3. Market Share Analysis assumes a top-down relationship between national, regional and state and local forecasts whereby local forecasts represent a market share or percentage of national forecasts. 4. Smoothing a statistical technique applied to historical data focused more on the recent trends and conditions at the airport. Once these analyses have been completed, the next step is to apply the forecast methods and evaluate results. Planners should look for variances between the forecast models, particularly significant historical variances between the FAAs Terminal Area Forecasts versus actual historical performance and other forecast results. Planners should also be sensitive to significant factors, such as the closure of an FBO or airline bankruptcy or merger and the impact such closures will have on the forecasts. Trends should be identified along with temporary surges or drops in activities. Forecasts are then submitted for approval to the FAA. FacilityRequirements In this element, planners compare the current facilities and services available at the airport, compare it to the forecasted demand for facilities and services, and then determine what additional facilities will be needed. In some circles, this is 31

known as a gap analysis. Recognize that in some cases the community or stakeholders may not want the airport to grow, or to grow only in a limited way. In some cases, communities have opposed the start-up of commercial service, and therefore, the construction would not be consistent with the demands of the stakeholders to construct facilities to accommodate such operations. While there are numerous types of facilities and services that an airport can provide, planners should, at the very least, look to the following elements: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Capacity shortfalls; New TSA security requirements; FAA design standards and updated standards; Airport sponsors strategic vision for the airport; and Outdated condition of existing facilities.

Recognize that in some cases the community or stakeholders may not want the airport to grow, or grow only in a limited way. In some cases, communities have opposed the start-up of commercial service, and therefore, the construction would not be consistent with the demands of the stakeholders to construct facilities to accommodate such operations.

Emerging trends, such as the implementation of NextGen, increased use of GPS, the introduction of very light jets and super heavy large commercial jets, expanded use of airline kiosks and new security procedures, should also be considered. New regulatory changes should also be considered. For example, new air cargo security regulations in 2006 may impact the design of cargo facilities at airports. Planners should meet with representatives of the TSA early in the process and be familiar with the current versions of applicable documents, including TSAs Recommended Security Guidelines for Airport Planning, Design, and Construction and relevant sections of the Transportation Security Regulations (TSRs).22 Design hour demand must also be taken into consideration. In the U.S., the evaluation of peak hour demand is often based on the peak hour of the average day of the peak month. This approach provides sufficient facility capacity for most days of the year but recognizes that there will be some very busy days that experience congestion, queues, and delays and that it is important that facilities are neither under- nor overbuilt. However, for some critical airport systems, the peak hour of the average day of the peak month can substantially understate the demand at peak times, resulting in unacceptable levels of service or overloading of systems to a point that may approach gridlock. Some components of the passenger terminal complex, such as baggage handling systems and security checkpoints, are particularly sensitive to this issue.23 Specific facility requirements include: 32

Planners should meet with representatives of the TSA early in the process and be familiar with the current versions of applicable documents, including TSAs Transportations Security Regulations (TSRs).

The peak hour of the average day of the peak month can substantially understate the demand at peak times, resulting in unacceptable levels of service or overloading of systems to a point that may approach gridlock.

Airfield and airspace 1) Airfield Capacity Analysis (annual service volume); 2) Runway Requirements (design standard as related to the Airport Reference Code; orientation, length, width and pavement design strength); 3) Taxiway Requirements (design standard as related to the Airport Reference Code); 4) Navaids; 5) Airspace Requirements (Terminal Instrument Procedures). CommercialServiceTerminal 1) Gates and Apron Frontage (aircraft parking positions by aircraft group); 2) Passenger Terminal Building (including FIS, ticket counter, baggage, security checkpoints, departure lounges, concessions, etc); 3) Curb fronts (intermodal connections). General Aviation Requirements 1) Hangars (conventional hangars, t-hangars, etc); 2) Transient Aircraft Parking; 3) Terminal Facilities (may include FBO, administrative offices, conference and training rooms, rental car counters, pilots lounges and flight planning). Air Cargo Requirements 1) Type of cargo companies (integrated carriers, freight forwarders, belly freight, all-cargo or combination carriers); 2) Aircraft parking with respect to space and tonnage (pavement strength) requirements; 3) Security needs; 4) Access. Support Facilities 1) Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (based on changes to the airports Part 139 Index); 2) Airport Maintenance (snow removal, support vehicles); 33

3) Fuel Storage (for commercial and GA operations, and ground vehicle operations); 4) Aircraft Maintenance; 5) De-icing Facilities and associated de-icing runoff facilities; 6) Special areas (snow storage, storm water retention, environmentally sensitive areas). Ground Access, Circulation and Parking 1) Regional Transportation Network (coordination with local planners); 2) On-Airport Circulation Roadways (passengers, employees, delivery vehicles); 3) Roadway Facilities (taxi/limo/courtesy van, rental car facilities, charter vans and busses, public parking and employee parking). AlternativeDevelopmentandEvaluation In this element, airports can address numerous development options, including alternatives to address facility requirements. At this point, planners should revisit the scope of work to verify that all processes conform to the overall intent of the study. Long-term land acquisitions, environmental issues, such as those developments that require an Environmental Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement, and the availability of funding through the AIP or PFC program should also be considered. The Alternatives process identifies the alternatives and ranks the elements in the planning hierarchy. Planners determine both primary and secondary elements. Primary elements require large amounts of land, such as runways, terminals, ground access and support facilities. Secondary elements, such as ARFF stations, have greater planning flexibility; although, siting of certain facilities such as the ARFF or ATCT is also dependent on meeting FAA response-time and line-of sight criteria respectively. The actual method of analyzing alternatives is an exercise in both force prioritization and assessing secondary elements that may be able to fit into or in between primary planning projects. Once alternatives are identified, each is evaluated based on operational performance (capacity, capability and efficiency). In some cases, an alternative is
Long-term acquisitions, environmental issues, such as those developments that require an Environmental Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement, and the availability of funding through the AIP or PFC program should also be considered.

Secondary elements, such as ARFF stations have greater planning flexibility; although, siting of certain facilities such as the ARFF or ATCT is also dependent on meeting FAA response-time and line-of sight criteria respectively.

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to construct a new airport, in which case an airport site selection becomes part of the list of alternatives. TheAirportLayoutPlan A major product of the airport master planning process is the airport layout plan (ALP). It comprises drawings that include the airfields physical facilities, obstruction clearance and approach profiles, land use plans, terminal area and ground access plans, and a property map. All development carried out on federally obligated airports must be accomplished in accordance with a (FAA)approved airport layout plan. FAA Order 5100.38, Airport Improvement Program Handbook, provides supplemental guidance for the preparation of an ALP. Grant assurance number 29 requires that the sponsor keep the ALP up-to-date at all times. As stated in Order 5100.38, an ALP remains current for a five-year period, or longer, unless major changes at the airport are made or planned. The functional components of an airport layout plan include everything from the airport entrance to the airspace around the airport. The master planning process considers these components in their entirety. The airport layout takes the data from the master plan and other studies and shows them in graphic form. Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 157, Notice of Construction, Alteration, Activation and Deactivation of Airports, requires airport owners and operators to notify the FAA 30 days in advance of any construction, alteration, deactivation or changes in use of any airport. Notification of construction or alteration on an airport is provided on FAA Standard Form SF-7460-1 Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration. Notification of the activation or alteration of a landing area is provided on FAA Standard Form SF-7480 -1 Notice of Landing Area Proposal. For a new airport site or location, the initial investigation is the responsibility of the airport sponsor and not the FAA. The five primary functions of the ALP: 1) It is an approved (by the FAA) plan necessary for the airport to receive AIP funding and to continue to receive PFC funding; 2) It is a blueprint for airport development; 3) It is a public document that serves as a record of aeronautical requirements and community reference; 4) It enables the FAA and airport sponsor to plan for improvements;

Grant assurance number 29 requires that the sponsor keep the ALP up to date at all times.

Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 157 requires airport owners and operators to notify the FAA 30 days in advance of any construction, alteration, deactivation or changes in use of any airport.

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5) It is a working tool for airport staff including operations and maintenance personnel. AirportLayoutPlanDrawingSet The airport layout plan is required to include: (1) the Airport Layout Drawing, (2) The Airport Airspace Drawing, (3) the Inner Portion of the Approach Surface Drawing, (4) the Terminal Area Drawing, (5) the Land Use Drawing, (6) the Runway Departure Surfaces Drawing, and (7) the Airport Property Map (usually referred to as the Exhibit A). Additional elements can also include a Cover Sheet, a Data Sheet, a Facilities Layout Plan, Utility Drawings and Airport Access Plans. The ALP also identifies facilities that are no longer needed and includes a plan for their removal. The cover sheet includes approval signature blocks, airport location maps and other data required by the FAA. The Airport Layout Plan is a required element and is a scaled, graphic representation of the existing and proposed airport land, facilities, protection zones, and approach areas. It includes other environmental features that might influence airport operations and those features necessary for future airport development or expansion.D The ALP drawing identifies the existing and proposed facilities and features, a vicinity map, a wind rose compass, a basic runway and taxiway data table, a legend block, a title and revision block, a sponsor approval block, and an approved list of modifications to the FAA design standards. The ALP is approved and signed by the FAA, thereby becoming a legal document. The ALP should reflect any changes that may affect the navigable airspace or the ability of the airport to expand, including the physical features on the airport and the critical land uses in and around the vicinity of the airport. Grant assurances specifically require airport management to keep the following items up-to-date:(1) property lines, (2) the location and nature of all existing and proposed facilities and structures (i.e., runways, taxiways, aprons, terminal buildings, parking lots, hangars, cargo areas, navigational aids, obstructions, and roads), and (3) the location of all existing and proposed non-aviation areas and improvements (i.e., parking lots, ground access roads, and water retention ponds).
D

The Airport Layout Plan is a required element and is a scaled graphic representation of the existing and proposed airport land, facilities, protection zones, and approach areas.

The ALP is approved and signed by the FAA, thereby becoming a legal document.

The FAA recommends that the ALP drawings be prepared on AutoCAD and that all funding agencies (FAA, states, regional planning agencies, and airport sponsor) maintain the drawings in an electronic file format.

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A wind rose is a diagram showing the percentage of time the wind blows from a particular direction and at a particular speed.

Another component of the airport layout drawing is a wind rose. A wind rose is a diagram showing the percentage of time the wind blows from a particular direction and at a particular speed. Runways are normally aligned with the prevailing winds. Crosswind (winds coming from a direction other than the runway heading) runways are built to accommodate primarily small aircraft that are more susceptible to crosswind effects than are larger ones. Information on historic wind data can be obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data Service (NOAA-EDS) in Asheville, North Carolina. 1. The data sheet contains airport and runway data tables. 2. The facilities layout plan depicts existing and future facilities. 3. The terminal area plan is provided to show the airport terminal and its surrounding facilities. A structures height is usually noted along with any obstruction marking or lighting. For small, GA airports, a separate terminal drawing may not be necessary if adequate detail is available on the airport layout drawing. The terminal drawing further shows the ground access to the airport terminal area, along with the major highway routes from the airport toward a central business district, other points of destination, or key arterial systems. If applicable, other modes of access, such as rail or water, are also shown. 4. The airport airspace drawings are required elements and are intended to show all imaginary surfaces identified in FAR Part 77, Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. 5. The inner portions of the approach surface drawing are required elements and include a profile view that presents all runway approaches and the location of objects as they affect the approach. The profiles show the existing and ultimate planned runway length. Obstruction data tables and charts are also included on the airspace drawing that provide information about the disposition of the obstructionproposed removal, lighting, marking, etc. The drawing may also depict other approach surfaces, including the threshold-siting surface and those surfaces associated with U.S. Standards for Instrument Procedures. 37

The terminal drawing further shows the ground access to the airport terminal area, along with the major highway routes from the airport toward a central business district, other points of destination, or key arterial systems. If applicable, other modes of access, such as rail or water are also shown.

6. The on-airport and off-airport land-use drawings depict existing and recommended uses of all land within the ultimate airport property line and within the vicinity of the airport, at least to the 65 DNL noise contour. The purpose of the drawing is to provide airport management with a plan for leasing revenue-producing areas on the airport and for providing guidance in determining allowable, compatible uses, such as ones for farming, recreational, commercial or industrial purposes. The drawing also provides guidance to local planning commissions for the establishment of appropriate airport-area zoning. 7. The airport property map is a drawing that depicts how various tracts of land were acquired. It includes easements outside the airport property line. The purpose of the property map, often termed Exhibit A on AIP grant applications, is to identify the legal interest and ownership of land that make up the airport. The map assists the FAA in determining and analyzing the current and future use of land acquired with federal funds. The property map and the ALP are required to be current at all times and submitted as part of any AIP Grant application. 8. The runway departure surface drawing depicts applicable departure surfaces. 9. The utility drawing depicts the location and capacity of all utilities on and around the airport. 10. The airport access plans depict major routes and modes of transportation that serve the airport. These plans are normally used if access to the airport is a significant issue. Both the airport-layout narrative report and the drawings are public documents. They are records of the aeronautical requirements of the airport, both present and future, and are references for community deliberations on land use proposals, as well as budget and resource planning. ALP drawings are typically produced with computer-aided design software, and many include software that links the features on the map with Geographic Information Systems.

The purpose of the drawing is to provide airport management with a plan for leasing revenue-producing areas on the airport, and for providing guidance in determining allowable compatible uses such as farming, recreational, commercial or industrial. The drawing also provides guidance to local planning commissions for the establishment of appropriate airport-area zoning.

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FacilitiesImplementationPlan The facilities implementation plan explains how to implement the findings and recommendations of the planning effort. This plan is called by many names, including Transportation Improvement Plan (TIP), Capital Improvement Plan (CIP) or even Airport Capital Improvement Plan (ACIP), but we will use CIP for simplicity. Regardless of the terms used, the facilities implementation plan must address all of the airports planned capital projects (even those projects that are not associated with the recommendations of the master plan) to ensure that adequate fiscal, staff, scheduling, and other resources are available. In addition, all documentation should be prepared so that it will be clearly understood by all parties. The facilities implementation plan must balance funding constraints; project sequencing limitations; environmental processing requirements; agency and tenant approvals and coordination processes; business issues, such as leases and property acquisition; and sponsor preferences. The plan must also be coordinated with the master plan ALP and the airports financial plan. (Source FAA)
The FAA recognizes that the plan may change from year to year to reflect changing conditions and priorities. Thus, the CIP should be developed based on demand with specific improvements identified for implementation when specific milestones occur.

The FAA recognizes that the plan may change from year to year to reflect changing conditions and priorities. Thus, the CIP should be developed based on demand, with specific improvements identified for implementation when specific milestones occur. KeyActivitiesandResponsibilities The Facilities Implementation Plan should provide information regarding key activities, such as: 1) Sponsor-specific project approval activities (those activities requiring board, council or other administrative body approvals and budgetary approvals); 2) Airline and other tenant approvals including lease modifications; 3) Project funding activities (FAA grants, PFC and long-term debt financing); 4) Environmental processing activities; 5) Land acquisition activities; 39

6) Sponsor-specific, project implementation, process activities associated with the design and build of projects; 7) Agency coordination activities including coordination with the FAA, metropolitan planning organizations, TSA, DHS, DOD or other agencies; and 8) Public coordination activities. At a minimum, the listing of key activities and responsibilities should include what activities should be undertaken, by what party, and when. In more complex situations, it may be useful to provide a schedule of activities or to incorporate the key activities and responsibilities into the overall sponsors CIP master schedule.24 FinancialFeasibilityAnalysis The ability to fund recommended projects should be a major consideration in preparing the CIP and should be concurrent with the development of the facilities implementation plan and the CIP. Sources of funding have been previously addressed in the modules and include: federal funding (AIP), state funding, thirdparty funding, PFC, customer-facility charge, bonds (G.O., revenue, special facility, IDB) and local funds. The feasibility analysis includes the preparation of a CIP funding plan, a review of the airports financial structure with recognition of certain constraints, such as bond, airline use agreements, leases, and an analysis of historical cash flow. This type of analysis typically involves a specialist in airport financial planning. The planner should then prepare a pro forma cash flow analysis. Since airports are often under pressure to improve their financial condition, planners should compare their financial performance with that of other airports in order to identify ways to increase aeronautical and non-aeronautical revenues.
The ability to fund recommended projects should be a major consideration in preparing the CIP and should be concurrent with the development of the facilities implementation plan and the CIP.

The feasibility analysis includes the preparation of a CIP funding plan, a review of the airports financial structure with recognition of certain constraints such as bond, airline use agreements, leases, and an analysis of historical cash flow.

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Airside
The airfield consists of several components, the runways and taxiways, ramps (also known as aprons), taxi lanes, vehicle service roads, buildings such as the terminal, snow removal storage facilities, ARFF buildings, the air traffic control tower and other facilities. [A1] FAR Part 139 requires management to identify those areas of the airport that are to be used for air carrier operations. Known as Aircraft Movement Areas (AMA), they include runways, taxiways, and other areas of the airport that are used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing of aircraft. Non-movement areas include loading ramps, aircraft parking aprons, unpaved areas, or other areas that are not structurally capable or that airport management has decided to preclude air carrier aircraft from using.
The AOA encompasses both movement and non-movement areas.

A term commonly used at airports is the Air Operations Area (AOA). An AOA, a term originally identified under security regulations, encompasses all portions of the airport designed and used for landing, taking off, or surface maneuvering of aircraft. In that sense, AOA encompasses both movement and non-movement areas. The AOA includes the runways, taxiways, ramps, aprons, grass landing strips, parking areas, helipads or hovering routes, and tie-down areas. The distinction between movement and non-movement areas is necessary because not all areas of an airport available for aircraft maneuvering may be able to meet the requirements of Part 139. Therefore, only those areas identified in the ACM as movement areas for air carrier aircraft are subject to the regulations. Airport management is obligated to maintain the Aircraft Movement Area to the standards and conditions of the AMA as defined in an approved ACM. However, liability and practicality concerns dictate that non-movement areas should not be neglected. At airports with Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT), the AMA generally corresponds to those areas that are under the positive control of the ATCT. Airport and tower management sign Letters of Agreement (LOA) or Memorandums of Understanding (MOU) to identify those movement areas that

Airport and tower management sign Letters of Agreement (LOA) or Memorandums of Understanding (MOU) to identify those movement areas which will be under the positive control of the ATCT, and those non-movement areas that are the responsibility of airport management or the airlines.

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will be under the positive control of the ATCT, as well as those non-movement areas that are the responsibility of airport management or the airlines.

SafetyAreas
Surrounding each runway and taxiway are safety areas. A safety area is a defined area comprising either a runway or a taxiway and the surrounding surfaces, an area that is prepared or suitable for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway or the unintentional departure from a taxiway. This safety area is cleared, drained, and graded because it must be able to support aircraft in the event that they depart from the pavement. It must also be able to support emergency and maintenance equipment responding to the aircraft. The safety area includes the runways structural pavement, shoulders, blast pad, and stopways. Safety areas have a total width range of 120 to 500 feet, depending on the aircraft design group and the approach to the runway. Taxiway safety areas range from 49 to 262 feet in total width. Airport management is required to inspect daily the safety areas for items such as rutting, rough and/or uneven terrain, mounds of dirt, debris, and obstructions not mounted on frangible couplings. Objects located in the safety area because of their function (i.e., lights, signs) must be mounted on frangible couplings that have breakaway points no higher than three inches above grade. An often-cited statistic from on-airport aircraft accidents shows that approximately90 percent of the aircraft involved remain within about 1,000 feet of the runway departure end and within 250 feet from the runway centerline. For this reason, runway safety areas extend past the runway ends to provide a greater safety margin for aircraft that undershoot or overshoot the runway. Those dimensions vary based on the category of the runway and whether or not electronic approach aids are associated with the runway. Efforts are being made to reduce the severity of airport accidents and incidents by improving the overrun areas where the majority of these situations occur. Newer technology or alternative systems have been developed for those runways that have less than the required safety area. Generally, runways that are unable to provide the necessary runway safety areas are located in close proximity to bodies of water, large drop-offs, railroads, or highways. One solution is a soft ground arrester system. Designed not to deform under normal ground vehicle loads, it is a 42
An often-cited statistic from on-airport aircraft accidents shows that about 90 percent of the aircraft involved remain within about 1,000 feet of the runway departure end and 250 feet from the runway centerline. A safety area is a defined area comprising either a runway or a taxiway and the surrounding surfaces, an area that is prepared or suitable for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway or the unintentional departure from a taxiway.

porous cellular concrete bed area at the end of a runway that deforms under the weight of a heavy aircraft, resulting in major drag and deceleration of the aircraft.

Markings,SignsandLighting
Runways are classified in a number of ways; they can be classified by the type of pavement (asphalt or concrete), intended usage (utility, transport, and heliport) or by the type of aircraft approach. This section addresses the markings, signs and lighting necessary for a runway, based on the type of aircraft approach that the runway is intended to serve. The three basic types of approaches are visual, non-precision and precision. A visual approach runway does not require navigational aids to assist the pilot. It is intended to be used solely under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) conditions; therefore, only visual cues for landing are necessary. A non-precision runway approach is one that uses horizontal navigational guidance to help a pilot line the aircraft up with the runway. A precision instrument runway approach has both vertical and horizontal navigational guidance provided by an Instrument Landing System (ILS) or Precision Approach Radar (PAR).For implementation to occur, both precision and non-precision approaches require FAA approval and publication of the procedures. Global Positioning System (GPS) approaches fit either a non-precision category approach or a precision category approach depending on the availability of other navigational aids. The published approach establishes criteria for the type of lighting and markings to be used for the runway and associated taxiways. Lighting Runway lighting systems are classified according to their intensity or brightness. Depending on the type of approach, the systems will have High Intensity (HIRL), Medium Intensity (MIRL), or Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have different intensity levels or steps, whereas the LIRL systems normally have one intensity setting or step. Intensity settings can be 1, 3, 5 or 7 steps, depending on the visibility conditions.
Many airports that are not staffed 24-hours install pilotcontrolled lighting systems.

A non-precision runway approach is one that uses horizontal navigational guidance to help a pilot line the aircraft up with the runway. A precision instrument runway approach has both vertical and horizontal navigational guidance provided by an Instrument Landing System (ILS) or Precision Approach Radar (PAR).

Many airports that are not staffed 24-hours install pilot-controlled lighting systems. These systems are activated by Keying the aircraft radios microphone switch several times in rapid succession on a predetermined and published

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frequency. They provide a greater degree of pilot safety and reduce the airports operating and maintenance costs. For an airport under Part 139, if more than three lights in a row or more than 10 percent of a runway or taxiway route system are inoperative then standards are not being met. Snow, ice, or other conditions obscuring the lights or causing outages may also make the system inoperative. A Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) is required if standards are not met. Runway edge lights are white. On instrument runways, amber edge lights replace the white ones in the direction of landing for the last 2,000 feet or for one-half of the runway length, whichever is less. This provides visual safety information to a pilot as he or she approaches the end of the runway. Runway centerline lights are white in the direction of landing. They change to alternating red and white beginning at the last 3,000-feet of the runway, for 2,000-feet. At 1,000-feet remaining, the centerline lights switch to all red. Taxiway edge lights have solid blue lenses, or in the case when lights are unavailable, taxiways can be marked with blue colored rods. Taxiway centerline lights are green in color. Taxiway turnoff lights are in-pavement green lights that lead from the runway centerline onto a taxiway or vice versa. Some airports have the green taxiway center lights marking the complete route between the terminal and the active runway. Threshold lights, which mark the ends of the runway, are of the colored split lens type. The lens indicating the end of a runway to a departing aircraft is red, while the other lens, indicating the start of the runway for landing aircraft, is green. Runway lights are directional in focus, through what is known as a Fresnel lens. This lens requires the light bases to be properly aligned with the runway and angled toward the landing approach. At U. S. airports, having the capability of allowing air carriers to conduct operations when the visibility is less than 1,200 feet, Runway Visual Range (RVR) and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (SMGCS) are being implemented. SMGCS is a system of guidance, control, and regulation of all aircraft, ground vehicles, and personnel on the movement areas during low visibility conditions. The intent of the SMGCS is to prevent collisions and to ensure that traffic flows smoothly and freely in low visibility conditions.
For an airport under Part 139, if more than three lights in a row or more than 10 percent of a runway or taxiway route system are inoperative then standards are not being met.

SMGCS is a system of guidance, control, and regulation of all aircraft, ground vehicles, and personnel on the movement areas during low visibility conditions.

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Guidance and regulation of aircraft are accomplished through surface markings, stop-bar lights, clearance-bar lights, hold-position lights and training.
The airport rotating beacon helps to identify the airport location and area to a pilot. The light emitted from a beacon is angled from two to ten degrees above the horizon, depending on the surrounding terrain.

The airport rotating beacon helps to identify the airport location and area to a pilot. The light emitted from a beacon is angled from two to ten degrees above the horizon, depending on the surrounding terrain. Civil land airports have a whitegreen beacon. As a safety measure, beacons are designed and built so that if one bulb burns out, a backup bulb will activate. The system also provides information by a secondary light or signal that indicates a bulb has burned out. If a beacon is activated during the day, it represents conditions below those for flight under visual flight rules. It could be that the ceiling is below 1,000 feet and/or the visibility is less than three miles. Any changes to the lighting systems of a publicuse airport, including pilot-controlled lighting, require revision in the Airport Facilities/Directory (AF/D). ApproachLightingSystems(ALS)

Approach lighting systems are designed to facilitate the pilots transition from instrument flying to visually locating the runway.

Approach lighting systems are designed to facilitate the pilots transition from instrument flying to visually locating the runway. Depending on the system installed, the ALS generally consists of five components: sequence flashing lights, approach lights, crossbar lights, runway end identifier lights (REIL), and visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicators (PAPI). A full description of approach light systems is found in AC 150/5340-14 Approach Light Systems or in the Aeronautical Information Manual. Sequence Flashing (SF) lights are a series of five lights that extends past the 1,000 foot mark of the approach lights. Flashing in sequence and in one direction, they are commonly referred to as the rabbit because they lead the aircraft in to the runway, just as a rabbit leads race dogs around a race track. The SF helps a pilot to align the aircraft with the runway and is also considered Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (RAIL). The crossbar is a series of lights positioned perpendicular to both sides of the primary approach lights. Used as a pilot aid in leveling an aircrafts wings, they also provide distance information to the runway since they are positioned at fixed distances from the threshold. The approach lights uniformly extend from the threshold out to a point where the pilot can make a timely transition from instrument to visual reference.

The SF helps a pilot to align the aircraft with the runway and is also considered a Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (RAIL).

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Figure2.InstrumentApproachLightingSystem

Different types of approach lighting systems exist, depending on the needs and requirements of the airport, its users, and the FAA. ALSF-1 or ALSF-2 installations (an ALS with Sequence Flashers) are used on precision approach runways with ALSF-2 required for Category II and III approaches (see Figure 2). A more economical Short Simplified Approach Lighting System (SSALS) can exist for Category I approaches. If modified to have RAIL installed, they become an SSALR. Further maintenance and cost reductions are achieved through installation of a Medium Intensity Approach Light System with RAIL (MALSR) or without RAIL (MALS). These systems range from 1,400 feet to 3,000 feet in length.

ALSF-1 or ALSF-2 installations (an ALS with Sequence Flashers) are used on precision approach runways with ALSF-2 required for Category II and III approaches.

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Figure3.VisualApproachIndicators

Visual glideslope indicators are available to assist pilots as they approach the runway for landing. They provide vertical height information on both visual and instrument runways and help to indicate the pilots angle of approach so as to prevent an overshoot or undershoot (see Figure 3).
Most visual glideslope indicators work on the principle of color differentiation between red and white. VASIs are the most common indicators.

Most visual glideslope indicators work on the principle of color differentiation between red and white. VASIs are the most common indicators and come in different arrays of two- or three-bar systems that have two, four, six, twelve, or twenty-four lights each. The predominant type is a two-bar, four-light unit (VASI2), which is located 250 feet parallel to the runway centerline. One unit is approximately 800 feet from the threshold, whereas the other is at 1,200 feet. The units are positioned to define a normal three-degree approach slope, the same as the glideslope. If a pilot sees all white lights, then the aircraft is too high. If all red lights are seen, the aircraft is too low. A combination of red lights on the far VASI and white on the nearer defines a proper glideslope. The airports obligation is to monitor light operation and to ensure that no obstruction or outage of the light signals occurs. A less costly and more simplified lighting system than the VASI can be found at several airports. Known as a precision approach indicator (PAPI), it has either two or four lights with split red and white lens. They are installed in a row 47

perpendicular to the runway and each light has a slightly different angle. A pilot seeing all white is above the glideslope. An all red indication would have the aircraft below the glideslope. A pilot is on the glideslope when two red and two white lights are visible. A third type of approach guidance system, often used for heliports, is the PulsedLight Visual Approach Slope Indicator (PVASI or PLASI). PVASIs consist of a bright light that emits a flashing strobe appearance if an aircraft is above or below the glide path, and a steady white light if on path. If above or below the glideslope, the light pulsates either white or red, respectively. PVASIs are not an acceptable visual guidance system for air carrier operations because the pulsed light effect is too similar to that of a white strobe light, and a pilot can easily confuse it with other airport lights. A modification of the PVASI is the tri-color visual approach slope indicator (TRCV), which emits a steady light from a single source. The pilot sees red when the approach is below the glideslope angle and green when on the correct angle. An even simpler visual approach slope indicator is made of three panels. Found at some general aviation airports, they are called Approach Path Alignment Panels (APAP). The panels are placed adjacent to the touchdown point of a runway with the middle panel raised and staggered from the two on the ends. From the air, a pilot on glideslope will see the panels aligned evenly across. Any deviation from the glidepath and the stagger becomes evident. VFRApproachLightSystems VFR approach light systems are used to help pilots distinguish runways and assist in flying navigational paths for noise, wildlife, safety, or other pertinent purposes. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) is lighting units located on both corners of a runway threshold and provides synchronized flashing to identify the runway end. If sequential flashing approach lights are installed off the approach end of the runway, and they are visible from any direction, they are referred to as Omni Directional Approach Lights (ODAL). They help a pilot to locate the airport and the runway approach from any flight direction and are commonly used for non-precision approaches. If ODALs are located away from the runway to help define a VFR path through congested or noise sensitive airspace, they are referred to as LeaD-IN lights (LDIN). LDINs are designed to overcome problem 48

PAPI, an all red indication would have the aircraft below the glideslope a pilot is on the glideslope when tow red and shoes are visible.

PVASIs are not an acceptable visual guidance system for air carrier operations because the pulse light effect is too similar to that of a white strobe light, and a pilot can easily confuse it with other airport lights.

Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) are lighting units located on both corners of a runway threshold and provide synchronized flashing to identify the runways end.

Omni Directional Approach Lights (ODAL) help a pilot to locate the airport and the runway approach from any flight direction and are commonly used for nonprecision approaches.

associated with hazardous terrain, obstructions, or noise sensitive areas. They may be placed at intervals of 3,000 feet to highlight a curved, straight, or combination pathway to a runway threshold or ALS. Signs Airfield signs provide useful information to ground vehicle operators when driving on the airport and to pilots during takeoff, landing, or taxiing (for examples, see Figure 4). Airfield signs, normally located on the left hand side in the direction of travel (except for runway exit signs), are intended to provide easy determination of where a pilot or ground operator is, where he needs to go, and/or where he needs to stop until further clearance is given. Signs and markings also identify boundaries of approach areas, ILS critical areas, runway safety areas, and/or obstacle free zones.

Figure4.SampleAirportSignagePlan
Mandatory signs have white inscriptions on a red background and require an individual at a controlled airport to obtain clearance before proceeding, or at an uncontrolled airport to continue only with appropriate precautions.

Mandatory signs have white inscriptions on a red background and require an individual at a controlled airport to obtain clearance before proceeding, or at an uncontrolled airport to continue only with appropriate precautions. Mandatory signs are used only in conjunction with runways, with the exception of the no entry sign. Location signs identify the taxiway or runway upon which the aircraft or vehicle is located. These signs have yellow inscriptions on a black background. A 49

different type of location sign has black inscriptions on a yellow background; these signs identify the boundaries of the Runway Safety Area (RSA), Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ), and ILS critical areas. The RSA, OFZ, and ILS signs are installed only at airports with operating control towers and where pilots or vehicles are often asked to report clear of a runway or critical area. Directional signs provide information on the location and orientation of other taxiways from the one where the pilot or ground operator is. They always contain an arrow. Black inscriptions on a yellow background identify taxiways leaving a runway or the direction of taxi routes. Where a taxiway ends, a taxiway-ending marker is normally installed. Destination signs are similar to direction signs, except that they point toward a general location on the airport rather than a specific route. Sample destination signs are: APRON, FUEL, TERM(inal area), CIVIL (aircraft area), MIL(itary area), PAX (passenger handling), CARGO, INTL (international area), and FBO (fixed base operator). Special informational signs, such as noise abatement procedures, are black inscriptions on a yellow background. On runways, distance-remaining signs are placed along the runway at intervals of 1,000 feet. Generally located outside of the runway safety area, they have single white numbers on a black background. Where signs cannot be installed and/or where there is a need for additional information, directional guidance or location can be painted on the pavement. Markings Similar to signs, pavement markings provide information that is useful to both pilots and ground vehicle operators and are grouped into four categories: runway, taxiway, holding position, and others (for examples see Figure 5). Similar to pavement lighting, runway markings are determined by the type of approach to the runway. Those common to all runways include centerlines, designator, and holding indications. A non-precision instrument runway will include threshold and aiming point markers, and markings for a precision instrument runway include all of the previous markings plus touchdown zone stripes and runway side stripes. Markings for runways and helicopter-landing areas are white with the exception of hospital helicopter pads, which are red. Taxiway centerlines, close

Directional signs provide information on the location and orientation of other taxiways from the one where the pilot or ground operator is.

Pavement markings provide information that is useful to both pilots and ground vehicle operators and are grouped into four categories: runway, taxiway, holding position, and others.

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and hazardous areas, and holding position indicators are yellow, even though they may be located on a runway.

Figure5.RunwayMarkingsBasedonTypeofApproach
Aiming points are required on runways with visual approaches, which are 4000 feet and longer and used by jet aircraft.

Aiming points are required on runways with visual approaches, which are 4000 feet and longer and are used by jet aircraft. Aiming points are located 1,000 feet past the approach end of the runway where a jet aircraft on a normal glidepath will touch down (for examples see Figure 6). Touchdown zone markings are spaced at 500 foot intervals and provide distance information according to the number of rectangular bars. Runway threshold bars are a number of longitudinal lines (usually eight, but as many as sixteen, depending on runway width) that identify the beginning of a runway. Visual approach runways do not have threshold markings. In the event of construction, maintenance, or other activity causing a partial runway closure, the threshold is relocated and airport management is required to file a NOTAM, and depending upon the duration of the activity, possibly re-paint the runway. A solid 10-foot wide, white bar across the runway identifies a relocated threshold.

Visual approach runways do not have threshold markings.

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Figure6.PrecisionandVisualApproachRunwayMarkings

A displaced threshold is used when siting a threshold other than at the runway end is necessary. This relocation can be for obstacle clearance, obstruction in the runway approach, noise abatement, construction or other purposes. It is a white bar, 10 feet in width across the runway. Arrows and arrowheads help to identify and locate a displaced threshold. If the arrows are used in a displaced threshold, they are white in color. A demarcation bar distinguishes a displaced threshold from a stopway, blast pad, or taxiway that precedes the runway. The bar is three feet wide and painted yellow. Leading up to the demarcation bar are a series of yellow chevrons indicating an unusable area for landing, takeoff, or taxiing. Shoulder stripe markings are used on both runways and taxiways to identify non-structural adjacent pavement. Sidestripes are used on runways and taxiways to provide a visual contrast between the usable surface boundaries. They are one continuous, solid white line on runways and two parallel continuous yellow lines on taxiways. An exception is where a taxi lane is defined on an apron area. Instead of two solid lines, the markings consist of broken lines.
Sidestripes are used on runways and taxiways to provide a visual contrast between the usable surface boundaries. They are one continuous, solid white line on runways and two parallel continuous yellow lines on taxiways.

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Figure7.ExampleofRunwayMarkingsShowingStopwayandDisplacedThreshold

Taxiways at public-use airports are required to have taxiway centerlines and runway hold-position markings. A taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line, even where it extends onto the runway (called lead on/off lines).

Aircraft or vehicles approaching the runway will encounter the two double solid lines, which require authorization from the ATCT to cross if a control tower is in operation at the airport.

Taxiways at public-use airports are required to have taxiway centerlines and runway hold-position markings (see Figure 7). A taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line, even where it extends onto the runway (called lead on/off lines). Taxiway hold-position bars (often called a stop-bar, or hold short bar or line are four yellow parallel linestwo dashed lines and two solid ones. The two dashed lines are closest to the runway. Aircraft or vehicles approaching the runway will encounter the two double solid lines, which require authorization from the ATCT to cross if a control tower is in operation at the airport. At some airports, yellow in-pavement lights help to further distinguish the hold-position marking. At non-controlled airports, extreme diligence is used when approaching a holdposition line. Safe practices require the pilot or vehicle operator to announce over the radio his entry onto the runway before crossing the hold lines. Upon exiting the runway, the pilot encounters the double dashed lines first, and once passing both the dashed and solid lines, the pilot announces they are clear of the runway. Certain navigational equipment requires that areas surrounding the equipment be kept clear of obstructions. Otherwise the navigational signal may experience interference and send erroneous data to an aircraft. To keep aircraft and vehicles clear during IFR conditions, a yellow ladder-type marking is used.

Ground checkpoint markings allow pilots to calibrate aircraft instruments on the ground.

Airports with VOR facilities may have VOR ground checkpoint markings and signage installed. The checkpoints allow pilots to calibrate aircraft instruments on the ground. The checkpoint marking is a circle with an arrow directed toward the navigational aid and is located within one-half mile of the VOR. The marking is 53

two concentric circlesthe outside white and the inside yellowwith a yellow arrow. It is supplemented by a sign identifying the checkpoint and giving the VOR identification letters and the course radial. If available, DME information is also listed. The signage letters are black on a yellow background. Closed runways and taxiways are marked by yellow Xs placed to obscure each runway number or at the beginning and end of a taxiway. New technology has resulted in raised, lighted Xs as a substitute. Permanently closed runways or taxiways additionally require disconnecting lighting circuits and obliterating pavement markings. To ensure visibility and meaning, the marking of construction areas requires special attention in the construction safety plan. At airports with authorized Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) for two intersecting runways, or where the runway is used as a taxiway to another runway, a yellow double solid and double dash hold-position marking extends across the runway to identify the hold-short position. It is supplemented with white on red signs adjacent to the runway. In-pavement lights help to distinguish the hold-position line on Category II and III ILS runways. For airports required to have a SMGCS, the stop-bar lights are red. One component of a SMGCS is painted, taxiway markings that complement the lighted guidance and informational signs. A SMGCS also requires elevated or inpavement runway guard lights, green centerline, and lead-on lights for preferred taxi routes, taxiway and clearance bar lights, gate-designator and geographic holdposition markings (spots), and yellow elevated runway guard lights at hold positions (wig-wags), along with in-pavement lights. Vehicle roadway markings are intended to reduce the risk of an aircraft and vehicle accident on the AMA. Driving lanes are similar to those on highways (solid, white boundary lines with a white broken centerline). An alternative (required for SMGCS) is to use white zippered markings. Outside of the AMA, markings should conform to those in the Department of Transportations Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. For painting pavement markings, two choices of paint exist: water-based (latex) or oil-based. Similar to the application of pavement sealers, pavement paint has less friction than the asphalt or concrete it covers. The addition of silica sand or glass bead can provide added texture to improve the friction properties of the
In pavement lights help to distinguish the hold-position line on Category II and III ILS runways. For airports required to have a SMGCS, the stop-bar lights are red.

The addition of silica sand or glass bead can provide added texture to improve the friction properties of the painted surface. Glass beads, which reflect light, are required to be added to the paint to make the markings more conspicuous.

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painted surface. Glass beads, which reflect light, are required to be added to the paint to make the markings more conspicuous. Two other types of markings/piloting aids found at airports are a compass rose and a segmented circle. A compass rose is a painted or other marking that is located on a surface large enough for aircraft to maneuver and be aligned to the different magnetic headings marked on the pavement. The compass rose is used to help calibrate aircraft magnetic compasses. The segmented circle marking is actually a series of objects on the ground designed to give traffic pattern and wind information to pilots in the air. A segmented circle is a series of highly visible, white or yellow markers arranged in a circle to help a pilot identify important landing pattern and wind direction information. A segmented circle is required for airports serving any air carrier operation and when no control tower is in operation. Within the segmented circle is a wind indicator. Wind indicators pivot in the wind and can be a tetrahedron, a wind cone (windsock), or a combination of both. A landing strip indicator extends from the segmented circle for each runway. If a right-hand traffic pattern exists, a traffic pattern indicator extends from the landing strip indicator. Depending on the model, wind cones (socks) at airports have a minimum opening diameter of 18 inches, which provides an indication of wind speeds from 5 to 50 miles per hour. The cones have a distinguishing color of white, yellow, or orange. The support structure should be orange in color. Additional wind cones are required at airports certificated under Part 139 for each runway available for air carrier use. These supplemental wind cones are installed at the end of each runway, or at least at a point visible to the pilot while on final approach and prior to takeoff. For those airports open for air carrier operations during hours of darkness, all wind direction indicators require lighting.

Wind cones have a distinguishing color of white, yellow, or orange. The support structure should be orange in color.

NAVAIDSandAirTrafficControl
The first use of air traffic control procedures involved a person standing at the end of the St. Louis, Missouri, airport in 1929, using colored flags to communicate advisories to pilots. Light guns soon replaced flags as the primary signaling devices, and they are still required in air traffic control towers today. Their use

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however, has been largely relegated to a backup system in the event of radio failure. The use of flags, then lights, and eventually radio and radar by air traffic controllers, defines the primary purpose of the FAA Air Traffic Control system, which is the safe separation of aircraft in flight. Flying within the parameters of the airways constituted controlled airspace, and pilots and aircraft were required to operate under specified rules and regulations. The term uncontrolled airspace was applied to those areas outside the controlled airspace. Being controlled refers to the responsibility of the air traffic controllers to maintain separation of aircraft within the airways. Separation guidance can still be provided in uncontrolled airspace, but from a legal standpoint, the service is considered advisory. ATCTGroundandRadioOperation When operating an aircraft within an area controlled by an air traffic control tower (ATCT) or within other controlled airspace, a clearance authorization is required for entry. An MOU (or LOA) is the usual method for identifying and agreeing to ground operations on an airport. In these cases, the MOU delineates those areas under the control and responsibility of the ATCT and those under the airports control. The MOU outlines areas of duties and responsibilities for each, and typically includes items such as hours of operation, emergency notification responsibility, authorized vehicles, type of communication equipment, call signs to be used, and areas where an ATC clearance is required. Some small aircraft that do not have radios are still in use today. A light gun is the method used to communicate with them and with ground vehicles with inoperative radios. Light guns are devices that house a high intensity light source and that have clear, red and green lenses that can be rotated into signaling position. The beam is narrowly focused and directed toward a target aircraft, object or person. By using a trigger switch, an air traffic controller operates the gun by sending a sequence of flashes or a steady beam of light. Instruction on light gun signals is a mandatory part of any airport ground vehicle operator training program. Concise and correct communication with the control tower is vital during airfield operations, maintenance, and construction activities. 56
The use of flags, then lights, eventually radio and radar by air traffic controllers, defines the primary purposed of the FAA Air Traffic Control system, which is the safe separation of aircraft in flight.

Light guns are devices that house a high intensity light source and which have clear, red and green lenses that can be rotated into signaling position. The beam is narrowly focused and directed toward a target aircraft, object or person. By using a trigger switch, an air traffic controller can operate the gun by sending a sequence of flashes or a steady beam of light.

The light gun signals are found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Light gun signal guides are often kept in airport operations and maintenance vehicles and on pilot kneeboards. The expected response by an airport ground vehicle or targeted individual is immediate compliance. In the event of a radio failure, an aircraft or ground vehicle operator is required to turn his or her vehicle toward the control tower and continuously flash the landing or vehicle lights until receiving a signal from the tower. Interaction with the ATCT requires airport operators to know and use standard phraseology and procedures. Any communication with the ATCT should include the following four ingredients: 1. Identify who youre trying to contact (tower or ground control, Unicom, etc.). 2. Identify who you are (vehicle call sign). 3. Identify the message or intent (where you are located, destination, time involved). 4. Confirm receipt of the return message or compliance with any instruction given (acknowledgement and understanding). At airports not having an operating ATCT, procedures and communication practices for operating on the airport are found in the AIM. Safe and proper communication procedures require announcing the first three ingredients identified above on the radio. For communication phraseology, both the AIM and the FAA Handbook FAA Order 7110.65 publish standard communication procedures. The ATC system operates on the Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) standard which, for many years, had been known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). UTC is based on a 24-hour clock system and, in essence, identifies the time in Greenwich, England, through which the prime meridian (zero degrees longitude) passes. UTC time, commonly referred to as Zulu time, is represented by four digits (0000 to 2400) and, depending upon the time zone one is located in, a conversion requires the addition or subtraction of hours.

In the event of a radio failure, an aircraft or ground vehicle operator is required to turn his or her vehicle toward the control tower and continuously flash the landing or vehicle lights until receiving a signal from the tower.

At airports not having an operating ATCT, procedures and communication practices for operating on the airport are found in the AIM.

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The transmission of wind information is conveyed by the following sample phraseology: wind two-four-zero degrees at one-two knots. Wind direction is identified by the compass heading from which it comes. In this case, it is from the Southwest, or 240 degrees. The wind speed follows the wind direction and is given in knots. One knot is approximately 1.15 miles per hour. U.S.Airspace Airports, large and small, are integral to the National Airspace System (NAS). The NAS is the sum total of airports, navigational aids, air traffic control, and airspace within the U.S. The U.S. airspace itself is separated into two parts: terminal and en route. Terminal airspace is that area around the nations major airports. It extends from the ground to a specified altitude and typically encompasses an area of sixty miles in diameter. Several airports may be located within a terminal airspace. Two factors define terminal airspace: Air Traffic Control Towers and Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities (TRACON). Enroute airspace is the larger area of navigable airspace that covers the nation and it exists between the various, terminal airspace areas. No specified bottom altitude is specified for en route airspace, and the top extends to the upper performance limits of civil aircraft. U. S. airspace is further divided into several sub-categories, each having different rules and regulations. The airspace categories are designated Class A, B, C, D, E, and G, transition areas, and continental control area. In the parlance of air traffic controllers, altitudes below 18-thousand feet are stated in feet as in the instruction, climb and maintain (an altitude of) 12thousand feet. Above 18-thousand feet, altitudes are stated in flight levels, as in climb and maintain (an altitude of) flight level three-seven-zero. 1. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) to flight level (FL) 600, or 60,000 feet; 2. Class B airspace surrounds major airports and subjects all pilots to special operating rules and equipment; 3. Class C airspace surrounds an airport in which ATC provides radar vectoring, sequencing, and other services to visual flight rules (VFR) and instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft on a full-time basis; 58

En route airspace is the larger area of navigable airspace that covers the nation. It exists between the various terminal airspace areas. No specified bottom altitude is specified for en route airspace, and the top extends to the upper performance limits of civil aircraft.

Class B airspace surrounds major airports and subjects all pilots to special operating rules and equipment.

Class D airspace is normally a circular area with a radius of five statute miles, centered on either an ATCT-controlled airport or an uncontrolled airport with an instrument approach.

4. Class D airspace is normally a circular area with a radius of five statute miles, centered on either an ATCT-controlled airport or an uncontrolled airport with an instrument approach; 5. Classes E (Controlled areas) are airspace corridors identified as federal airways. These areas accommodate jet traffic at low altitudes; and 6. Class G designates is airspace beneath the controlled areas. Transition areas consist of controlled airspace extending out from the end of the radius of controlled airspace around Class B and C airspace. Transition zones allow for the ascent or descent of IFR aircraft into those areas. The Continental Control area refers to all airspace above 14,500 feet within the contiguous 48 states. Special-use airspace is another category within the NAS that they may be set aside for a variety of different purposes. They are termed prohibited, restricted, warning, military operations, (MOA), alert, or controlled firing areas. AircraftApproaches Any navigational approach is conducted under one of two methods and sometimes both: by visual reference (Visual Meteorological Condition or VMC) or by use of instruments (Instrument Meteorological Conditions or IMC). Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) refer to the procedures and regulations a pilot is obligated to operate under, depending on the flight conditions and the type of flight plan used.

A visual approach can be made anytime when: (1) ATC (if available) approves it, (2) the destination airport meets visibility requirements of three statute miles or greater, and (3) the ceiling is at least 1,000 feet above the ground level.

Under an instrument approach, the flight path ensures clearance over obstacles. An instrument approach is a procedure established by the FAA that outlines the routes and altitudes to be flown for safe flight from takeoff to landing.

A visual approach can be made anytime when: (1) ATC (if available) approves it, (2) the destination airport meets visibility requirements of three statute miles or greater, and (3) the ceiling is at least 1,000 feet above the ground level. When weather conditions are less than those prescribed for visual approaches, an instrument approach is used. A contact approach can result from an instrument approach with the visibility greater than one mile. In those cases, a pilot is cleared by ATC to make an approach using visual ground reference. Obstacle clearance and avoidance are the responsibility of the pilot when performing the approach. Under an instrument approach, the flight path ensures clearance over obstacles. An instrument approach is a procedure established by the FAA that outlines the routes and altitudes to be flown for safe flight from takeoff to landing. The specialized procedures are developed under the guidelines known as Terminal 59

Instrument Procedures (TERPs). Airport management can request the establishment of a TERP. The criteria for establishing a TERP allows for increased utilization of a runway during inclement weather, but it also mandates a flight path that can have a noise or other effects on those living beneath it. As a result of the evaluation for a TERP, information is provided to the U. S. National Oceanic Service (NOS) and to Jeppesen Incorporated. These two organizations use the information to publish instrument approach plates (charts) for use by pilots. Pilots are governed by FAR Part 91, and airline, air taxi, or charter pilots have to comply further with FAR Parts 121 or 135. Each Part mandates that pilots comply with the appropriate procedures when conducting instrument approaches. For departures, a pilot flying under normal instrument procedures follows a defined flight path that allows for the aircraft to intercept an en route flight path. These procedures are defined and published as Instrument Departure Procedure (DP). Pilots are not required to fly these unless directed by ATC. DPs are established primarily to help lessen the burden of repeatedly communicating the same ATC clearance instructions. A similar procedure used to simplify communication and understanding during approaches, is known as a Standard Terminal ARrival (STAR) procedure. ATCOperations The primary function of the Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) is to separate participating aircraft traveling between airports. Not all aircraft participate in ARTCC services, nor are they required to do so unless flying above FL180 (Class A airspace). A number of ARTCC facilities are located across the U.S., each comprising a large geographical area. At airports that have high volumes or capacity constraints, the responsibility for separating traffic is delegated to either an Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) or a TRACON facility. ATCTs have the added tasks of separating both aircraft and vehicle traffic on the ground within their jurisdiction, which is the Movement Area. ATCTs may have from two to four controller positions. They are tower (or local) control, ground control, clearance delivery, and flight data. Within a TRACON are several sectors or controller positions, including approach control, departure control, clearance delivery, and flight data. The positions describe the area of 60
The primary function of the Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) is to separate participating aircraft traveling between airports. Not all aircraft participate in ARTCC services, nor are they required to do so unless flying above FL180 (Class A airspace).

responsibility of each controller. Depending upon the degree of activity, one controller may perform many functions. Clearance delivery is an ATCT position that coordinates and processes initial departure, route of flight, and final altitude information to a pilot. It is often combined with the ground control position at low activity airports, but becomes a separate position at medium to high activity airports. The flight data position relays flight plan and airport information to the other controller positions within the tower. A ground controller has the responsibility of managing all aircraft and vehicular activity on the airports movement areas. Anytime a vehicle moves from a noncontrolled area to a controlled area, it is entering the AMA and must have clearance from the ground controller, unless an agreement exists with the ATCT stating different procedures. Tower (or Local) control is responsible for handling arriving and departing aircraft on the active runways and within the assigned airport airspace. Departure control is that position within TRACON or ARTCC that is responsible for ensuring the safe transition of the aircraft out of the terminal area and into en route navigation. The FAA has established a system of preferential routes and altitudes for flight between sectors. These are published in the Airport/Facilities Directory (A/FD). Automated terminal information services (ATIS) are a recorded message that continuously transmits airport information on a separate assigned frequency, or over the voice feature of an airports VOR. ATIS information is updated hourly, or more often if conditions warrant, and is identified by a phonetic letter code. It includes the following information: airport identifier, UTC time, wind direction and speed, visibility, cloud ceiling, temperature and dew point, altimeter setting, instrument approaches and runways in use, NOTAMs applicable to landing, weather advisories, braking action reports, wind shear reports, construction activity, and other information of importance to the pilot and other airport users. ATIS eliminates repetitive announcements of basic information made to pilots when they first contact the control tower.
A traffic pattern is normally depicted as a box having the runway as one of the sides or legs of the box. A pilot flying a standard pattern makes left hand turns around the box.

Clearance delivery is an ATCT position that coordinates and processes initial departure, route of flight, and final altitude information to a pilot.

A ground controller has the responsibility for managing all aircraft and vehicular activity on the airports movement areas.

Air traffic patterns are established to maintain visual separation and provide orderliness for aircraft using an airport. A traffic pattern is normally depicted as a box having the runway as one of the sides or legs of the box. A pilot flying a standard pattern makes left hand turns around the box. The legs are identified as 61

upwind (when taking off), crosswind, downwind, base, and final (when landing). At some airports, these flight patterns are modified to accommodate local conditions such as, obstacles or noise abatement. A pattern that is flown to the right instead of the normal left is known as a nonstandard, right-hand pattern. Pilots visually identify this pattern by the placement of extensions on the airfields segmented circle. Major airports having parallel runways commonly use both types of patterns. When airspace or airfield capacity is at its limit, or severe weather prohibits landings, aircraft are often directed into a holding pattern. A holding pattern is a race track shaped pattern used by aircraft until they can resume an approach to an airport or other navigation route. Aircraft are generally stacked vertically with a thousand feet of vertical separation. As one aircraft departs the holding pattern, the other holding aircraft descend, in sequence, to the next lower level. Radar is the acronym for RAdio Detection and Ranging. It is composed of a transmitter, an antenna, a receiver, and a display. The four primary types of different radar systems in use in the U. S: 1. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) is used by the U.S. military and provides lateral and vertical guidance. PAR approaches also involve guidance from air traffic controllers. 2. Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is a short-range (60 nautical miles) radar used primarily for identifying and separating traffic in and around airports. ASR is typically used in TRACONs. 3. Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) has a longer range (100-250 nautical miles) and is used for en route flight separation and identification. ARSR is used in en route facilities. 4. Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) is a short-range radar system used by air traffic controllers to augment and confirm information and vehicle position reporting. ASDE-X enables air traffic controllers to detect potential runway conflicts by providing detailed coverage of movement on runways and taxiways. ASDE-X is able to determine the position and identification of aircraft and transponder-equipped vehicles on the airport movement area, as well as of aircraft flying within five miles of the airport.
When airspace or airfield capacity is at its limit, or severe weather prohibits landings, aircraft are often directed into a holding pattern.

ASDE-X is able to determine the position and identification of aircraft and transponderequipped vehicles on the airport movement area, as well as of aircraft flying within five miles of the airport.

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The term squawk is used to describe the discrete code an assigned aircraft transmits on the transponder. Mode C is a transponder that is equipped with altitude encoding capability. Mode S transponders report altitudes in 25 increments.

Radar usage is enhanced through the use of transponders. A transponder is a beacon device installed on an aircraft that is used to transmit data on the aircrafts position and depending on capabilities of the transponder, altitude and other information can be transmitted. It is tunable so that controllers can assign a specific address for positive identification. The term squawk is used to describe the discrete code an assigned aircraft transmits on the transponder. Mode C is a transponder that is equipped with altitude encoding capability. Mode S transponders report altitudes in 25 foot increments. Some airports with parallel runways have a Precision Runway Monitoring (PRM) system. PRM allows for enhanced and more accurate radar information on aircraft so that controllers can monitor two planes simultaneously approaching the runways in inclement weather to ensure that they do not stray into a nontransgression zone between the two approaches. The PRM allows for greater airport capacity in IFR conditions. AirNavigationAids(NAVAIDS) Today, pilots use a variety of navigational aids and charts depending on the capabilities of their aircraft, their particular flight qualifications and the type of operation they are conducting, visual or instrument. VFR Sectional Charts (also known as Sectional Charts) are the main planning reference used by pilots of slow- to medium-speed aircraft for navigating across the country under Visual Meteorological Conditions. Sectional charts include information about many features including airports, radio frequencies, obstructions to hazards, air-traffic-control facilities, etc. World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) are similar to the VFR sectionals but are designed for moderate to high-speed aircraft and for those flying at higher altitudes. WAC charts have less topographic detail than sectional charts

The PRM allows for greater airport capacity in IFR conditions.

Since Sectional Charts are used under VMC, it is important for pilots to be able to see and avoid obstructions, in addition to identifying significant landmarks as a reference for navigation. When a new building or tower is erected that affects the safety of flight that structure is often noted on a Sectional Chart.

A significant feature of the Sectional Chart is the extensive obstruction and terrain information that is included. Since Sectional Charts are used under VMC, pilots must to be able to see and avoid obstructions, in addition to identifying significant landmarks as a reference for navigation. When a new building or tower is erected that affects the safety of flight that structure is often noted on a Sectional Chart. To make corrections or modifications to the charts, airport operators should contact the local FAA Flight Standards District Office.

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For Instrument Meteorological Conditions, either IFR low altitude en route charts (below 18,000 feet) or high altitude en route charts (above 18,000 feet) are used. IFR charts have significantly less terrain or obstruction features noted. The charts denote highways through the sky (known either as Victor Airways below 18,000 feet or Jet Routes above 18,000 feet), usually from one navigational point, such as a VOR, to another. These routes guarantee a route free of obstructions, provided pilots maintain a certain minimum altitude. The FAA certifies the operation of any aircraft navigational system. The major requirements for any system to be used for navigational purposes are integrity, accuracy, availability, and reliability. Integrity means the system must be able to monitor itself and provide timely warnings to users or shut itself down when it shouldnt be used for navigation. Accuracy refers to the ability of the system to show the true position of an aircraft at any time. Availability and reliability refer to the ability of providing the functional navigational service whenever the user needs it. NonDirectionalBeacon(NDB) Non-directional beacons are used for air navigation primarily where bad terrain exists. NDBs are generally inexpensive and use little ground space. A single short vertical antenna and normal electrical power are all that is required for operation. Used primarily by general aviation pilots, an NDB approach requires a pilot to obtain a local altimeter setting and to have accurate heading information. Non-directional refers to the type of radio signals transmitted. The signal sent out is omni-directional and can be received by an aircraft instrument (automatic direction finder, or ADF) in the cockpit. Consequently, the signal acts as a homing device for an aircraft, though the pilot is required to account for crosswinds when traveling the path in the sky. An NDB located along a final approach to an airport is commonly known as a compass locator. NDBs are a low cost method of providing approach guidance to many airports. Frequency congestion, along with the implementation of the satellite-based GPS system, has resulted in fewer being installed. NDB approaches are gradually being overlaid with GPS approaches; however, many are still in use throughout mountainous terrain.
The FAA certifies the operation of any aircraft navigational system. The major requirements for any system to be used for navigational purposes are integrity, accuracy, availability, and reliability.

Non-directional beacons are used for air navigation primarily where bad terrain exists.

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VeryHighFrequencyOmnidirectionalRange(VOR)
The Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni directional Range (VOR) transmits VHF radio signals in a finite number of compass headings. VHF is used because it is not greatly affected by lighting static or reflection from the terrain.

The Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni directional Range (VOR) transmits VHF radio signals in a finite number of compass headings. VHF is used because it is not greatly affected by lightning static or reflection from the terrain. VOR reception is restricted by its visual line of sight profile in that it does not follow the curvature of the earth; therefore, the farther away an aircraft is from the station, the higher the altitude the aircraft needs to be in order to receive the signal. The power and class of VOR dictates its reception distance. Most VORs have a range of approximately 200 miles. A VOR signal is received in the aircraft by a navigation radio having an omni (360 degree) bearing selector which, when rotated by the pilot, centers a needle on the instrument compass card and identifies whether the aircraft is going to or from the station. VORs located on airports are used primarily for instrument approaches and local navigation. These have a typical range of 25 miles and are known as Terminal VORs (TVOR). An additional type of low altitude VOR also provides navigation capabilities of up to 40 miles. VORs are affected by terrain and obstructions in close proximity to the station, that is, within several thousand feet of the facility. For this reason, a VOR or TVOR located on an airport has a 750-1,000 foot radius protection zone around it to reduce signal interference. Some VORs include Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) providing information on how far the aircraft is from the station. The U.S. military often uses TACAN or Tactical Air Navigation, which is a VOR-DME that operates over UHF frequencies. Area Navigation (RNAV) is a collection of systems that allows pilots to virtually modify the Victor Airways or Jet Routes for their particular route of flight. These procedures save fuel and time. Many systems today are being replaced or supplemented by Global Positioning Systems (GPS). GlobalPositioningSystems(GPS) GPS is in wide use throughout the world. GPS systems commonly exist in vehicles and in many smart phones. GPS has been making its way into the civilian aviation world as more en route navigation relies upon GPS and new GPS approaches are being developed, replacing VOR and NDB based approaches. The technology behind GPS is relatively simple. A constellation of 24 satellites orbiting 11,000 miles above the earth emits signals to receivers on earth. By measuring the travel time of a signal transmitted from each satellite, a receiver 65

VOR reception is restricted by its visual line of sight profile in that it does not follow the curvature of the earth; therefore, the farther away an aircraft is from the station, the higher the altitude the aircraft needs to be in order to receive the signal.

Area Navigation (RNAV) is a collection of systems that allows pilots to virtually modify the Victor Airways or Jet Routes for their particular route of flight. These procedures save fuel and time. Many systems today are being replaced or supplemented by Global Positioning Systems (GPS).

A constellation of 24 satellites orbiting 11,000 miles above the earth emits signals to receivers on earth. By measuring the travel time of a signal transmitted from each satellite, a receiver can calculate its distance from that satellite.

can calculate its distance from that satellite. Satellite positions are used by a receiver as precise reference points to determine the location of the receiver. When receiving the signals from at least four satellites, a GPS receiver can determine latitude, longitude, altitude, and time. The basic GPS signal is accurate to within approximately 100 meters lateral and 140 meters vertical everywhere on earth. VOR accuracy degrades as you move farther away from the navigation aid but GPS accuracy is space-based, and thus not constrained by ground equipment. The basic GPS signal is not as accurate as the existing ILSs; however, augmented by WAAS and LAAS, GPS will be able to supply a precision approach capability (CAT-I with WAAS and progressing to CAT-II/III with LAAS). GPS can be used with a ground monitoring station to achieve even greater accuracy. Differential GPS is a technique used to improve accuracy by incorporating error corrections provided by a GPS monitoring station. The monitoring station calculates the corrections by comparing its known location with that reported by GPS. The difference between the two represents a differential correction that can be applied to result in a more accurate position than that provided by GPS alone. The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is designed to enhance the capabilities of GPS signals to permit the system to be used for precision approaches without the need for on-airport equipment. GPS by itself does not satisfy the requirements for safety of flight. To obtain the precision necessary for instrument approaches, an augmentation signal on the ground is necessary to ensure that the GPS signal is available to everyone using the approach or en route signal. The FAA has determined that approximately 24 ground-based stations are required in the U. S. to meet the requirements for safety of flight. When coupled with the existing 24 orbiting satellite stations, WAAS is expected to satisfy the Category I instrument approach needs of most U. S. airports. A Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is the establishment of a groundbased transmitter on or near an airport that augments the satellite transmitters and provides the necessary number of receivers for an aircraft to make a Category II or III approach to a runway within 60 miles of the LAAS location.
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is designed to enhance the capabilities of GPS signals to permit the system to be used for precision approaches without the need for on-airport equipment.

The basic GPS signal is accurate to within approximately 100 meters lateral and 140 meters vertical everywhere on earth.

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InstrumentLandingSystem(ILS) An instrument landing system is a guidance system that provides both vertical and horizontal information used to align an aircraft with the centerline of a runway (see Figure 8). The two primary benefits associated with an instrument approach are enhanced safety and reduced flight disruption. An ILS is a device that projects a Radio Frequency (RF) beam which narrowly fans out along an aircrafts landing approach from the end of a runway. The resultant path is a straight line to the runway end and extends for five to seven miles from the threshold. It is usually set for a fixed vertical slope of approximately three degrees.

An instrument landing system is a guidance system that provides both vertical and horizontal information used to align an aircraft with the centerline of a runway. The two primary benefits associated with an instrument approach are enhanced and reduced flight disruption.

Figure8.GlideslopeandILScriticalareas

The ILS consists of a localizer beam radiating along the straight line of the approach, a glideslope transmitter, which fans out from the approach end to provide height information, an outer marker, a middle marker, and an FAAdetermined safe Decision Height (DH). Some ILSs require an inner marker, as well.

The ILS consists of a localizer beam radiating along the straight line of the approach, a glideslope transmitter, which fans out from the approach end to provide height information, an outer marker, a middle marker, and an FAAdetermined safe Decision Height (DH). Some ILSs require an inner marker, as well. Establishment criteria for an ILS at an airport are found under FAA Policy APO83-10 Establishment and Discontinuance Criteria for Precision Landing Systems. To be eligible for consideration of an ILS, an airport must undertake an analysis 67

of economic criteria that includes the establishment formula and cost-benefit factors. Key establishment criteria are based upon: (1) the number of annual instrument approaches, (2) the number of non-precision approach minimums on the candidate runway, and (3) the probability of IFR weather at the airport. The costbenefit analysis considers the value of air travel time, the value of the equipments statistical life, the unit cost of statistically derived aviation injuries, aircraft capability and utilization factors, variable operating costs, and the statistical unit replacement and restoration cost of damaged aircraft. Some airport locations may qualify for exemptions from meeting the economic criteria because of other critical factors, such as safety or compelling operational needs. Examples of operational justifications are unique terrain in the vicinity of the airport, location in a severe weather area, or the potential for relief of airport hub congestion. Any ILS installation must meet FAA design standards found in AC 150/5300-13 Airport Design and have an airspace allocation and flight route capability determined to be acceptable under FAA Order 8260.3 Terminal Approach Procedures. An analysis of radio interference is also undertaken using FAA Order 6050.32 Manual of Regulations and Procedures for FAA Spectrum Management. Localizer(LOC) A localizer is an RF transmitting device normally located 1,000 feet past the departure end of the runway that has the approach. It constitutes the first component of an ILS system. Normally mounted on frangible, break-away couplings, the LOC focuses an RF beam down the centerline of the runway and toward the approach end of the runway. It provides lateral positioning information to the pilot and is used to align the aircraft with the runway centerline. The LOC signal is line of sight for a distance of approximately 10 nautical miles and is focused within 35 degrees left or right of the runway centerline. Aircraft approaching an airport under ILS guidance must follow this path in single file, spaced at intervals dictated by standards for safe, longitudinal separation and the need to avoid wake turbulence. Terrain, buildings, vehicles, other aircraft, and power lines easily affect the LOC signal. Partly for this reason, separate stop or hold lines on the taxi-ways may be established for aircraft when instrument approaches are in effect. 68
A localizer is an RF transmitting device normally located 1,000 feet past the departure end of the runway that has the approach. It provides lateral positioning information to the pilot and is used to align the aircraft with the runway centerline.

Localizer design criteria calls for an impact zone to be established around the localizer. This zone is known as the localizer critical area (see Figure 8 above). Approximately 250 feet in diameter, it extends 2,000 feet down the runway. Therefore, ground maintenance and inspection of airport surfaces within that area should occur only when VFR conditions exist or when authorized by the ATCT. The normal operation and use of a localizer result in what is known as a front course approach. On some localizer installations, the installed equipment and terrain allow for a reverse approach to the airport, or what is known as a nonprecision localizer, back course approach. A localizer directional aid is a localizer used for approach guidance to an airport, but the localizer signal does not align the aircraft with the centerline of the runway. These types of installations exist because of problems that may occur with the proper siting of a localizer. Glideslope(GS) A glideslope is the second component of an ILS system. It is normally located at least 250 feet on either side of the instrument runway, and approximately 1,000 feet down the runway from the approach end. The glideslope provides the pilot with vertical height information and transmits a signal that normally results in a three-degree slope away from the runway end.
The glideslope provides the pilot with vertical height information and transmits a signal that normally results in a three-degree slope away from the runway end.

Because the glideslope operates by reflecting or bouncing the electronic signal off the ground in front of the antenna, a critical area is associated with its installation. This area is normally rectangular in shape and covers an area 500 feet wide by 1,200 feet long directly in front of the antenna. For this reason proper maintenance of the ground area in front of the antenna is very important. Factors such as water accumulation, deep or piled snow, uneven terrain, metal or construction objects, and aircraft or ground vehicles will affect the reflectivity of the signal. Glideslopes often warrant an additional set of hold lines to be used during instrument conditions.

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MarkerBeacon(MB) The third required component of an ILS system is a marker beacon. MBs are located along the localizer approach path at fixed distances. They convey to the pilot precise distance location information from the runway threshold. Their signal is cone or fan shaped and directed vertically to annunciate an aircrafts receiver as it passes overhead. Category II and III ILSs have three marker beacons: an Outer Marker (OM), a Middle Marker (MM), and an Inner Marker (IM)E. The outer marker is located four to seven nautical miles from the runway threshold; the middle marker is located 2,000 to 6,000 feet from the runway threshold; and the inner marker is close to 1,000 feet from the threshold. There is no inner marker on a Category I ILS. An aircraft properly flying a CAT I approach will be at an altitude of 200 feet over the middle marker. This point is known as the Decision Height (DH) for the approach. It is the point at which a pilot is required to have the runway threshold lights in view, or otherwise execute a missed approach. Decision heights for Category II and III approaches can be lower than 200 feet when located at the IM. ILSCategories Different types of ILSs exist, depending upon their accuracy and the accuracy of the equipment on the aircraft (see Figure 9). Known as ILS categories, the distinction lies in the difference between decision height and visibility requirements. Trained observers looking at a fixed-distance reference or landmark, or Runway Visual Range (RVR) measuring equipment determines visibility. The standard ILS is Category I and consists of a localizer, glideslope, middle marker, and outer marker or compass locator (also known as the initial approach fix).

Marker beacons convey to the pilot precise distance location information from the runway threshold.

Note that if approved by the FAA, distance measuring equipment, or DME, can replace marker beacons.

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Figure6.ILSCategoriesandCriteria
A Category II ILS has more stringent requirements and adds the inner marker to the list of electronic navigational aids. A Category III approach is the most stringent and expensive of ILS systems because of the equipment involved.

A Category II ILS has more stringent requirements and adds the inner marker to the list of electronic navigational aids. A Category III approach is the most stringent and expensive of ILS systems because of the equipment involved. Three different levels of Category III ILS exist. A Category IIIC approach allows a properly equipped aircraft and certified pilot to land when the visibility is zero. Both Category II and Category III ILS approaches require an airport to have runway visual range equipment. The RVR consists of two devices located 500 feet apart and at least 250 feet on either side of the runway outside the safety area. One device is a transmission meter projector. It transmits a light beam of known intensity toward the second device, which is the receiver. Any change in the intensity of the light received provides a differential readout and corresponding visibility distance. Factors affecting the light intensity are fog, rain, snow, smoke, haze and even the runway lights at night. Depending upon the runway length and use, one or more RVRs may be placed along the runway. A Category I runway requires only a single RVR at the midpoint. Category II and III runways will have two or three RVRs, depending upon the visibility minimums. If two are required, one is at the touchdown point

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and the other at the rollout point. A third RVR, if necessary, is located at the midpoint of the runway. DevelopingTechnologies ADS-B and NextGen are two developing technologies that are intended to increase capacity and safety throughout the national airspace system. The ultimate goal is to change the air traffic control system from being radar dependent to a precision location system based on satellite technology. Presently, aircraft are guided to their destinations through a series of radar handoffs from one air traffic controller to another. Radar can take over half a minute to accurately read a fast moving aircrafts position (500+ MPH), which requires larger safety buffers. Additionally, air traffic controllers place aircraft on a series of highways in the sky, but these are rarely direct routes between destinations. NextGen is designed so that ATC and pilots have accurate and realtime information to keep aircraft separated and allow pilots to navigate directly from point-to-point. NextGen is an umbrella term for the ongoing, wide-ranging transformation of the U.S.s national airspace system (NAS). NextGen represents an evolution from a ground-based system of air traffic control to a satellite-based system of air traffic management. This evolution is vital to meeting future demand and avoids gridlock in the sky and at our nations airports. NextGen will safely allow more aircraft to fly more closely together on more direct routes, thereby reducing delays and providing unprecedented benefits for the environment and the economy through reductions in carbon emissions, fuel consumption, and noise. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) is a component of the Next-Generation Air Transportation System. ADS-B uses conventional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology and a broadcast communications link. Unlike radar, ADS-B accuracy does not seriously degrade with range, atmospheric conditions, or target altitude. The benefits of ADS-B include: 1. Air-to-air surveillance capability. 2. Surveillance to remote or inhospitable areas that do not currently have coverage with radar. 3. Real-time traffic and aeronautical information in the cockpit. 72
NextGen is an umbrella term for the ongoing, wide-ranging transformation of the U.S. national airspace system (NAS). NextGen represents an evolution from a ground-based system of air traffic control to a satellite-based system of air traffic management.

ADS-B is a component the Next-Generation Air Transportation System. ADS-B uses conventional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology and a broadcast communications link. Unlike radar, ADS-B accuracy does not seriously degrade with range, atmospheric conditions, or target altitude.

4. Allows for reduced separation and greater predictability in departure and arrival times. 5. Supports common separation standards, both horizontal and vertical, for all classes of airspace. 6. Improves ability of airlines to manage traffic and aircraft fleets. 7. Improves ability of air traffic controllers to plan arrivals and departures far in advance. 8. Reduces the cost of the infrastructure needed to operate the National Airspace System. Aircraft equipped with ADS-B technology and a GNSS receiver derives its precise position from the GNSS, and then combines that position with any number of aircraft flight parameters, such as speed, heading, altitude and flight number. This information is then simultaneously broadcast to other ADS-B capable aircraft and to ADS-B ground or satellite communications transceivers, which then relay the aircraft's position and additional information to Air Traffic Control centers in real time. FlightServiceStations The Civil Aeronautics Agency first established the Interstate Airway Communication Station (IACS), designed to offer flight advisory services to aircraft operating along the federal airways in 1942. Up to that time, the airlines had been responsible for providing their pilots with that information. The IACS was the precursor to todays Flight Service Station (FSS).
The Flight Service Station is an air traffic facility that provides pilot briefing, aircraft en route communication, and visual flight rule (VFR) search and rescue services.

Aircraft equipped with ADS-B technology and a GNSS receiver derives its precise position from the GNSS, and then combines that position with any number of aircraft flight parameters, such as speed, heading, altitude and flight number.

The Flight Service Station is an air traffic facility that provides pilot briefing, aircraft en route communication, and visual flight rule (VFR) search and rescue services. In providing pilot briefings, the FSS broadcasts aviation weather and National Airspace System (NAS) information, receives and processes IFR flight plans, and relays ATC clearances. The FSS is responsible for originating and disseminating notices to airmen (NOTAMs) and for monitoring various navaids around the country. Some FSSs, and the more recent Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS), have responsibility for taking weather observations, issuing local airport advisories, and advising customs and immigration of trans-border flights.

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Flight Service Stations have existed at many airports around the country. They are responsible for providing a wide range of services, such as disseminating weatherrelated information and coordinating flight-planning activities to primarily general aviation pilots. Because of concerns for operational cost increases associated with forecasted growth in demand for flight services, a cost-conscious FAA started to reduce the number of FSS by consolidating them into larger Automated Flight Service Stations. AirportBasedWeatherObservationStations Hundreds of Automated Surface Observations Stations (ASOS) and Automated Weather Observation Systems (AWOS) have been installed at airports and other sites nationwide to provide current and reliable weather information to pilots, the AFSS, and other aviation users. ASOS and AWOS are 24-hour real time weather data collection and display systems that transmit computer generated voice reports about conditions at the location of the ASOS. The reports can also be accessed by telephone. The difference between the two is that ASOS are more expensive systems that are part of a National Weather Service program. ASOS also have more redundancy built in than AWOS. AWOSs are an affordable option for airport operators seeking weather-reporting capabilities. A typical ASOS configuration includes sensors for wind direction and speed, temperature, dew point, altimeter, ceiling, visibility, and liquid precipitation. ASOS is primarily located on airports near the touchdown zones of the primary instrument runway. AWOS is found at remote non-airport locations or on smaller airports. There are four ASOS categories that are determined by air traffic levels and the severity of local weather. Level A stations include major hubs or airports with the potential for severe weather. Level B stations include smaller hub airports or airports that have worse than average weather. Tower controllers augment level C airports or FSS specialists who report thunderstorms, hail, tornadoes, and tower visibility. All towered airports are considered Level C airports during hours of normal tower operation. Contract weather observers may supplement Level C observations. Level D airports are completely automated and are not augmented.

The difference between the two is that ASOS are more expensive systems that are part of a National Weather Service program. ASOS also have more redundancy built in the AWOS. AWOSs are an affordable option for airport operators seeking weatherreporting capabilities.

Level A stations include major hubs or airports with the potential for severe weather.

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Prior to the implementation of ASOS, commercial instrument flight rules under FAR Part 121 and 135 were restricted at over 1,200 airports having standard instrument approach procedures due to of the absence of a local weather reporting service. Another 376 airports had only part-time service. ASOS provides information for increased IFR capabilities at those airports.
Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) requires all airports with control zones to have weather observation services. All FAA-towered airports are eligible for installation of an ASOS, based upon an analysis of cost effectiveness.

Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) requires all airports with control zones to have weather observation services. All FAA-towered airports are eligible for installation of an ASOS, based upon an analysis of cost effectiveness. Non-towered and non-federal towered airports are eligible, based on a ratio value computed by summing the benefits provided to each user class and dividing the sum by the life-cycle costs. If the ratio value is greater than one, the airport is eligible for ASOS. Should the value fall below .45, an existing ASOS facility is a candidate for discontinuance. ASOS are eligible for funding under the Airport Improvement Program.

Airspace
Part77ObjectsAffectingNavigableAirspace As an airport plans for various construction, improvements, or expansions, the airport manager must consider the environmental impact of infrastructure on the ability of aircraft to operate in the airports airspace. FAR Part 77 provides the airport manager with detailed operating regulations as related to managing objects that may interfere with aircraft flying in the airport area. In general, FAR Part 77F includes the following areas: 1) Establishes standards for determining obstructions in navigable airspace; 2) Sets forth the requirements for notice to the Administrator of certain proposed construction or alteration; 3) Provides for aeronautical studies of obstructions to air navigation, to determine their effect on the safe and efficient use of airspace; 4) Provides for public hearings on the hazardous effect of proposed construction or alteration on air navigation; and 5) Provides for establishing antenna farm areas.
F

FAR Part 77 provides the airport manager with detailed operating regulations as related to managing objects that may interfere with aircraft flying in the airport area.

See http://www.faa.gov/airports/central/engineering/part77/index.cfm?print=go

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In order to provide for safe flight and transition of aircraft from takeoff to landing, federal regulations have been promulgated to help protect the airspace and instrument approaches to airports from the construction of towers, buildings, and other objects that would interfere with the utilization of the airspace. Part 77 of the Federal Aviation Regulations establishes procedures for reporting proposed construction that may constitute potential obstructions or hazards to safe air navigation to the Federal Aviation Administration. Determining criteria are found in the regulations. They identify height notification requirements with reduced maximum allowable object heights closer to the airport. Additionally, federal grant assurances require airport management to take necessary action to protect the terminal area airspace from the hazards of safe flight. An object is defined under the regulations as any natural growth, terrain, permanent or temporary construction or alteration, including equipment or materials used, and apparatus of a permanent or temporary character. This definition includes items such as trees, construction cranes, well drilling equipment, stockpiled material or earth, buildings, and parked vehicles. When the FAA develops an approach for a particular runway at an airport, it builds in safety margins to allow for pilot deviations, instrument errors, and terrain or obstacle conditions. Criteria for instrument approaches are spelled out in the FAA Handbook 8260.3 United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS). TERPS en route segments have obstacle clearances normally starting at 1,000 feet for obstacle clearance. A standard three-degree glideslope requires a one-foot descent for every twenty feet over the ground. At the final approach fix (the point where the approach to a runway begins) obstacle clearance for an aircraft is roughly 700 feet. At the runway threshold, the clearance has tapered down to only a 50 foot clearance. If the terrain cannot meet that criterion, then a displaced threshold is established to maintain the standard. If a displaced threshold results in too short of a runway for the intended aircraft operation, then the normal decision height of 200 feet for a Category-I ILS can be raised to a height that will allow the aircraft to use the full runway. The impact of raising the decision height affects the number of successful approaches and landings made due to weather conditions at the airport. The principal imaginary surfaces defined in FAR Part 77 are shown in Figure 10. They 76

In order to provide for safe flight and transition of aircraft from takeoff to landing, federal regulations have been promulgated to help protect the airspace and instrument approaches to airports from the construction of towers, buildings, and other objects that would interfere with the utilization of the airspace.

A standard three-degree glideslope requires a one-foot descent for every twenty feet over the ground. At the final approach fix (the point where the approach to a runway begins), obstacle clearance for an aircraft is roughly 700 feet. At the runway threshold, the clearance has tapered down to only a 50 foot clearance.

are identified as the primary surface, transitional surfaces, approach surfaces, the horizontal surface, and conical surfaces. The primary surface area is centered on the runway centerline and extends 200 feet past the runway end. Its width varies from 250 feet to 1,000 feet, depending on the type of approach to the runway. The transitional surfaces begin at the end of the primary surface and transition to the next surface. The slope is 7:1. Although not required, the FAA encourages that runway protection zones at the ends of the runways be provided and controlled by the airport operator. Runway Protection Zones (RPZ) are areas underlying the innermost portions of the runway approach zones, as defined in FAR Part 77. The horizontal surface area of Part 77 is a level plane 150 feet above the runway elevation. Its surface area is determined by connecting tangents of radii extended from the ends of all the runways. The length of the radii is dependent upon the approach category for the runway. It is intended to accommodate the safe operation and maneuvering of aircraft that are performing circle-to-land or missed approaches (see Figure 11).

Figure10.Part77ObstacleSurfaces

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The conical surface starts at the perimeter of the horizontal surface and continues upward at a slope of 20:1 for a horizontal distance of 4,000 feet. The approach surfaces start 200 feet from the runway end and extend outward from the primary surface for a distance of up to 50,000 feet, in the case of precision instrument runways. The approach slope can vary from 20:1 for a visual runway, to 34:1 for a non-precision runway, or to 50:1 for a precision runway.

Figure7.AirportCirclingApproachObstacleClearanceArea

FAR Part 77 defines an obstruction and the requirements to file for notification under Part 77 as 77.13. Any person or organization who intends to sponsor any of the following construction or alterations must notify the Administrator of the FAA: 1) Any construction or alteration exceeding 200 ft above ground level; 2) Any construction or alteration: a. Within 20,000 ft of a public use or military airport that exceeds a 100:1 surface from any point on the runway of each airport with at least one runway more than 3,200 ft. b. Within 10,000 ft of a public use or military airport that exceeds a 50:1 surface from any point on the runway of each airport with its longest runway no more than 3,200 ft. c. Within 5,000 ft of a public use heliport which exceeds a 25:1 surface. 3) Any highway, railroad or other traverse way whose prescribed, adjusted height would exceed the above noted standards: a. When requested by the FAA; 78

b. Any construction or alteration located on a public use airport or heliport regardless of height or location. Upon receipt of any proposed construction, the FAA conducts a Part 77 study by analyzing the effect the construction would have on the access to an airport and on the safe operation of aircraft. As a result of the study, the FAA may resist, oppose, or recommend against the presence of objects or activities that would conflict with an airport design planning standard or planning recommendation. A Part 77 study concludes with one or more of six possibilities: (1) the obstruction to air navigation is a hazard to air navigation; (2) the object or activity on or near an airport is objectionable; (3) the need exists to alter, remove, mark, or light the object; (4) the airport layout plan is approved; (5) the proposed construction, enlargement, or modification to the airport would have an adverse effect on the safe and efficient use of navigable airspace; or (6) a change in operational procedure is feasible or required. The FAA requires notification under this Part, regardless if the modification is permanent or temporary. Examples of permanent modifications include buildings, roadways, AWOS/ASOS, and elevated signage. Examples of temporary construction include drilling rigs, stock piles, cranes, and temporary lights. Temporary and permanent modifications can have an effect on the environmental quality of the airports surrounding airspace. FAR Part 77 is designed to allow proactive management of these concerns by the government and the airports management. FAR Part 77 addresses only requirements for notifying the FAA of any proposed alteration or construction. An FAA determination is a conclusion based on a study of a structures projected impact on the safe and efficient use of the navigable airspace by aircraft. The regulations do not provide the FAA with the authority to prevent someone from constructing or altering a structure, regardless of the results of the study. The authority to prevent construction or alteration is reserved for the states and resides with the local, regional, or municipal zoning authorities. For this reason, the FAA insists upon land use planning in and around airports to promote compatible uses and to protect the FAAs investment in the airports and the airways.

Upon receipt of any proposed construction, the FAA conducts a Part 77 study by analyzing the effect the construction would have on the access to an airport and on the safe operation of aircraft.

Examples of permanent modifications include buildings, roadways, AWOS/ASOS, and elevated signage. Examples of temporary construction include drilling rigs, stock piles, cranes, and temporary lights.

The regulations do not provide the FAA with the authority to prevent someone from constructing or altering a structure, regardless of the results of the study. The authority to prevent construction or alteration is reserved for the states and resides with the local, regional, or municipal zoning authorities.

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If an FAA study should determine that the construction or alteration of a structure would interfere in the operation of the air navigation system, the FAA will seek modifications to the application or will change the operational use of the affected airport or airspace. Examples of operational changes are displacing a threshold, raising the approach minimums or visibility requirements, or raising the aircraft minimum descent altitude in the area. Each of these actions reduces the capacity and operational capability of an airport. Airport management then has the option to accept the restrictions or to remove the obstacle. An airport manager has several options in mitigating any object that penetrates a runways threshold siting requirements or approach, for example, (1) relocating a threshold, (2) removing the object, (3) raising the approach minimums or visibility requirements, and (4) raising the aircraft minimum descent altitude in the area. Upon completion of the review process, the FAA notifies the applicant whether or not the proposed construction or alteration is a hazard to air navigation. The FAA will also normally alert an airport operator of its findings if the object is within the area near the airport, heliport, or seaport. Notices of objects along federal airways do not require the FAA to inform nearby airports. To ensure notification of all potential objects that may affect flight operations in an area, some states and airports have enacted their own legislation requiring notice to be filed with a local zoning office. In turn, the zoning office informs all of the airport, regional, or state offices. When an approved construction or alteration is completed, an FAA Form 7460-2 Notice of Actual Construction or Alteration is required to be filed. Another form, FAA Form 7480-1, is filed whenever an airport is to be constructed, activated, or deactivated. For installing NAVAIDS, FAA Order 6030.1 FAA Policy on Facility Relocations Occasioned by Airport Improvements or Changes, provides guidance on eligible costs and design considerations. For non-federally funded NAVAID installations, FAR Part 171 Non-Federal Navigation Facilities provides similar guidance.

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TerminalandLandsidePlanning
A fundamental role of the airport passenger terminal is to transition passengers from ground transportation to air transportation and then back to ground transportation. In consideration of these functions, airport planners attempt to provide for terminals that balance the present and future needs for passenger convenience, baggage handling, aircraft operations, ground access, security, blast protection, revenue generation, business commerce, and operational control. Airport planners and designers use various operating philosophies and strategies to meet these objectives. For example, terminal building layout can be designed as centralized, decentralized, or as hybrid.

TerminalLayouts
Most large U.S. air carrier airport terminal facilities are based on decentralized terminal layouts.

Airside functions, including security checkpoints, gates, and boarding area concessions, are located in a building remote from the landside building. Passenger check-in, retail and food concessions, baggage claim and ground transportation are clustered in the landside facilities.

Most large U.S. air carrier airport terminal facilities are based on decentralized terminal layouts. In a decentralized terminal, passenger-handling facilities are separated into landside and airside operations. Decentralized facilities have passenger ticketing and baggage claim functions in one building and aircraft loading and unloading in another. Airside functions, including security checkpoints, gates, and boarding area concessions, are located in a building remote from the landside building. Passenger check-in, retail and food concessions, baggage claim and ground transportation are clustered in the landside facilities. People movers, shuttles or walkways connect the airside and landside buildings. The decentralized terminals were designed to help reduce both aircraft and passenger ground access congestion. However, this advantage requires distances from check-in and baggage claim areas to boarding gates to be typically greater in decentralized airport terminals. The advantages of a decentralized passenger-processing terminal are that they help to minimize walking distances, improve vehicle and passenger circulation flows through dispersion, and allow for growth by the addition of other remote airside buildings. Landside concessions can be clustered near passenger circulation flows, and airside concessions can be targeted for originating and transfer passenger needs. Their disadvantages are primarily increased capital and operational costs. Decentralized terminals require additional personnel to staff similar functions in each of the units, the operation of people movers and some duplication of facilities. 81

Typically, general aviation and small-hub airports have a centralized terminal building where ticketing, baggage check-in, security screening, aircraft boarding, baggage claim, customs, and immigration are accomplished in one building. The primary advantages of a centralized terminal design are in the consolidation of employees, thereby minimizing duplication of personnel costs and the clustering of operational equipment. Centralization represents a reasonably compact operation without the significant problem of transferring passengers and baggage between or among buildings. The ability to consolidate and control passenger activities and security requirements, to simplify vehicle and passenger information systems, and to provide a common area for passenger services and amenities is generally less expensive than the costs for operating other types of terminals. The prime disadvantage in centralized layouts is increased congestion in and around the terminal, as well as ticket counter check-in points. Generally, longer walking distances exist from the parking area to the gates, and often the layout of the building restricts future expansion capabilities. Hybrid terminal layouts usually result from airports that modify an existing facility or building that no longer meets the needs of stakeholders to the airport. Hybrid solutions usually result in designs combining features of centralized and decentralized facilities. As a hybrid layout, the terminal building may have passenger handling facilities, business commerce, baggage check-in, and baggage claim at two or more locations because of land restrictions, cost considerations, or airline preference. At some high activity airports, each airline (or several airlines) may be located in a separate building. This is referred to as a unit terminal concept.G Unit terminals at a specific airport may be identical in design, or vary based on the needs of the airlines and passengers being served at each unit terminal. Examples of airports having unit terminalsH include Kennedy, Kansas City, and Dallas-Ft. Worth International. For a unit terminal, the design concept is justified only at the very activity airports, particularly where the percentage of airline connecting passengers is relatively low. Their operational costs are higher because of the

Centralization represents a reasonably compact operation without the significant problem of transferring passengers and baggage between or among buildings.

Hybrid terminal layouts usually result from airports that modify an existing facility or building that no longer meets the needs of stakeholders to the airport.

G H

See: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11049/airport/72424/Terminal-designs See: http://www.britannica.com/facts/5/593432/Barajas-Airport-as-discussed-in-airport

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Need for some sort of transportation system for passenger and baggage transfer between buildings. TerminalDesignConcepts The design of a terminal area is based on the land available, financial resources, tenant operational requirements, and passenger characteristics. Tenant operational characteristics include a number of considerations depending on the type and size of the airport. Commonly considered operational needs are noted below: 1) Type of aircraft using the airport on a regular basis; 2) Aircraft circulation needs in and around the terminal; 3) Aircraft parking or gate access requirements; 4) FAA design standards for safety, obstacle and visual clearances; 5) Navigational aid and ATCT requirements; 6) Air cargo access, handling and use requirements; 7) Aircraft hydrant or other refueling and servicing requirements; 8) Utility needs such as electrical, ground power, and HVAC; 9) Protection from jet and propeller blast; 10) Rental car storage, maintenance, and servicing requirements; 11) Delivery vehicles and terminal services requirements; 12) Employee and administrative parking; 13) Emergency rescue and firefighting access; and 14) General aviation and helicopter access. Five basic terminal building design concepts describe the type of interface that exists between the aircraft and the building. Each can be used with varying degrees of centralization. The designs are: (1) simple, (2) pier finger, (3) satellite, (4) linear, and (5) transporter. The elements unique to each concept are the volumetric design of each building, its architectural treatment, the way aircraft gates are arranged, the location of sterile, security corridors or areas, the location of mechanical spaces, the airside service road location and configuration, aircraft boarding through loading bridges (fixed and/or apron drive) or from the ramp, operation and maintenance principles, requirements for expandability of the terminal, and finally, the overall image and perception of interior spaces generated by different enclosure designs.

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The most fundamental type of gate arrival concept is the simple type where passengers walk out onto the ramp to waiting aircraft. Most non-hub and smaller airports having fewer than 100,000 enplanements have this type of aircraft/gate interface. Close-in parking along the length of the terminal allows for ample curb frontage for loading and unloading ground transportation. Short walking distances from an automobile to the gate, often less than 200 feet, are also common. The linear concept is a simple terminal that has been lengthened to accommodate aircraft heading into the terminal along its length. It can be easily expanded if space is available and the ends of the building are free of structural impediments. Extending the building, however, does not lend linear terminals to common facilities such as waiting rooms, concessions, ticket counters, or hold rooms without the disadvantage of longer walking distances, a common passenger complaint. The longer the terminal, the greater the potential for a long walking distance between connecting flights, or between an enplaned point and a return deplaned point. Aircraft positioning at linear terminals varies between parallel or at an angle and parking nose-in to a loading bridge. The interface depends on the annual passenger enplanements, the aircraft used, available financial resources, and the airlines operating characteristics. As simple or linear terminal type airports experience growth, land constraints may preclude the extension of the terminal. To accommodate increased aircraft gate capacity, pier fingers can be constructed from the main terminal onto the ramp area, if adequate space exists. The concept allows for continued centralization of passenger processes while retaining airline-operating efficiencies. The piers allow aircraft to park along their length. The longer the pier, the longer the walking distance for the passengerup to 1,500 feet at some airports. In accommodating more aircraft, vehicle curb space may remain the same, resulting in increased access congestion and longer walking distances, as automobile parking is extended away from the terminal to accommodate the increased activity. In contrast to a pier finger, a satellite terminal has the aircraft gates located at the end of a long concourse or connecting Automated People Mover system (APM) rather than being spaced along the pier concourse. The concourse or connectors are above ground, at ground, or below ground level. APM that transports passengers between the main terminal and the satellite are located above or below ground. Airports have used moving sidewalks, buses, underground automated
As simple or linear terminal type airports experience growth, land constraints may preclude the extension of the terminal. To accommodate increased aircraft gate capacity, pier fingers can be constructed from the main terminal onto the ramp area, if adequate space exists.

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transit vehicles and above ground Automated Guideway Transit System (AGTS) vehicles to move passengers between terminals. Common hold rooms usually serve the airline gates at a satellite terminal. An advantage of a satellite concept is that it lends itself to a compact, central terminal with common areas for processing passengers. A disadvantage of satellites at the end of a concourse is that they are difficult to expand without reducing ramp frontage or disrupting airport operations. If properly designed with adequate ramp space, additional satellites can be added to increase capacity. Mobile lounge or transporter terminal design concepts have not won wide acceptance in the U.S. Washington Dulles International Airport was the predominant user of the transporter gate interface. The use of a transporter or mobile lounge allows an aircraft to be remotely parked anywhere on a ramp area. The mobile lounge or transporter then shuttles passengers between the terminal and the aircraft. The concept allows for excellent aircraft maneuvering and less congestion at the terminal gate. However, the mobile transporter concept tends to be labor intensive and costly to operate compared with other design alternatives. The process also compels the passenger to build in additional pre-boarding time. Many international airports and some in the U.S. (e.g., Los Angeles International Airport) have adopted the plane-stand concept, whereby a mobile lounge, transporter or bus transports passengers from a holding room to the aircraft that is parked away from the terminal. Passengers then board via air stairs. Buildings at small general aviation airports normally are centered on a fixed-base operation, which provides the space and facilities needed to meet the public and air traffic demands of the airport. At larger or more active GA airports, a separate administration building may exist. The size and location of the building will be based on the activity levels of the airport, which includes the number of based aircraft, the number of local and itinerant operations, and the number of pilots and passengers, who are expected to use the airport facility on a typical busy day.

If properly designed with adequate ramp space, additional satellites can be added to increase capacity.

Planning and design includes the compilation of surveys, questionnaires, and forecasts (short and intermediate periods); determination of design day and peak hour activity date; establishment of passenger, aircraft, and vehicular traffic relationships; an understanding of the site topography; the inventory and evaluation of existing facilities; analyses of space requirements for alternative layouts; estimation of costs; and development of financial plans.

TerminalDesignConsiderations
Effective planning and design of the terminal area involves active participation of airport and airline management, concessionaires, regulatory agencies, financial, maintenance and operations, consultants, and the community. Planning and design 85

includes the compilation of surveys, questionnaires, and forecasts (short and intermediate periods); determination of design day and peak hour activity data; establishment of passenger, aircraft, and vehicular traffic relationships; an understanding of the site topography; the inventory and evaluation of existing facilities; analyses of space requirements for alternative layouts; estimation of costs; and development of financial plans. Airport terminal facilities are planned on the basis of activity forecasts. The annual forecasts normally used are passenger enplanements, passenger originations, and aircraft movements (by aircraft size). The most useful sources for this information include: (1) the current airport master plan, (2) the FAA published terminal area forecastsI, (3) forecasts developed by the Air Transport Association (ATA),J and (4) those forecasts developed by the individual airlines serving the airport. For air carrier airports, annual passenger volume and peak hourly demand are two key factors in airport terminal design. The heaviest concentrations at certain times of the day are known as the peak hour demand. This peak hour activity is based on an elapsed hour, which may not correspond with a clock hour, and which may occur at different times for the enplaning, deplaning and total (enplaning+deplaning) activity. Designing terminal buildings and related space needs requires consideration of a typical, peak hour forecast and demand. The first step in determining peak-hour demand is to identify the peak month of passenger activity and correlate it with the baseline passenger activity. Typically the peak month is 10 percent of annual activity but may vary depending on the business vs. leisure market characteristics of a given airport. The peak-month enplanements are then divided by the number of days in the peak month to arrive at the Average Day/Peak Month (ADPM) baseline. The ADPM is the basis for using many of the FAAs forecasting tables relative to terminal design. Peak hourly enplaning (PHEP) and deplaning (PHDP) passenger and operational activity is then estimated from an analysis of either the existing or design-day schedule during that peak month of the baseline annual activity period. Peak hour activity typically ranges from between 12-20% of daily activity, but can achieve greater percentages at airports with unique geographic or operating characteristics (i.e. curfews or hubs).The peak hour (PHEP/PHDP) activity can then be
I J

Airport terminal facilities are planned on the basis of activity forecasts. The annual forecasts normally used are passenger enplanements, passenger originations, and aircraft movements (by aircraft size).

The first step in determining peak-hour demand is to identify the peak month of passenger activity and correlate it with the baseline passenger activity.

See: http://aspmhelp.faa.gov/index.php/TAF_SystemOverview See: http://www.airlines.org/economics/traffic/

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It should be noted that as an airport grows, the peak as a percentage of daily activity tends to decrease somewhat as frequency to the city-pairs served begins to increase.

correlated with the ADPM activity, and in turn, with the baseline annual passenger activity to be used as the basis for forecasting peak-hour and daily activity. It should be noted that as an airport grows, the peak as a percentage of daily activity tends to decrease somewhat as frequency to the city-pairs served begins to increase. Significant variations in the characteristics and ratio of the different passenger types can influence terminal space requirements and staffing. The two major passenger categories are business and leisure. Business travelers tend to place demands and require terminal services that are different from the leisure traveler. The need for business centers, close-in rental car access, short distances to the aircraft boarding area, and airline travel clubs contrasts with the services that might be used more by non-business (or leisure) travelers, such as curbside check-in, remote, less expensive parking, and seating areas. Restaurants and retail stores are likely to be used by both groups. A third category of passenger is international. If an airport handles international flights, additional space requirements are needed for the processing of Federal Inspection Services,K such as customs and immigration. Other building requirements may be for separate passenger holding and security areas and for amenities peculiar to international operations such as duty-free stores and currency exchanges. Airports with international flights have a tendency toward higher peak-hour activity because international city-pair connections require airline schedules to be conducive to time zone changes and airport operating restrictions. International flights tend to leave or arrive at the same time. Another characteristic is the relatively long ground service times (two to three hours for turnarounds) required for the servicing of long-range aircraft. Additional space requirements for federal inspection services, security, and passenger convenience place further demands on international terminal designs. In addition to passengers, airports must accommodate non-passengers, as well. Non-passengers are usually identified as visitors ("meeters and greeters" and service and delivery personnel), and employees (airport, airline, and tenants). The ratio of visitors to airline passengers varies widely at airports. Their impact, however, is quite evident on the need for public parking, building facilities, and
K

A third category of passenger is international. If an airport handles international flights, additional space requirements are needed for the processing of Federal Inspection Services such as customs and immigration.

In addition to passengers, airports must accommodate non-passengers as well. Nonpassengers are usually identified as visitors ("meeters and greeters" and service and delivery personnel), and employees (airport, airline, and tenants).

For an example, see: http://www.portsanantonio.us/Webpages.asp?wpid=132

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space. Planners must also consider whether meeters and greeters will have access to only pre-screening areas of terminals. An airport serving a seasonal vacation or resort area will have different requirements than one handling comparable peak-month or peak-week volumes of predominantly business travelers. Similarly, a facility close to a military installation or a college town may generate significant peaks in traffic, warranting additional facilities and services. A large, international airport will have major space and service requirements to handle security screening, immigration, customs, and different cultural considerations. After international flights, passenger bags are commonly placed in a room for passengers to pick up to accommodate customs inspection. Upon completion of the federal clearance process, the passenger either leaves the airport or rechecks the bags for a connecting flight. Depending on building layout and ultimate passenger destination, an additional set of screening facilities may also be required. An airports character and facility layout is influenced largely by the route structures of its airlines. An airport can generally be categorized into three types on the basis of the route structures of its tenant airlines and their passengers. The commonly used terms are origination/destination, through, and transfer airport. Origination/destination (or O & D) airports usually involve a high percentage of local passengers and turnaround flights. The significant passenger flow between ground transportation and the aircraft generates a high space requirement for ticket counters, curb length, and parking spaces per enplaned passenger. Passengers in this category usually require maximum handling services for checking and claiming baggage. Through airports have a relatively high percentage of originating passengers combined with a low percentage of originating flights. A Through airport is served by an aircraft having greater capacity than the airport can originate. The flights are justified by the addition of enplanements feeding from an originating point and the airline is seeking to increase its load factor by stopping at the through airport. Aircraft ground times tend to be short at through airports because the flight quickly continues on to another destination. Because of lower levels of activity, parking, curb, gate hold rooms, and other space requirements at through airports may be less than at an originating airport. Transfer airports have significant levels of total enplanements of passengers transferring or connecting to other flights. Aircraft ground servicing times 88

A large, international airport will have major space and service requirements to handle security screening, immigration, customs, and different cultural considerations. After international flights, passenger bags are commonly placed in a room for passengers to pick up to accommodate customs inspection.

Origination/destination (or O & D) airports usually involve a high percentage of local passengers and turnaround flights.

typically average 30 to 60 minutes, depending on connecting patterns and airline operating policies. Compared with a similar volume of enplanements at the other two categories of airports, the transfer airport normally has less ground transportation activity, a lower requirement for curb frontage, less need for airline counter positions and baggage check-in, and smaller baggage claim areas. However, transfer airports require more space for baggage transfers (on-line and/or interline baggage), more concessions and public services, and increased need for centralized security locations. The mix of aircraft using, or expected to use, an airport can significantly affect terminal layout and space requirements. Aircraft mix refers to the different sizes (400 seat, 100 seat, 19 seat, etc.), types (turbojet, turboprop, regional jet, 2engine, 4-engine, etc.) and styles (high/mid/low wing, rear/front/over-the-wing door, wide/narrow body, etc.) of aircraft. Airports serving a large variety of aircraft types and sizes require more flexible and complex terminal facilities than those serving predominantly a single aircraft class. Terminals at airports serving wide-body aircraft require the ability to accommodate the large passenger surges, which normally occur when these aircraft load or unload. Ramp and aircraft maneuvering space are also affected by aircraft mix. In addition to scheduled operations, most air carrier and many general aviation airports serve a variety of nonscheduled operations, such as charter flights, group tours, and air-taxi operations. Depending on the volume of airline charter or other nonscheduled operations, separate facilities may be necessary. This can often create logistical, staffing, and ground equipment inefficiencies. FederalInspectionServices Airports with international traffic require space for federal inspection of passengers, aircraft, crewmembers, baggage, and cargo. Federal InspectionService (FIS) facilities usually include immigration, customs, agriculture, and public health services. The federal government publishes documents that offer guidance on inspection space and facility requirements at airports.L

Terminals at airports serving wide-body aircraft require the ability to accommodate the large passenger surges, which normally occur when these aircraft load or unload. Ramp and aircraft maneuvering space are also affected by aircraft mix.

For example, see: http://www.tsa.gov and use the sites search engine to find various documents related to inspections and facility space.
L

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Passenger routings to and through FIS should be as short and straight, with as little vertical movement, as possible. Strict segregation of deplaning passengers between the aircraft and the exit from the FIS is required. This procedure eliminates the possibility of items being passed from international passengers to the waiting public before inspection. Two flow routes for deplaning passengers are generally required: one for international and one for domestic traffic. Passenger routing should be designed so that there is no possibility for a crewmember or passenger to bypass the inspection area. Multilingual signs and pictorial (international) signs to direct traffic are required throughout the terminal area. The FIS system employed at most airports is the Custom Accelerated Passenger Inspection Service (CAPIS), which provides separate immigration and custom checkpoints. CAPIS tends to be highly time-consuming for passengers and labor-intensive to operate. Another system, referred to as one stop, combines immigration and custom functions at a single station. Another approach, known as red-green,uses a modified version of the standard European system allows travelers who do not have goods to declare to be separated from those who do, with only the latter passing through a secondary inspection station. Also under development are hybrid systems that combine features of CAPIS, one stop, and the red/green concepts. A small number of airports also have a pre-clearance operation. In this case, the customs and immigration process is conducted at the point of origin. TerminalLocation In the case of a new or major airport redevelopment, a new site requires a number of basic considerations, which can affect the ultimate terminal location. Some of the more important of these considerations include: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Runway Configuration; Access to Transportation Network; Expansion Potential; FAA Geometric Design Standards; Existing and Planned Facilities; Terrain; and Environmental Impacts.

Passenger routings to and through FIS should be as short and straight with as little vertical movement as possible. Strict segregation of deplaning passengers between the aircraft and the exit from the FIS is required.

CAPIS tends to be highly timeconsuming for passengers and labor-intensive to operate.

Red-green allows travelers who do not have goods to declare to be separated from those who do, with only the latter passing through a secondary inspection station.

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An airports runway configuration has a significant impact on the location of the terminal complex. Many airports are constrained in this regard because their original layout was completed before the introduction of jet aircraft.

An airports runway configuration has a significant impact on the location of the terminal complex. Many airports are constrained in this regard because their original layout was completed before the introduction of jet aircraft. Accordingly, fiscal constraints and airport improvements have tended to reinforce the existing layouts. Any terminal development or location strives to balance passenger convenience, operating efficiencies, facility investments, and aesthetics. Passenger convenience is exemplified by close-in parking, quick curbside checking, adequate queuing and waiting space, short walking distances to the aircraft gate, protection from the weather, convenient restroom facilities, available concession services, and easy baggage claim. These factors contrast with the operating efficiency needs of the airlines and the airport. The airlines seek to have centralized passenger processing to reduce staffing and equipment duplication. To reduce turnaround times, close-in baggage handling and transfer capabilities are achieved by locating gates and stationing ground handling and servicing equipment in close proximity to each other. Minimizing aircraft taxiing distances and the number of active runway crossings required between parking aprons and runways may reduce aircraft operating costs. Those requirements play a role in deciding which runway receives primary use, what the predominant landing and takeoff directions are, what the location and configuration of existing taxiways are, and what the most efficient taxiway routings are. Airport operating efficiencies consider the cost of heating, cooling, lighting, cleaning, and maintaining the terminal areas; utility services within the terminal; security; and other needed services. A general need of all tenants and especially the community is for a terminal to provide an aesthetic atmosphere that conveys community pride, value, and comfort. Passenger convenience, operating efficiency, and aesthetics are facility investment and cost considerations. The development of terminal facilities depends on adequate capital and the availability of operating funds. To assure the long-term success of any airport terminal facility, potential expansion beyond forecast requirements should always be taken into consideration. The terminal should have a reasonable area set aside for growth and operational changes beyond required or forecasted needs. In order to satisfy FAA airport geometric design standards, terminal and other buildings require a 91

The airlines seek to have centralized passenger processing to reduce staffing and equipment duplication. To reduce turnaround times, close-in baggage handling and transfer capabilities are achieved by locating gates and stationing ground handling and servicing equipment in close proximity to each other.

Airport operating efficiencies consider the cost of heating, cooling, lighting, cleaning, and maintaining the terminal areas; utility services within the terminal; security; and other needed services.

location that ensures adequate distances from present and future aircraft operational areas. Access to, and the location of, utilities affect the location of new or expanded facilities, as does the FAA line-of-sight requirements for control towers, or the operational restrictions of navigational aids, radar, and weather equipment. Topographical conditions play a major role in the location of a terminal or other building. Drainage problems must be considered, as should the amount of grading or quantity of fill necessary to make the site functional. In the event of a major, terminal redevelopment or a new facility that will increase the existing capacity, the FAA Airport Layout Plan (ALP) approval process requires an environmental determination. This could result in a categorical exclusion from further environmental review, an environmental assessment, or an environmental impact statement. TerminalProcesses An airport terminal provides for the safe, efficient, and comfortable transfer of passengers and their baggage to and from aircraft and various modes of ground transportation. To accomplish these objectives, essential elements such as ticketing, passenger processing, baggage handling, and security inspection are required. Food service, car rental, shops, rest rooms, airport management, and other ancillary functions also support these elements. For general aviation airports, terminal design provides for a common waiting area supported by service counters, food service, restrooms, pilot services, airport or FBO management, and other ancillary functions. Air carrier airports must be able to accommodate compressed peak passenger and baggage conditions. Since they are generally located away from urban centers, the use of private automobiles creates a need for adequate roadway access and parking facilities to a greater extent than at other urban transportation terminals. Airport terminals may not only serve domestic and international scheduled airlines but, in most cases, also accommodate general aviation activities. Activities within an airline terminal building are primarily categorized into three functional areas: (1) processing of passengers, (2) handling and processing of cargo, including passenger baggage, and (3) aircraft servicing. A good terminal design layout reflects the natural movement and services each category requires, along with the inter-related activities, which are functionally dependent on each other. The best terminal designs minimize passenger walking distances, 92

For general aviation airports, terminal design provides for a common waiting area supported by service counters, food service, restrooms, pilot services, airport or FBO management, and other ancillary functions.

A good terminal design layout reflects the natural movement and services each category requires, along with the interrelated activities, which are functionally dependent on each other.

airline service and processing times, and congestion caused by the intermingling of non-related activities. The passenger handling system is a series of links and processes that a passenger goes through in transferring from one mode of transportation to another. These processes include: (a) access/egress, (b) access/passenger processing interface, (c) passenger processing, (d) passenger/flight interface, and (e) flight processes. The access/egress link includes all of the ground transportation facilities, vehicles, and other modal transfer facilities from the regional area onto the airport. A majority of all airline passenger trips to and from airports are by private automobile or taxi, with strongest demands at medium and small airports, since these communities tend to have limited public transportation. The access/egress-processing interface connects the access/egress link to the terminal building. It includes vehicle drives for loading and unloading passengers, sidewalks, shuttle buses, and other automated conveyance systems to and from parking and general aviation facilities, as well as bus, taxi, and limousine staging areas. Most passenger processing activities are performed in the terminal building. These are the activities and facilities that are necessary and desirable for the handling of passengers and their baggage before and after a flight. These activities and facilities include baggage check-in, ticketing, security screening, waiting areas, baggage claim, public service areas, retail and concession areas, and information booths. The ticket counter serves three major functions: (1) ticket transactions, (2) baggage check-in, and (3) flight information. Each of these functions, especially ticket transactions, consumes large amounts of time and can result in long queue lines. To expedite the processing of ticketing passengers and baggage check-in, several operational and technological improvements have been made by the airlines. One is ticketless travel or e-ticketing. Passengers making advance reservations are assigned a confirmation number. Upon arrival at the airport, they proceed to the ticketing area where they show identification and, if necessary, the confirmation number. Self-ticketing is another innovation. This process consists of touch screen monitors at ticket counters or kiosks set up in the terminal, which allow a passenger to complete the functions that a ticket agent would normally perform. With a credit card, a passenger can check in for a flight, select an available seat, 93

The access/egress-processing interface connects the access/egress link to the terminal building. It includes vehicle drives for loading and unloading passengers, sidewalks, shuttle buses, and other automated conveyance systems to and from parking and general aviation facilities, as well as bus, taxi, and limousine staging areas.

Self-ticketing is another innovation. This process consists of touch screen monitors at ticket counters or kiosks set up in the terminal, which allow a passenger to complete the functions that a ticket agent, would normally perform.

and be issued a boarding pass. Airlines are using technology to reduce their airport labor requirements. Using a home computer printer, passengers can bypass an airlines ticket counter altogether. Other efforts to reduce congestion at the ticket counter have resulted in increased use of curbside check-in, which greatly reduces the administrative work at the ticket counter. Congestion has been further reduced in the ticket counter area by placing computerized Flight Information Display Systems (FIDS) throughout the terminal. FIDS are remotely controlled and operated display systems that present airline, as well as airport information. Airlines may have their own FIDS or an airport can host (what is termed MUFIDS or Multi-User Flight Information Display Systems) in which the operations of all airlines are integrated. The flight interface between passenger processing and the aircraft includes gate hold rooms and counters; stairs and escalators; moving sidewalks, buses, and mobile lounges (transporters); aircraft loading bridges, and facilities for transferring between flights including corridors, waiting areas, and mobile conveyance facilities. The demarcation between the passenger processing areas and the flight interface is often marked by the location of the security screening point. A distinction between what is commonly referred to as the landside component of the airport and the airside component is not so easily discerned. Where the demarcation line falls between airside and landside depends on airport managements perspective and on whether one is using it in terms of security, physical facilities, accounting, or operations. The airside clearly refers to the aeronautical surfaces and areas where aircraft operate. Many airports consider the airside to be everything inside the perimeter fence and landside as everything outside the fence. Airside could coincide with the security screening point, the exterior face of the building on the ramp side, the terminal face on the curbside, or some combination of the above. If an accounting cost center establishes the terminal building as a separate area, then airside and landside can take on different delineations. In these cases, landside would consist of that area beyond the terminal curb, and airside, the area beyond the ramp doors or loading bridges. From an operations perspective, airside may refer to only Airport Movement Areas (AMA), all Airport Operations Areas (AOA), or anything inside the airfield 94
The demarcation between the passenger processing areas and the flight interface is often marked by the location of the security screening point.

The airside clearly refers to the aeronautical surfaces and areas where aircraft operate.

fence. The AMA are those areas used by air carrier aircraft and are under the positive control of the tower or, for non-towered airports, the primary runway and taxiway surfaces on which air carrier aircraft operate. The AMA excludes ramps, aprons and general aviation areas. The AOA are those areas available to all aircraft and include the ramps and aprons, as well as any Security Identification Display Areas (SIDA). Landside operations can include all of the terminal building or passenger and baggage processing areas, begin at the terminal curb, or begin outside the circulation drive and parking areas. GroundAccess/Egress The airport access/egress system is composed of functional elements, which enable ground ingress and egress to and from the terminal facility. They include the following: platforms and curb areas (including median strips), pedestrian walkways (including tunnels and bridges from auto parking areas to the terminal), auto parking (short-term and long-term, visitors, employees, and car rental), and access and service roads. Ground access systems extend beyond the airport boundaries and function within the context of regional transportation systems and the policies of governmental agencies. Proper analyses of motor vehicle traffic flows in and around an airport can offer alternatives to alleviate or prevent ground congestion and delay. Analyses could include factors such as access roads and interchanges, transit links, parking facilities, staging areas for taxis, other public transport services, and the terminal curb. One of the biggest problems with road access to airport terminals is that airport travel tends to peak at the same periods as urban and suburban auto travel. Congestion at the interface is common at many airports and can result in passenger delay. This is because the curb design is affected by other airport characteristics, such as activity level (peak passenger volume), user characteristics (mode of transportation, mix of passengers and well-wishers, and number of bags), and vehicle characteristics (type, number of passengers, and dwell time at the curb). The most common forms of physical improvements to relieve congestion are: (a) the use of one-way traffic; (b) multiple road access levels; (c) separate service access points and roads; (d) curb islands or bypass lanes that segregate the different types of traffic, i.e., circulating, drop off, loading, taxi, shuttle buses, 95

courtesy cars, etc.; and (e) well-thought-out signage plans. These improvements include color-coding of areas, additional curb frontage, multiple entry and exit points in the terminal building, remote park and ride facilities, and pedestrian overpasses or underpasses. Airport security requirements at air carrier airports have greatly reduced congestion at the terminal interface because vehicles are precluded from lingering for long periods of time. Enforcement of traffic rules and regulations is one of the easiest, effective, and least expensive means for reducing curbside congestion. Curb length along a terminal will vary, though airport planners normally allocate 25 feet for one vehicle. The length of curb to be provided is related to the mix of vehicle types and expected curb dwell time. The number of parking facilities also varies with the type of airport. Many airports provide close in, short-term parking lots, for convenience and courtesy to the traveler. Short-term is normally considered to be less than three hours and represent approximately 80 percent of all parking at the airport.25 Turnover is encouraged by the use of meters, enforcement, or high economic rates. Motor vehicles are more likely to remain the major mode of ground transportation to and from an airport, though other types of transit modes are expected to assume an increasing role in the future. Ridership statistics for existing transit linkages to major airports indicate an important, but distinctly limited, role for metropolitan rail systems. BuildingConcessionaireServices Building concessionaire services are provided at airport terminals as appropriate for the size and activity of the airport. A sample list of concessions and services requiring space within a terminal is provided below. The size of food and beverage services involves applying use factors. These parameters are determined by dividing the average daily transaction by the average daily enplanements. Gross terminal space needs can range from 40 to 60 percent for terminal airports having a high percentage of long-haul flights, to 20 to 40 percent for transfer and through airports, to 15 to 25 percent for terminal airports with a low percentage of long-haul flights. The following is a sample of typical terminal concession needs: 1) News 96

Airport security requirements at air carrier airports have greatly reduced congestion at the terminal interface because vehicles are precluded from lingering for long periods of time. Enforcement of traffic rules and regulations is one of the easiest, effective, and least expensive means for reducing curbside congestion.

Short-term is normally considered to be less than three hours and represent approximately 80 percent of all parking at the airport. Turnover is encouraged by the use of meters, enforcement, or high economic rates.

Gross terminal space needs can range from 40 to 60 percent for terminal airports having a high percentage of long-haul flights, to 20 to 40 percent for transfer and through airports, to 15 to 25 percent for terminal airports with a low percentage of longhaul flights.

2) Postal Services 3) Specialty Shops 4) Gift, apparel shops, vending machines, and other retail operations 5) Public telephone space, power (recharge) stations and Internet connections 6) Information services 7) Barber and Shoeshine 8) Bookstores 9) Operations 10) Florist Shop Operations 11) Nursery Facilities 12) Public Toilets 13) Medical Aid Facilities 14) Auto Rental Services 15) Food and Beverage Operations 16) Public Transportation Centers 17) Chapels 18) USO/Travelers Aid 19) Government Offices 20) Advertising Displays 21) Business Centers 22) Airport Management Offices 23) Public Lockers (when allowed by TSA) or Public Storage Facilities 24) Contract Services 25) Airport Police/Security Office

CommonuseFacilities(CUF)/CommonuseTerminal Equipment
Common-use Facilities (CUF) can include airport buildings, equipment, technology services, and other infrastructure that is shared by more than one tenant, airline, or other entity. CUF is not a new concept, it evolved as a strategy for airlines to reduce overhead through the sharing of resources and it goes by several names including: Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE), Common Use Passenger Processing Systems (CUPPS) and, represents Common Use Self

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Service (CUSS). For our purposes, we will refer to these concepts collectively as CUTE. CUTE is a move away from the exclusive-use model, which provides space such as ticket-counters, gates, ramp space and baggage claim areas exclusively. In this model, the airlines paid for the space, even when the space was not being used. Airport operators benefitted because the revenue for the leased space was received whether the space was being utilized or not. However, this is not the best use of space, particularly when there are multiple airlines competing for limited space. CUTE can consist of common terminals, passenger check-in counters, baggage systems, and gates. CUTE allows an airport operator to better utilize space and increase capacity, while reducing airline overhead. The CUTE concept provides additional passenger convenience, allowing check-in to take place off site, such as at an airport or their home with an Internet connect, or through a Smartphone. CUTE can reduce passenger stress by allowing more time to move through the passenger process system. Airports may go through several phases of CUTE development before reaching a full common use model, or may elect to use a mix of exclusive-use and commonuse. Mixed-use facilities have common use equipment installed in new or remodeled areas, while older areas remain exclusive-use. This may confuse passengers but allows some increased cost benefits. Another option is to create preferential-use models, where select tenant facilities are converted to common use. Tenants and the airport can realize additional cost savings in a preferentialuse model, but more reliance is placed on third-party technology providers (for system maintenance and upgrades). The advantages of CUTE include more efficient use of space, improved travel options and reduced expenses for both airlines and airports. Several airports have seen significant increases in passenger processing by implementing CUTE strategies. Disadvantages to the airport may include the airport taking on the maintenance and management of equipment that is typically the concern of the airlines, such as jet bridge maintenance and providing consumables and supplies to CUTE areas. Further, airlines may lose some control of ticket counters and gate areas as a result of CUTE. Airlines also note that there is a loss of branding with the 98

implementation of CUTE. Digital signage and designated locations in the airport for air carriers can help restore some of the loss in branding. Various airports and industry professional organizations have credited CUTE lowering costs, improving service performance, and increasing customer satisfaction. However, these concepts are not without their share of challenges. Before airports install CUTE systems, they should carefully consider the need for common-use and ensure that the airlines are extensively consulted. Smaller commercial service airports with a few carriers may not benefit by CUTE systems, whereas preferential or exclusive-use classes may prevent larger commercial service airports from combining systems. IATA and other organizations have standing committees that work to develop standards that will help to ensure compatibility to user requirements as related to CUTE infrastructure.

MiscellaneousDesignConsiderations
Other design considerations for airport planning and development include: lighting, heating and ventilation, air conditioning, utility and standby power, accessibility, noise absorption, flooring and carpeting, roofing, telecommunications, security, and aesthetics. At a large airport, knowledge and understanding about each of these areas is delegated to others within the airport organization. At non-hub and general aviation facilities, the airport manager frequently makes these considerations and decisions. Sources of information that help an Airport Executive understand the details and specifications often come from consultants, engineers, and vendors who have subject-matter expertise, as well as from other airport managers with relevant experience. As a result of earthquakes in California during the late 1980s, Executive Order 12699 was issued, requiring the use of nationally recognized, private sector seismic, safety standards and practices. A Department of Transportation rule under 49 CFR Part 41.120 implementing E. O. 12699 states that any building constructed with federal financial assistance after July 14, 1993 must be designed and constructed in accordance with FAA-approved seismic standards (or other federally approved agency). Fire safety in building cane achieved through proper design, the use of fire resistant materials, and the application of contemporary, fire safety technology. Local fire and building codes apply, but emphasis should be placed on construction materials that are as fire protected and fire resistant as 99

Local fire and building codes apply, but emphasis should be placed on construction materials that are as fire protected and fire resistant as possible, and preferable noncombustible. The National Fire Protection Association has developed suggested standards for the construction of airport terminal buildings and aircraft hangars.

possible, and preferably noncombustible. The National Fire Protection Association has developed suggested standards for the construction of airport terminal buildings and aircraft hangars. Building loss from fire can be minimized through the use of fire hydrants in and around the terminal area. Particular care should be taken to assure adequate water volume and pressure. Other fire safety considerations include smoke and fire detectors, location and illumination of exit signs, fire doors, a sprinkler system, fire escape stairs, emergency exit windows, and a sufficient number of strategically located fire extinguishers that contain the appropriate extinguishing agent for the type of materials found in the area. Standards and building codes normally require minimum corridor widths, door openings and types, and specific fire resistance ratings of construction material. Federal policiesM exist to support projects that contribute to the architectural and cultural heritage of local communities. These programs encourage airport operators to develop, use, and incorporate design, art, and architectural treatment that reflect local customs and community history. AircraftRescueandFirefighting(ARFF)andSnowRemovaland Equipment(SRE)Buildings The Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting (ARFF), Snow Removal and Equipment (SRE), and airport maintenance buildings are typically considered extensions of the airport terminal. The primary objective of the ARFF is to save lives by minimizing the catastrophic effects of an aircraft accident or incident. The location of the ARFF facility should optimize lower emergency response times. Factors for determining the ARFF location include efficient utilization of firefighting personnel, direct access to the airfield and terminal areas, noninterference with air traffic control line-of-sight or with navigational equipment operation, maximum surveillance of the air operations area, compliance with the building restriction lines, availability of utilities, and personnel access. To obtain operating and cost efficiencies, some airports house ARFF vehicles in the same building with snow removal equipment or structural firefighting vehicles. Other double duties include permanent or temporary medical treatment
For example, see: http://www.preservationnation.org/resources/find-funding/nonprofit-publicfunding.html
M

Factors for determining the ARFF location include efficient utilization of firefighting personnel, direct access to the airfield and terminal areas, noninterference with air traffic control line-of-sight or with navigational equipment operation, maximum surveillance of the air operations area, compliance with the building restriction lines, availability of utilities, and personnel access.

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facilities, security offices, and maintenance buildings. In these dual-purpose cases, the FAA prefers having the ARFF vehicle room separate from the facilities of other airport departmental functions. This separation avoids delayed emergency vehicle responses and operational conflicts and ensures the accountability of federal dollars, if the building is funded in part by the FAA. General aviation and smaller airports often have individuals who are responsible, in addition to ARFF response, for other duties such as police, maintenance, or line service work. In these cases, the ARFF vehicle needs to be located closer to the responders work area. At medium-sized air carrier airports, a dedicated ARFF response team may be housed in a facility that is closer to the runway and away from the terminal area. For larger airports with several runway patterns, zone coverage is obtained by having multiple ARFF stations. For snow removal and equipment, adequate storage and maintenance is required to protect and service snow and ice control equipment, as well as other airport maintenance vehicles. The basic requirements for SRE buildings are to (a) provide a warm, sheltered environment for equipment repair and service, (b) protect and shield equipment and stored materials from moisture, contaminants, and composition change, and (c) provide a centralized facility for airport maintenance personnel and their service operations.
The type of equipment typically stored in SRE buildings are snowplows, sweepers, spreaders, carrier vehicles used for snow and ice control; front-end loaders, scrapers, tractors, lawn mowers, and other ancillary vehicles and accessories.

The type of equipment typically stored in SRE buildings are snowplows, sweepers, spreaders, carrier vehicles used for snow and ice control, front-end loaders, scrapers, tractors, lawn mowers, and other ancillary vehicles and accessories. Materials used to control snow and ice on operational areas, such as solid and liquid de-/anti-icers and sand, are also frequently stored in the buildings. The FAA requires those materials to be protected. An SRE building is normally located where access to the airports operational area is direct and convenient. Consideration must be given to how employees and service vehicles will gain access without compromising security or requiring runway or taxiway crossing. Consideration must also be given to avoiding interference with any airport fire lane, aircraft operational area, building restriction line, ATCT visibility, or navaid operation. Construction or expansion of a building requires that advance notice be given to the FAA on Form 7460-1.N The construction of the SRE building normally does
N

See: http://forms.faa.gov/info_new.asp?form_number=7460-1&open_doc=N

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not require an environmental impact analysis. For those instances in which building orientation options are available, the buildings face, containing the large vehicle entrance doors, should factor in the effects of the sun and prevailing winds on the dispersal and accumulation of snow and ice. IndustrialParkDesign The economic activity within a community often centers on the various transportation modes. Airports serve as attractive locations because of the quick access to national markets and because communities seek economic development in an area compatible with land use and zoning restrictions. An airport industrial park is considered an excellent, compatible use for land on and around an airport. The integration of properly planned and organized industrial development with airport development can bring long-term economic benefits to communities and to the airports that serve them. The primary goal of having an industrial park is to achieve economic gain for the community through increased employment and the expansion of industry and commerce. Many airports have inherited facilities that can be used for industrial or commercial purposes. Other airports have developed industrial parks as a way to improve the overall revenue performance. The advantages of airport industrial parks lie in their ability to generate revenue for the airport, to be compatible with land uses around an airport and to promote overall community economic development by attracting businesses and related services and by creating jobs. Disadvantages associated with the development of an airport industrial park are the significant capital cost of infrastructure, operating and maintenance costs, and the risks any landlord would have in managing an industrial complex. A welldeveloped, airport industrial park will have the necessary infrastructure of land, streets, rail, emergency services, water and sewer, and other utilities necessary to make the location attractive to private or public investors. If the park is yet to be developed, capital costs associated with building the infrastructure may be obtained through bonds, loans, economic development grants, or other major financing mechanisms. Different risks and obligations are associated with each, as is the risk of acquiring or retaining tenants who are to provide the flow of revenue necessary to sustain the development. These factors must be considered in any decision to operate an industrial park.
Disadvantages associated with the development of an airport industrial park are the significant capital cost of infrastructure, operating and maintenance costs, and the risks any landlord would have in managing an industrial complex.

An airport industrial park is considered an excellent, compatible use for land on and around an airport. The integration of properly planned and organized industrial development with airport development can bring long-term economic benefits to communities and to the airports that serve them.

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An airport industrial park development may center on airport-related businesses with access to the movement areas or, more often than not, consist of manufacturing, warehousing, office areas, and other non-aviation businesses that have no connection to an airport or to its airside facilities. The determination of lot sizes has both positive and negative consequences. Predetermined lot sizes allow for long-range planning and reduce the possibility of having out parcels, which are not usable because of access or location difficulties. One disadvantage of predetermining parcel size results from not being able to accommodate companies or businesses that require more land or facilities than the amount planned. Airports often try to strike a balance by having both presized lots of varying acreage and un-sized lots open for development. No matter how well-planned an airport industrial park may be, it still may not be as appealing as other non-airport industrial parks. This is because covenant and deed restrictions that coincide with the airport plots may have a major impact on the type of commercial activity allowed. Arguments exist for having an industrial park included in an airport master plan. The prime reason is to show the coordinated development of the airport and the park. If grants or funding for access improvements within the park are sought from the FAA or DOT, then a master plan must be on file with the FAA. If the park is located without direct access to the airfield, a separate master plan will provide greater flexibility. Recommended Covenants and Deed Restrictions for Industrial Parks include: 1. Submission of all plans and specifications for review and approval; 2. Building setback and height restrictions to prevent obstructions to air navigation; 3. Use of specific construction materials to provide uniformity and image; 4. Aesthetic landscaping and signage; 5. Standards for fire and safety hazard protection; 6. Provisions for security compliance; 7. Load restrictions on streets and roads; and 8. Limits and risk sharing on nuisances such as wastewater generation, air pollution, and wildlife attractions.

Predetermined lot sizes allow for long-range planning and reduce the possibility of having out parcels, which are not usable because of access or location difficulties.

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ForeignTradeZone(FTZ) The U. S. Foreign-Trade Zone (FTZ) Program was established by the U. S. Congress to stimulate international trade and create jobs and investments in the U.S. rather than abroad. FTZs are enclaves where goods can be imported and, for custom purposes, treated as if they had not entered the U. S. at all. Companies are allowed to bring foreign and domestic merchandise into the zones for a variety of purposes, including storage, testing, relabeling, displaying, and manufacturing. A company in an FTZ benefits by postponing the payment of U. S. Customs duty on imported merchandise until it leaves the zone, either in its original condition or as part of a finished product. Federal excise taxes can also be deferred, reduced, or eliminated through zone use. This can have a significant positive benefit for a companys cash flow. Companies may also benefit from reduced duties on imported components, which carry a higher duty rate than the finished product. Duty can be eliminated altogether on foreign merchandise that is re-exported from the U. S., is defective, or becomes waste during the production process. An executive summary, a transmittal letter, and five exhibits are required to establish a Federal-Trade Zone. The first exhibit conveys the legal authority of the parties making application. The second provides site descriptions for the zone. The third exhibit covers financing and operational aspects of the FTZ plan. Exhibit four details the economic justification for granting the FTZ request. The fifth exhibit contains maps, surveys, and blueprints of the zones and subzones. The purpose of establishing an FTZ is primarily to provide economic benefit to an area through employment and commerce that would not otherwise locate in a community. The benefits accrued to the companies and businesses located within the FTZ result from reduced, deferred, or eliminated duty payments; reduced transit time and transportation costs; elimination of inventory tax; reduced custom and insurance costs; and improved efficiencies gained through streamlined operations.

A company in an FTZ benefits by postponing the payment of U. S. Customs duty on imported merchandise until it leaves the zone, either in its original condition or as part of a finished product.

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ArchitecturalandConstructionProcessesandPhases In few cases will the airport conduct all phases of planning, expansion, and construction by using only internal expertise. For the majority of airport development programs, airport management will seek advice and services from a plethora of entities offering consulting services. These service providers include architects, certified engineers, environmental experts, interior decorators, and many types of contractors and permit specialists (to name a few). Airport management time and resources for recruiting the appropriate service can be extensive. Tasks include: (a) determining needs, (b) advertising, (c) issuing requests for proposals (RFPs), (d) selection processes, and (e) determining contractual requirements. It is recommended that the airport manager begin by seeking advice from domain-specific, industry professional associations. These organizations offer advice on credentials, ethical standards, and selecting related consultants and service providers.O Once architectural, engineering, and other service providers have been selected (or at least screened through the RFP stage), the airport manager can begin to focus on planning the top-level scheduling for construction phases. These phases include: (a) pre-design, (b) design, (c) preconstruction, (d) construction, and (e) inspection phases. It is important to realize that these phases are often iterative, complex, and require extensive consulting by government, legal, and industry experts.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1) ensure that new buildings and facilities are designed and constructed to be free of architectural and communication barriers that restrict access or use by individuals with disabilities; (2) ensure that existing buildings and facilities are altered to be readily accessible by individuals with disabilities, to the maximum extent feasible; and (3) furnish auxiliary aids, services, and/or telecommunication devices to afford communication by the disabled.

For the majority of airport development programs, airport management will seek advice and services from a plethora of entities offering consulting services. These service providers include architects, certified engineers, environmental experts, interior decorators, and many types of contractors and permit specialist (to name a few).

AmericanswithDisabilityAct
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)P was enacted on July 26, 1990. It requires that any public or private entity that provides public accommodations must (1) ensure that new buildings and facilities are designed and constructed to be free of architectural and communication barriers that restrict access or use by individuals with disabilities; (2) ensure that existing buildings and facilities are altered to be readily accessible by individuals with disabilities, to the maximum extent feasible; and (3) furnish auxiliary aids, services, and/or telecommunication devices to afford communication by the disabled.
O

Examples are wide-ranging and include organizations such as the: American Nursery and Landscaping Association; National Association of Environmental Professionals; Association of General Contractors; American Engineering Association. P See: http://www.ada.gov/

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Airports and air carriers have the joint responsibility of ensuring that passengers with disabilities are able to use commuter and airline air services. On contracts or leases between air carriers and airport operators concerning the use of airport facilities, the Department of Transportation requires each to identify its respective responsibilities for providing accessible facilities and services to individuals with disabilities. This requirement is outlined in the Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),Q airports requirements under Title II of the same, and Section 504 of the Air Carrier Access Act.R ADA provides comprehensive civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities in the areas of employment, public accommodations, state and local government services, and telecommunications. ADA provides nondiscrimination rights for individuals with disabilities that are parallel to those provided to Individuals on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, and religion. The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board)S issued Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)T to ensure that buildings, facilities, and vehicles covered by the law are accessible to individuals with disabilities, in terms of architecture and design, transportation, and communication. The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (41 CFR Part 101, Appendix A)U and the ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (28 CFR Part 36 Appendix A) provide overall requirements needed for the design and construction or alteration of buildings and facilities. The Department of Transportation rules governing transportation for individuals with disabilities (49 CFR Parts 27, 37, and 38)V provide additional guidelines specific to airports. PublicServiceandTransportation The DOT has adopted ADAAG as the accessibility standard for all transportation facilities or vehicles acquired by public and private entities using federal funds. State and local government buildings, including airport facilities, are required to
Q R

ADA provides comprehensive civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities in the areas of employment, public accommodations, state and local government services, and telecommunications.

The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board) issued Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) to ensure that buildings, facilities, and vehicles covered by the law are accessible to individuals with disabilities, in terms of architecture and design, transportation, and communication.

See: http://www.ada.gov/reg3a.html See: http://www.ada.gov/cguide.htm#anchor63814 S See: http://www.federalgrantswire.com/architectural-and-transportation-barriers-complianceboard.html T See: http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm U See: http://www.access-board.gov/ufas/ufas-html/ufas.htm V See: http://www.fta.dot.gov/civilrights/ada/civil_rights_3884.html

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comply with ADAAG and the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968, which applies to new construction and alterations of existing airport buildings. For violations of the ADA, the courts may order public airports to make facilities accessible, provide auxiliary aids or services, modify policies, and pay attorney fees. Airport management has an obligation to continually strive to achieve a barrier-free environment. As it applies to most airports that are governmentally operated, it is the responsibility of the Department of Transportation, rather than the Access Board, to enforce Titles II and III of the ADA. With respect to an individual, the term disability means: (1) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of an individual, (2) a record of any such impairment, or (3) being regarded as having such impairment. If an individual meets any one of the above three tests, he or she is considered to be an individual with a disability for purposes of coverage under the Americans with Disabilities Act. ApplicationofADAtoTenants Title III of the ADA requires that all new places of public accommodation and commercial facilities must be designed and constructed so as to be readily accessible to and usable by persons with disabilities. It also requires that examinations or courses related to licensing or certification for professional and trade purposes be accessible to persons with disabilities. Many airport tenants qualify as places of public accommodation under Title III. A place of public accommodation is a facility that is operated by a private entity whose operations affect commerce and that falls within one of 12 categories as listed below: 1) Places of lodging; 2) Places of recreation; 3) Places of education; 4) Places of public gathering; 5) Service establishments; 6) Sales or rental establishments; 7) Stations used for bus and rail transportation; 8) Places of public display or collection; 9) Establishments serving food or drink; 10) Places of exhibition or entertainment; 11) Social service center establishments; and 12) Places of exercise or recreation. 107

Many airport tenants qualify as places of public accommodation under Title III.

Public accommodation applies to a private entity that owns, leases (or leases to), or operates a place of public accommodation. It is the public accommodation, and not the place of public accommodation, that is subject to the regulations nondiscrimination requirements. One criterion for determining whether or not an entity is a place of public accommodation is whether its operations affect commerce. The use of the phrase operations affect commerce applies the full scope of coverage of the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution in enforcing the ADA. Title III specifies a public transportation terminal as being a bus, rail, or light rail terminal. Facilities operated by government agencies, such as municipal airports or other public entities (i.e., airport authorities), do not qualify as places of public accommodation under Title III, primarily because transportation by aircraft is specifically excluded in the regulation. Instead, airports are governed by Title II of the ADA and are subject to regulations issued by the Department of Justice (DOJ) or Department of Transportation (DOT). For the most part, the DOJ and DOT requirements are quite similar but, while governmentally operated airports are not included in the definition of a commercial facility, privately operated airports are. Places of public accommodation located within airports, such as restaurants, shops, lounges, or conference centers, are covered by the general and specific requirements found in Subpart B and C, respectively. Under ADA, general requirements cover a number of public access elements such as the examples listed below: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Parking, passenger loading zones, curb ramps Elevators, drinking fountains, telephones Ramps, detectable ramp warnings, platform lifts Doors and gates, exterior accessible routes, rooms and spaces Alarms, toilet rooms and bathrooms, assembly areas Signage, dressing and fitting rooms, bathtubs and showers Stairs, automated teller machines (ATMs) Entrances and exits (areas of rescue assistance) and Building lobbies and corridors (interior accessible route)

One criterion for determining whether or not an entity is a place of public accommodation is whether its operations affect commerce.

When considering alteration, renovation, or new construction at airports, the DOT has developed a checklist that helps airport management implement the 108

requirements of ADAAG as it applies to buildings subject to the law. The checklist must be used in conjunction with the Department of Transportations regulations in 49 CFR Part 37 and with ADAAG. The next several paragraphs provide an overview of those basic requirements.

OtherDisabilityCriteria ADA nondiscrimination requirements apply to private and public employers with 15 or more employees. Employers must reasonably accommodate the disabilities of qualified applicants or employees, including modifying workstations and equipment, unless undue hardship would result. Remedies for violations are the same as those prescribed under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.W In October 1996, DOT issued a final rule requiring airports that serve airlines operating aircraft with 19 to 30 seats to determine how to provide boarding assistance devices for disabled passengers and have those devices installed within four years. An exemption from the rule exists for several 19-seat aircraft because of their design limitations. Smaller, commercial service airports having less than 10,000 enplanements annually are also exempt from the rule.

See: http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/civil-rights-act/

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AirportDesignGuidance
To ensure that airports (including heliports) are built and constructed with adequate safety parameters, and within reasonable economic parameters appropriate to the airports use and function, the FAA has established specific airport design criteria. When airport facilities are to be constructed, the Airport Reference Code (ARC) is first selected or determined along with the lowest designated or planned approach visibility minimums for each runway. Together these factors will specify dimensional and strength criteria to which the airport facilities must be built. Airport design criteria predicated on the ARC will affect the spacing and layout of runways and taxiways, the location of navigational aids, the height and location of terminal and other buildings, and the dimensions of runway protection zones. The ARC is a coding system used to match the operational and physical characteristics of the airplanes intended to operate at the airport with the various design standards. The ARC has two components related directly to the most demanding type of aircraft expected to use the airport on a regular basis. The first component is the aircraft approach category. Depicted by a letter A through E, it relates to the approach speed of the aircraft. The second component is the physical characteristics of the aircraft, as categorized by its design grouping. The aircraft design group is identified by a Roman numeral I through VI and relates to an aircrafts wingspan (see Table 2). Aircraft Approach Categories: Speed A: <91 knots B: 91 knots - <121 knots C: 121 knots - <141 knots D: 141 knots - <166 knots E: 166 knots Table 2. Summary of the ARC Aircraft Design Group: Wingspan I: <49 feet II: 49 feet - <79 feet III: 79 feet - <118 feet IV: 118 feet - <171 feet V: 171 feet - <214 feet VI: 214 feet - <262 feet
The ARC is a coding system used to match the operational and physical characteristics of the airplanes intended to operate at the airport with the various design standards.

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Airport dimensional standards (such as runway length and width, separation standards, surface gradients, etc.) which are appropriate for the critical aircraft that will make substantial use of the airport in the planning period should be selected.

Airport dimensional standards (such as runway length and width, separation standards, surface gradients, etc.), which are appropriate for the critical aircraft that will make substantial use of the airport in the planning period should be selected. Substantial use means either 500 or more annual itinerant operations or scheduled commercial service. The critical aircraft may be a single aircraft or a composite of the most demanding characteristics of several aircraft. The critical aircraft (or composite aircraft) is used to identify the appropriate Airport Reference Code for airport design criteria. Design criteria (such as dimensional standards and appropriate pavement strength) are contained in AC 150-5300-13 Airport Design. This document also includes aircraft data, such as design group, dimensions, and certificated maximum take-off weight. The aircrafts approach speed translates into time and distance factors. They identify criteria for runway length, visibility requirements, and approach aids. The aircrafts wingspan is indicative of an aircrafts weight bearing capacity and physical size. These factors dictate requirements for pavement strength and separation standards for wingtip and other obstruction clearances. Aircraft data, such as design group and certificated maximum weight and dimensions, are found in AC 150/5300-13 Airport Design. The layout and design of the runway and taxiway system at many airports were established in the 1930s and 1940s. A typical military airport had a triangular pattern. Many of these original layouts still exist today, although in modified form. As aircraft and navigational technology improved, economic realities resulted in expansion of the existing layout rather than complete redesign.

The aircrafts approach speed translates into time and distance factors. They identify criteria for runway length, visibility requirements, and approach aids. The aircrafts wingspan is indicative of an aircrafts weight bearing capacity and physical size.

Occasionally, the FAA makes changes to the airport design standards, which need to be included in an existing ALP. Any new construction at an airport after the effective date of a new design standard requires incorporation of that standard.

Occasionally, the FAA makes changes to the airport design standards, which need to be included in an existing ALP. Any new construction at an airport after the effective date of a new design standard requires incorporation of that standard. If, however, an airport has a unique threshold setting or restriction, the FAA can conduct a study to assess the feasibility of modifying the design change. Airport management cannot make or permit any changes to the airport or its facilities that might adversely affect the airports safety, utility, or efficiency. Therefore, any request for modification to a design standard must show that an equivalent level of safety and efficiency will be provided in the alternative design.

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RunwayandTaxiwaySystem
Design considerations for runways include the Airport Reference Code (ARC), meteorological conditions, the surrounding environment, topography, and the volume of air traffic expected. Runway alignment is primarily predicated on achieving maximum wind coverage. Runway layout using the wind rose is designed to obtain at least 95 percent coverage for a maximum perpendicular crosswind component based on the critical aircraft for the airport. If 95 percent coverage is not obtained, a crosswind runway is recommended. Runway layouts are also affected by the availability of airspace. Existing or planned instrument approach procedures, missed approach procedures, departure procedures, control zones, special use airspace, restricted airspace, and traffic patterns all influence airport layouts and airspace needs. The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in the advisory materials; however, they are all based on four basic runway configurations with the rest being variations on one of the original four patterns: (1) single, (2) open-V, (3) parallel, and (4) intersecting. The single runway is the simplest of the basic configurations. During VFR (visual flight rules) conditions, this one runway should accommodate up to 99 light aircraft operations per hour. While under IFR (instrument flight rules) conditions, it can accommodate between 42 to 53 operations per hour, depending on the mix of traffic and navigational aids available at that airport. The four types of parallel runways are distinguished by their proximity to one another: 1. Close = less than 2,500 feet between runways 2. Intermediate = 2,500 to 4,300 feet between runways 3. Far Parallel = 4,300 feet or greater 4. Dual Lane = 4,300 feet or more apart between each pair Two runways that diverge from different directions but do NOT intersect to form a shape that looks like an "open-V" are called open-V runways. When there is no wind, this configuration allows both runways to be used at the same time, significantly increasing the number of operations per hour. When strong winds favor one runway, ideally the other runway is still operational. 112

Runwayalignmentis primarilypredicatedon achievingmaximumwind coverage.

However, when takeoffs and landings are made toward the two closer ends, the number of operations per hour can be reduced by 50 percent. The capacity of open-V runways, while greater than a single runway, is limited by the closeness of the runway ends to each other. The capacity of all configurations involving crosswind runways is affected by wind direction and strength. Strong winds may limit operations to just one runway. When two or more runways cross, they are classified as intersecting runways. Strong winds will limit operations to just one runway. Light winds may allow both runways to be used. Intersecting runways also require more land area than other types of configurations. The capacity of intersecting runways greatly depends on the location of the intersection and the way the runways are operated.
Runways will normally have a 1 percent to 1.5 percent cross section grade to ensure water runoff.

Runways will normally have a 1 percent to 1.5 percent cross section grade to ensure water runoff. The runway shoulders will have a 1.5 percent to 5 percent slope to ensure the same. Runway shoulders are required to be stabilized to prevent erosion from runoff or jet blast. Airports serving large, four-engine jet aircraft will often have paved shoulder areas, whereas smaller airports have grass runway shoulders. RunwaySafetyandProtectionAreas Safe and efficient airport operations require that certain areas on or near the airport are clear of objects or restricted to those objects functionally necessary such as lights and navigational aids. These areas include the Runway Protection Zone (RPZ), Object Free Area (OFA), Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ), and Runway Safety Area (RSA). The Runway Protection Zone (RPZ) Xis a trapezoidal shaped area located off the runway ends, designed to enhance the protection of people and property on the ground. It lies under the innermost portion of the runways approach surface and is required to be under the control of the airport (through ownership or by easement). The RPZ begins 200 feet from the end of a runway area usable for takeoff or landing. The FAA recommends fee simple ownership (i.e., outright acquisition of the property) and complete land use control of the RPZ. However, it may be
X

The RPZ begins 200 feet from the end of a runway area usable for takeoff or landing.

Also known as a clear zone.

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impracticable for the airport owner to acquire and plan the land uses within the entire RPZ. The overall size of the zone varies with the design aircraft and approach visibility minimum used for a particular runway end. It can vary in length from 1,000 feet to 2,500 feet. The smallest width of the trapezoid is the same as that of the primary surface area. It then widens as it moves from the runway end into the approach area. Clearing all objects from the RPZ is desirable, but some uses are permitted, provided they do not attract wildlife. Some land uses, such as golf courses and agricultural operations are allowed, while others, such as churches, schools, hospitals, shopping centers, and fueling facilities, are expressly prohibited. The Object-Free Area (OFA) is a ground area centered on the runway, taxiway, or taxilane centerline that enhances the safety of aircraft operations. It is free of objects, except for those items needed for air navigation or aircraft ground maneuvering (i.e., antennas, lights, signs). The width of the runway OFA, centered on the runway centerline, varies from 250 feet to 800 feet, and its length varies from 240 to 1,000 feet past the end of the runway or stopway, depending on the ARC. Taxiway and taxilane OFAs also vary in dimensions. The Obstacle-Free Zone (OFZ) is the airspace above the runway elevation at any point, but below the 150-foot floor of the horizontal surface area under Part 77. Extending 200 feet beyond each runway end, its width varies from 120 feet to 400 feet, depending on the visibility requirements and aircraft size. The OFZ is required to be clear of all objects, except for visual navaids mounted on frangible couplings that need to be functionally located in the OFZ. For runways having an approach lighting system or visibility minimums lower than 3/4-statute miles, an inner approach OFZ and inner, transitional OFZ exists for each, respectively. Runway Safety Areas (RSA), also known as the Safety Area(s), are defined ground surface areas around runways that are prepared and suitable for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway. They are also designed to support snow removal and aircraft rescue and fire fighting operations. RSAs vary from 120 feet to 500 feet in total width and extend from 240 to 1,000 feet past the end of the runway, depending on the ARC and the approach visibility minimums. Taxiways also have safety areas associated with them, varying from 75 feet to 150 feet in total width. 114
The Object-Free Area (OFA) is a ground area centered on the runway, taxiway, or taxilane centerline that enhances the safety of aircraft operations.

The Obstacle-Free Zone (OFZ) extends 200 feet beyond each runway end and its width varies from 120 feet to 400 feet, depending on the visibility requirements and aircraft size.

The Building Restriction Line (BRL) is shown on the airport layout plan and identifies suitable building area locations on airports. The assumed building height is usually 35 feet. The BRL is a planning tool; when determining the location of a proposed building, the actual height should be considered. In cases where it is impracticable to meet the standard Runway Safety Area, the Runway Object Free Area, or the Runway Protection Zone for the whole runway, an alternative airport design method allows for determination of safe distances and operating areas, depending on an aircrafts particular requirements for takeoff run, take-off distance, accelerate-stop distance, and landing distance. The declared distances are Take-Off Run Available (TORA), Take-Off Distance Available (TODA), Accelerate-stop Distance Available (ASDA), and Landing Distance Available (LDA). These distances specify aircraft limitations for weight, rotation, climb speeds, and landing rollout. TORA is a measurement of the runway length + the displaced threshold. TODA is a measurement of runway length + the displaced threshold + the Clearway. ASDA is a measurement of the runway length + the Stopway and the displaced threshold at the opposite end of the runway. LDA is a measurement of the runway length + displaced thresholds on the opposite end of the runway (available for rollout). To increase safety associated with aircraft using intersecting runways when buildings may block visibility of aircraft on other runways, the FAA requires Runway Visibility Zones (RVZ). The RVZ is an area formed by imaginary lines connecting the visibility points of two different runways. The visibility points for each runway are calculated to allow adequate time for one aircraft to see and avoid an aircraft using the other runway.
A runway threshold is the beginning portion that is available for landing or takeoff. A displaced threshold may be required in three instances: (1) when an object obstructs the airspace needed for landing aircraft, (2) for environmental considerations such as noise abatement, or (3) if necessary to provide standard runway safety area dimensions or runway obstacle free zone lengths.

The declared distances are Take-Off Run Available (TORA), Take-Off Distance Available (TODA), Accelerate-stop Distance Available (ASDA), and Landing Distance Available (LDA). These distances result in available limitations for weight, rotation, climb speeds, and landing rollout.

A runway threshold is the beginning portion that is available for landing or takeoff. A displaced threshold may be required in three instances: (1) when an object obstructs the airspace needed for landing aircraft, (2) for environmental considerations such as noise abatement, or (3) if necessary to provide standard runway safety area dimensions or runway obstacle free zone lengths. A displaced threshold is located some distance down the runway. The portion of the runway displaced may still be used for aircraft takeoffs and roll-outs from the opposite direction. When a penetration to an approach surface exists, the airport operator must take one of three actions: (1) remove or lower the object to acceptable threshold siting 115

requirements, (2) displace the threshold, thereby shortening the landing distance, or (3) raise the visibility minimums on the runway approach. AdditionalDefinitions In addition to OFA, OFZ, RSA, RPZ and BRL, other definitions, acronyms and concepts are used in the design and operation of an airport. They include: 1) The airport elevation is the highest point on an airports usable runway, expressed in feet above Mean Sea Level (MSL). 2) The Airport Reference Point (ARP) is the latitude and longitude of the geometric center of the airports runways. 3) A large airplane is certificated for takeoff weights of more than 12,500 pounds, while a small aircraft is certificated for less than 12,500 pounds. Note that these weight limits are different from the one used to determine small and large aircraft for the purpose of wake turbulence separation. 4) Rectangular in shape, a Stopway is the area beyond the end of a take-off runway used to support and minimize damage to an airplane overrunning the runway in the event of an aborted takeoff. 5) A Clearway is a rectangular area off the departure end of a runway that is cleared or suitable for use in lieu of a runway to satisfy a pilots requirement for having a specified takeoff distance for his or her aircraft. The clearway is factored into a pilots calculation for how much take off distance is available (TODA) versus the actual runway available for a takeoff run (TORA). The TODA recognizes that an aircrafts climb performance requires an obstacle-free area beyond the runway departure end to ensure safe flight. 6) Threshold Siting Standards are used to establish the location of a threshold if an object exists on the approach that penetrates the siting standards. It uses TODA, TORA, and LDA distances necessary to meet the RSA, OFA and OFZ clearances. The surfaces used to determine the location of the threshold may not be penetrated by any object, but are different from the approach areas described in FAR Part 77. TaxiwaySystem A taxiway is a defined path used for aircraft to move from one point on an airport to another. Taxiway widths typically vary from 25 to 100 feet, while the taxiway safety area correspondingly varies from 49 to 262 feet. A taxilane is a portion of 116

A large airplane is certificated for takeoff weights or more than 12,500 pound, while a small aircraft is certificated for less than 12,500 pounds. Note that these weight limits are different from the one used to determine small and large aircraft for the purpose of wake turbulence separation.

Threshold Siting Standards are used to establish the location of a threshold if an object exists on the approach that penetrates the siting standards. It uses TODA, TORA, and LDA distances necessary to meet the RSA, OFA and OFZ clearances.

A taxilane is a portion of an aircraft parking area used for access between taxiways and aircraft parking positions.

an aircraft parking area used for access between taxiways and aircraft parking positions. Taxilanes are not typically a part of the movement area. The design principles associated with taxiway systems are as follows: 1) Direct routing to the runway; 2) A bypass capability or multiple access to the runway; 3) Minimization of runway crossings and provision of ample turning radii; 4) Visibility of taxiing aircraft; and 5) Prevention of ingress and egress bottlenecks. Beyond serving as the transition pathway for aircraft from the runway to the parking area, taxiway designs are based upon the wingspan and wingtip clearances necessary for the largest aircraft expected to use the airport. To mitigate the closing or rerouting of surface transportation facilities, taxiway and runway bridges have been constructed at a number of airports in the U.S. A taxiway leading from a runway can be at right angles or, in the case of highspeed exits, acute angles to the runway. The exit location considers factors such as the type of aircraft using the runway, the frequency of use, and the affect weather conditions on the pavement surface. Wet or dry conditions will have an effect on the ability of an aircraft to slow down in time to make the turnoff. The placement of exit taxiways is crucial. Those that connect to the runway at right angles force the aircraft to slow to almost a complete stop before turning, thereby increasing runway occupancy timea cause of airfield delay and a capacity constraint. ApronsandRamps Aprons provide for aircraft parking, as well as access to terminal facilities, fueling, and surface transportation. A determination of the total amount of apron area needed cannot be developed by formula or empirical relationship, since local conditions often vary significantly from one airport to another. The four primary considerations that govern efficient apron area design are: (1) the movement and physical characteristics of the aircraft to be served; (2) the maneuvering, staging, and location of ground service equipment and underground utilities; (3) the dimensional relationships of parked aircraft to the terminal building; and (4) the safety, security, and operational practices related to apron 117

The placement of exit taxiways can be crucial. Those that connect to the runway at right angles force the aircraft to slow to almost a complete stop before turning, thereby increasing, runway occupancy time a cause of airfield delay and a capacity constraint.

The four primary considerations that govern efficient apron area design are: (1) the movement and physical characteristics of the aircraft to be served; (2) the maneuvering, staging, and location of ground service equipment and underground utilities; (3) the dimensional relationships of parked aircraft to the terminal building; and (4) the safety, security, and operational practices related to apron control.

control. The primary objective of these considerations is the ready accommodation of an airports aircraft mix. Aircraft manufacturers publish manuals detailing the characteristics of each airframe in their fleet. This provides information on turning radii, loading bridge door heights, wing tip clearances, servicing ports, and the location of Azimuth Guidance for Nose-in Stands (AGNIS) and Parallax Aircraft Parking Aids (PAPA). AGNIS and PAPA are fixed guidance markers designed to guide different aircraft into a terminal docking station. FAA Advisory Circulars include similar data on various commercial aircraft. The optimum apron design for a specific airport will depend on available space, aircraft mix, and terminal configuration. Other considerations in apron and ramp design require an assessment of aircraft access, handling and use requirements, protection from jet and propeller blasts, hydrant or other fueling or servicing needs, and emergency access for ARFF vehicles and personnel. Fueling operations at small, general aviation airports will usually consist of a fuel pump facility. Fueling from a stationary pump facility tends to be more economical than the more common method of fueling from trucks at larger airports. At major air carrier airports, underground fuel hydrant systems adjacent to the terminal are safer, more economical, and more efficient when compared with the airlines direct and indirect costs in having numerous vehicles in and around aircraft. In the design of terminal apron areas, the terminal gate type helps to establish the minimums for the required space. The wingspans and fuselage lengths of the aircraft using the terminal building are used to define the type of gate. Four gate types affect the design of terminal buildings and the layout of ramps and aprons: 1. Gate Type A applies to aircraft in Airplane Design Group III. This type of aircraft primarily serves short- to medium-length route structures. 2. Gate Type B applies to Design Group IV aircraft that have fuselage lengths less than 160 feet. These aircraft serve longer-range routes than Group III aircraft, but they have similar passenger demands as Type A gates. 3. Gate Type C serves Design Group IV aircraft that have fuselage lengths greater than 160 feet. The typical route structure of those aircraft is similar to those using Type B gates, but they have higher passenger volumes. 118

4. Gate Type D is used by Design Group V, which can accommodate the high passenger volumes found on typical long-range routes.

DesignofOtherLandingFacilities
In addition to its land-based component, the FAAs definition of an airport includes heliports, vertiports, gliderports, seaplane bases, ultralight flight parks, manned, balloon-launching facilities, or other landing and takeoff areas. An aircraft landing and takeoff area is any area of land, water, or structure used, or intended to be used, for the landing and taking off of aircraft. An airport open to the general public, with or without prior request, is considered to be a public use airport. Whenever federal funds are used, airports are required to accomplish the development in accordance with an approved ALP. Heliports Helicopters provide a unique capability to communities when they are integrated into the local transportation system. In addition to their general service in the transportation of people, helicopters have proven to be useful for disaster relief, air ambulance services, police departments, news reporting, construction, and handling of high-value cargo. Companies use helicopters as an invaluable part of an in-house transportation system to connect the main office with various plants, job sites, and the local airport. Utility companies use helicopters to construct and inspect high-voltage electrical lines and to monitor underground gas transmission lines. Newspapers and radio/TV stations use helicopters to gather news on site, to take photographs, and to report rush hour traffic conditions. Because of the unique operating capabilities of vertical takeoff, landing, and hovering, heliport-landing areas are not restricted to the local airport. Multiple sites within a community can support helicopter operations. The FAA has determined that certificating heliports is not in the public interest and has exempted operators of heliports from complying with Part 139 requirements. Heliport design guidance is found in Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5390-2, Heliport Design. Key heliport design considerations include the Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF) and the Final Approach and Takeoff Area (FATO). Heliports additionally have safety areas around the FATO. The TLOF is a load bearing, usually paved area, centered in the FATO, on which the helicopter lands or takes off. The FATO is a defined area over which the final phase of the 119

Helicopters provide a unique capability to communities when they are integrated into the local transportation system. In addition to their general service in the transportation of people, helicopters have proven to be useful for disaster relief, air ambulance services, police departments, news reporting, construction, and handling of high value cargo.

The TLOF is a load bearing, usually paved area, centered in the FATO on which the helicopter lands or takes off. The FATO is a defined area over which the final phase of the approach to a hover or a landing is completed and from which a takeoff is initiated.

approach to a hover or a landing is completed and from which a takeoff is initiated. Similar to the Critical Aircraft heliport design guidance is based on the Design Helicopter, which reflects the maximum weight, maximum contact load/minimum contact area, overall length, rotor diameter and other factors of the helicopters expected to operate out of the heliport. Heliports should also have protection zones, which begin at the FATO perimeter and extend out for a distance of 400 feet, upon which the heliport or helipad operator should own or control the property. HelicopterFacilitiesonAirports Helicopters are generally able to operate on airports without unduly interfering with airplane operations, but some design considerations should be taken into account. Helicopter passengers often require convenient access to the terminal and ground transportation facilities. At airports with interconnecting helicopterto-airplane or airplane-to-helicopter passenger traffic, the terminal apron should provide gates for helicopter boarding and appropriate ramp safety measures to reduce hazards created by tail rotors and rotor wash. For GA helicopter operations, the airport should have at least two approach/departure paths meeting the criteria for commercial transport helicopters which, among other requirements, must be aligned with the predominate wind. Curved VFR approach/departure paths may also be allowed to avoid objects or noise sensitive areas. The Safety Area, Protection Zone and FATO dimensions should be applied as they relate to stand-alone heliport facilities. Additional helicopter marking, securities, lighting of obstructions, and ARFF issues should be addressed when an airport begins helipad operations, and the airport operator may wish to install helicopter specific visual glideslope aids. Reference FAA AC 150/5345-52, Generic Visual Glideslope Indicators (GVGI), AC 150/5345-28, Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Systems, provide additional guidance. Vertiports The marriage of helicopter technology and fixed wing aircraft has resulted in hybrid aircraft of either tilt-rotor or tilt-wing design. A tiltrotor aircraft has proprotors that pivot to a vertical position for takeoff, landing, and hover operations, and pivot to the horizontal position to provide thrust in horizontal flight for the 120

Helicopters are generally able to operate on airports without unduly interfering with airplane operations, but some design considerations should be taken into account. Helicopter passengers often require convenient access to the terminal and ground transportation facilities.

stationary wings to generate lift. A tilt-wing aircraft is a rotorcraft with both the wing and the prop rotor blades pivoting together from horizontal to a vertical position. The benefit of tilt-rotor and tilt-wing technology is that it offers a viable, city center to city-center air transportation capability similarly to helicopter operations. Its advantage over helicopters is that it can carry more passengers for longer distances at better speeds and operating efficiency. Vertiports can also enhance air transportation system capacity by substituting for commuter type operations at large airports.
The benefit of tilt-rotor and tilt-wing technology is that it offers a viable, city center to city-center air transportation capability similarly to helicopter operations. Its advantage over helicopters is that it can carry more passengers for longer distances at better speeds and operating efficiency.

Vertiport design requirements are similar to heliport design. Vertiports can also be located on airports and operate on a simultaneous, but non-conflicting, basis with fixed-wing traffic. The layout can be similar to a helipad, or be more elongated to allow for a rolling landing or takeoff rather than a strictly vertical operation. SeaplaneBases A seaplane base is an area of water used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft, together with associated buildings and facilities on shore. A sea-lane is the defined path, which is prescribed for the landing and takeoff run of aircraft. Lakes, rivers, and harbors offer natural aircraft landing and takeoff areas, where the waves are more conducive to aircraft operations. Landing and takeoff areas are best located where the water current flow is less than 3.5 miles per hour and the wave heights are not classified as swells. On aeronautical charts, a seaplane base is designated by an anchor symbol. Various governmental bodies control waterways, and rules and regulations vary throughout the nation. Bodies of inland water that are used in commerce are under the purview of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers which is responsible for maintaining and regulating the use of navigable waterways. Activities and fixed facilities requiring Corps of Engineer permits include dredging, filling, breakwaters, boat ramps, piers, bulkheads, and riprap. The U. S. Coast Guard is charged with marking and lighting navigable waterways. This means that any markers used to identify a sea-lane require a permit from the Coast Guard. All other bodies or rivers of water not considered navigable waterways will generally fall under the governing authority of the state in which they are located. 121

On aeronautical charts, a seaplane base is designate by an anchor symbol.

The U. S. Coast Guard is charged with marking and lighting navigable waterways. This means that any markers used to identify a sea-lane require a permit from the Coast Guard.

Many of the FAA requirements for establishing, decommissioning, and modifying seaplane bases are the same as for land airports. Part 77 Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace applies. All seaplane base development financed with federal funds requires an FAA-approved Seaplane Base Layout Plan (SBLP). The SBLP is similar in scope to the land-based ALP. UltralightFlightParks Operation of ultralight aircraft on airports is a permitted use. Their operation in Class A, B, C, D and portions of E airspace requires prior authorization from the governing air traffic control facility. ATCT managers will normally allow ultralight operations in controlled airspace subject to non-interference with normal aircraft operations. On the airport, ultralight operations must have the approval of airport management, since management is responsible for determining the compatibility of operating the various classes of aircraft. Safety of all aircraft operations on an airport is a managers prime responsibility. An ultralight vehicle is one with an empty weight of less than 254 pounds, has a fuel capacity of less than five gallons, flies slower than 55 knots, and stalls at a speed of under 24 knots. FAR Part 103 governs ultralight operations. Ultralights are not restricted to operating only from airports. They can operate from any open space that allows for take-offs and landings, provided that operations are not over congested areas. No specific design criteria have been established by the FAA for ultralight operations, though several ultralight organizations have developed recommended guidelines. Ultralight operations on an airport require consideration of speed and operating characteristics. Depending on airport size and activity, some airports have accommodated ultralights by establishing separate landing areas on the grass or turf areas away from the main runway or by establishing a separate flight traffic pattern with air traffic control. Ultralight operations are restricted to daytime VFR use.

ATCT managers will normally allow ultralight operations in controlled airspace subject to noninterference with normal aircraft operations.

Depending on airport size and activity, some airports have accommodated ultralights by establishing separate landing areas on the grass or turf areas away from the main runway or by establishing a separate flight traffic pattern with air traffic control. Ultralight operations are restricted to daytime VFR use.

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EnvironmentalRegulationsandIssues
An airport sponsor considering a proposed project must be aware of what environmental documentation and actions are required to satisfy requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA).

An airport sponsor considering a proposed project must be aware of what environmental documentation and actions are required to satisfy the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA).Y NEPA was legislated to raise the environmental awareness of many industries and required affected industries, including airports, to fully consider the impacts a project would have on the environment before capital improvement projects were funded. It also required both coordination with federal agencies before the issuance of any permits and public involvement in the planning and environmental review process. The FAA and airport operators must comply with NEPA. To do this, each entity must consider ways to enhance environmental quality and avoid or minimize adverse environmental impacts resulting from proposed actions and their reasonable alternatives.FAA Order 5050.4B, National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Implementing Instructions for Airport Projects (April, 2006) Zprovides guidance for airport operators who are conducting development on airports. 1. Airport sponsors should request approval for actions that affect the environment from the FAAs Office of Airports (ARP), which then decides whether to approve these actions. Airport sponsors, in consultation with planners and environmental specialists, consider known environmental factors for proposed airport development projects, and identify obvious, protected environmental resources such as: a. Endangered species b. Historic properties c. Wetlands d. Parkland 2. Additionally, airport sponsors must consider prudent alternatives to avoid unavoidable environmental effects.
Y Z

See http://www.epa.gov/Compliance/nepa/ See http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/publications/orders/environmental_5050_4/index.cfm?print =go

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Airport Layout Plans are also affected by NEPA. The conditional, unconditional or mixed approval of an ALP is a federal action subject to NEPA and other environmental laws. Conditional ALP approval means that the ALP depicts features that are safe and efficient for airport operations and airport use; that ARP has not yet completed its environmental review and that the FAA has not yet authorized the airport to begin building the facilities shown on the ALP. An unconditionally approved ALP means that the requirements previously mentioned have been completed, i.e., the environmental review process has been completed, and the FAA has authorized the building of facilities depicted on the ALP. A mixed ALP approval means that near-term and immediate development shown on the ALP is unconditionally approved and those longer-term projects not yet right for development are conditionally approved, pending environmental review. Other airport sponsor actions including the location of a new airport, land acquisition, joint-use or military conversion programs, releases of airport land, wildlife hazard management plans, and State Block Grant Programs (SBGP) are also subject to NEPA and other environmental laws. Most airport development triggers public interest, especially in those areas that would sustain development-related environmental impacts. Through public participation, the FAA and airport sponsors disclose information about the proposed action, reasonable alternatives, and expected environmental effects. This participation also provides decision makers with information about the issues most important to the public that the proposed action and its reasonable alternative(s) would affect. Certain airport projects such as the construction of new runways, or major extensions to an existing runway trigger mandatory public hearings.
A mixed ALP approval means that near-term and immediate development shown on the ALP is unconditionally approved and those longer-term projects not yet right for development are conditionally approved, pending environmental review.

EnvironmentalRequirementsforAirportDevelopmentProjects
In considering an airport development project, NEPA provides for three categories of environmental action: (1) a categorical exclusion, (2) actions requiring an environmental assessment, and (3) actions requiring an environmental impact statement.

In considering an airport development project, NEPA provides for three categories of environmental action: (1) a categorical exclusion, (2) actions requiring an environmental assessment, and (3) actions requiring an environmental impact statement.

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Certain projects that have been found, under normal circumstances, to have no potential for significant environmental impact and, therefore, are categorically excluded.

Specifically listed in FAA Order 5050.4Bare certain projects that have been found, under normal circumstances, to have no potential for significant environmental impact and, therefore, are categorically excluded. The FAA has two types of categorical exclusions, those actions that are unlikely to involve extraordinary circumstances or actions that are likely to involve extraordinary circumstances. Extraordinary circumstances are those situations in which a normally, categorically excluded action may cause significant, adverse environmental impacts. Determining whether an extraordinary circumstance exists is within the purview of the FAA, who has the decision-making authority. The FAA is required to notify the airport sponsor whether or not a categorical exclusion exists about a proposed action. Other items on the categorical exclusion list include: conditionally approve an ASP; grants to prepare an Environment Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement; approval of Noise Exposure Maps or Noise Compatibility Plans; approval of PFCs; the acquisition of security equipment (required by 49 CFR Part 1542); safety equipment (required by 14 CFR Part 139) or snow removal equipment. It is not necessary for the sponsor to provide a formal environmental review for such projects. Some projects that may involve extraordinary circumstances include: airfield barriers, improvements to airfield ramps, parking areas, taxiway or taxi-lane, roads, runway grooving, rebuilding, equipment storage buildings or t-hangars, or airfield lighting installation or upgrades; construction of a cargo building, conveying federally owned land, deicing or anti-icing facilities, general landscaping, Voluntary Airport Low Emission Program (VALE), noise barriers, non-radar facilities and several others that are outlined in FAA Order 5050.4B. Certain projects, such as those affecting air quality, coastal zones or barriers and compatible land use, to name a few, may or may not involve Significance Thresholds. For example, a project affecting air quality could be categorically excluded unless it exceeded the significance thresholds outlined in the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The significance thresholds for various categories are listed in FAA Order 5050.4B. If a project is not categorically excluded, or would normally be excluded but involves extraordinary circumstances, then an Environmental Assessment (EA) may be required. An EA is a short document, about 15 pages in length that, according to FAA Order 5050.4B, takes a hard look at the expected 125

If a project is not categorically excluded, or would normally be excluded but involves extraordinary circumstances, then an Environmental Assessment (EA) may be required.

environmental effects of a proposed action. The FAA may prepare an EA on any action at any time to assist the agency in planning and decision-making. The airport sponsor, the sponsors qualified consultant, or the FAA prepares an EA for the airports action, unless the FAA determines without an EA that a significant impact to the action may exist, in which case the FAA can skip the EA and go directly to the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) process. Actions that normally require an EA include: 1. A categorically excluded item involving extraordinary circumstances; 2. Helicopter facilities or operations; 3. Land acquisition; 4. New airport serving general aviation; 5. New airport location; 6. New runway; and/or 7. Major runway strengthening or major runway extension; 8. Convert land protected under the Farmland Protection Act; 9. Waters or wetlands.

On the basis of the results reported in an EA, if the impacts are not significant, then the implementing or reviewing agency prepares a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI).AA The FAA can also issue a FONSI when the EA indicates that the selected alternative would not cause any significant, environmental consequences. The issuance of a FONSI may also be dependent upon the airport sponsor taking certain mitigation actions, along with the consequence, severity and significance of the action. The FONSI must list conceptual mitigation measures that are part of the preferred alternatives. If mitigation would not reduce impacts below applicable thresholds, significant impacts may occur; however, this does not automatically trigger an Environmental Impact Statement. To determine if a significant impact may occur, the FAA may elect to bring in other experts and agencies for consultation.
AA

On the basis of the results reported in an EA, if the impacts are not significant, then the implementing or reviewing agency prepares a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI). The FAA can also issue a FONSI when the EA indicates that the selected alternative would not cause any significant, environmental consequences.

For an example of an FONSI, see: http://www.co.saintmarys.md.us/dpw/airport/docs/EAReport-noappendices.pdf

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If the FAA determines that impacts are significant, then an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) may be required. In cases where an EIS is determined as required, then the airports administration will file a Notice of Intent (NOI) with the FAA indicating that the eventual draft of an EIS will be forthcoming. In contrast to a FONSI, the EIS identifies the effects a proposed project might have on surrounding locations, describes and discusses the significant environmental impacts of the action, proposed action, or no action and its reasonable alternatives would cause. It also addresses the project setting to minimize environmental impacts and the consideration of technology to mitigate problems. Relatively few airport actions require preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement. Preparation of an EIS for Airport Improvement Program (AIP) projects, undertaken at airports in accordance with the NEPA, is the responsibility of the FAA. NEPA regulations constitute the primary environmental considerations airport management must address. At a minimum, NEPA requires an airport operator to conduct an environmental audit when undertaking a major project.
The FAA is the federal agency responsible for most proposed airport actions and thus, FAA officials are responsible for preparing EISs addressing those actions. Certain actions, such as a new commercial service airport in a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) or a new runway in an MSA, require an EIS, in which case the EA may be skipped.

The FAA is the federal agency responsible for most proposed airport actions and thus, FAA officials are responsible for preparing EISs addressing those actions. Certain actions, such as a new commercial service airport in a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) or a new runway in an MSA, require an EIS, in which case the EA may be skipped. Although the FAA is the lead agency in conducting an EIS, the airport sponsor, as the proposer of the development, plays a critical role in scoping, due to its knowledge about the airports operation and its relationship with the surrounding community. The airport sponsor often acts as the link between the FAA and the local community around the airport. The EA and FONSI or EIS are essential documents required for the eventual evaluation and approval of an Airport Layout Plan (ALP). The airport administrator should know that NEPA considers the cumulative effects from environmental concerns that may have been identified in the EIS. This complex evaluation requires expert consultation and assessment by professionals familiar with NEPA and ALPs.26 (The FAA publishes a resource titled Best Practices for

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Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Management,BBa useful guide when working with environmental consultants.) It is often possible to adjust project plans or actions so that significant impacts can be avoided, thus eliminating the necessity to prepare an EIS. If there are two airport development choices available that will meet the airports need equally well, the alternative with fewer impacts will most likely proceed through the review process more rapidly. The choice of a development proposal having significant impacts may never proceed. Because of the requirement that a conclusion be made that no feasible and prudent alternative exists; such a finding is unlikely in the face of the existence of a viable alternative.

EnvironmentAssessmentandAudit
One of the key activities for maintaining compliance is to have a periodic review or audit of the airports overall environmental compliance program. Environmental audits may be performed for a number of reasons, such as (1) determining the baseline environmental conditions of a facility or operation, (2) determining the potential environmental liabilities of a property before making an acquisition decision or before initiating condemnation proceedings, (3) identifying potential problems that could stop or delay a construction program, resulting in potential schedule and budget overruns, and (4) identifying tenant problems and ensuring correction of any non-complying conditions. The complexity and size of an environmental audit or assessment depend on the degree of required airport protection. The level of effort must be sufficient to ensure that the airport is not assuming any significant liability. Regardless of the scope, most of the environmental compliance audits include many of the same elements. They are as follows: 1. A determination of the different categories of compliance that need to be addressed. 2. A review of applicable environmental regulations to determine compliance requirements. 3. The development of a questionnaire to ascertain the level of compliance for the airport and the tenants.
The complexity and size of an environmental audit or assessment depend on the degree of required airport protection.

BB

See http://www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/eis_best_practices/

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4. The conduct of an audit through facility investigations, interviews with key employees, and/or review of airport, tenant, and regulatory agency files. 5. The development of a formal report of the findings.

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the primary agency responsible for the nationwide enforcement of environmental regulations, though such enforcement can be delegated to other agencies, such as the FAA, U. S. Customs, or state environmental agencies.

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the primary agency responsible for the nationwide enforcement of environmental regulations, though such enforcement can be delegated to other agencies, such as the FAA,CC U. S. Customs, or state environmental agencies. Individual states may promulgate their own set of environmental laws for cases in which federal law is lacking enforcement or in which the standards do not meet state criteria. A comprehensive assessment of compliance with airport environmental concerns requires an analysis of an airports operations and development activities in regard to numerous local, state, and federal environmental regulations. In addition to environmental legislation, the airport administrator must also stay apprised of government policies and industry best practices related to managing environmental concerns. Airport managers must consider a myriad of factors that can potentially affect the environment of an airport. Examples of these concerns include types and numbers of surface vehicles, aircraft movement, aircraft noise, frequency and population of travelers and other stakeholders using the airport, power requirements, emissions, solid and liquid waste, and land management and biodiversity issues.27

State and local governments are likely to have been delegated authority to administer federal programs or they have their own environmental laws and/or implementing regulations.

State and local governments are likely to have been delegated authority to administer federal programs, or they have their own environmental laws and/or implementing regulations. Local governments also have building, fire, life safety, and health codes that require auditing and evaluation of environmental requirements. In addition, zoning and planning requirements at the local level can affect environmental activities by an airport. Airport management must be diligent in establishing procedures for addressing environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Establishing such procedures will help the airport operator to better manage environmental liabilities and improve
For example, in 2007, the federal government empowered the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to provide Environmental Due Diligence Audits related to real property transactions associated with airport facilities.CC Another example is an FAA policy guidebook titled, Guidance for Quantifying Speciated Organic Gas Emissions from Airport SourcesCC
CC

Establishing such procedures will help the airport operator better manage environmental liabilities and improve the airports standing in any subsequent legal proceedings.

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the airports standing in any subsequent legal proceedings. These procedures should be implemented across all aspects of airport planning and management and, therefore, provide for better compliance with all environmental regulations. EnvironmentalCompliance Airport environmental management is primarily concerned with protecting the airport and its management from liability stemming from violation of environmental laws. A priority for airport managers is to implement and sustain a systematic program for ensuring regulatory compliance with environmental laws. In general, it is difficult for the government or a private citizen to prosecute the manager successfully if a good-faith effort has been made to comply with the law. As part of this program, airport management should make frequent assessments of its current regulatory compliance. This audit should uncover any existing problem areas that management must be prepared to expeditiously resolve. In addition, airport managers should be aware of any local, state, and federal disclosure regulations, as well as protections afforded a facility. These regulations should be easily available at each respective regulators enforcement website or office. The aforementioned assessments and levels of environmental awareness are beneficial in streamlining the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)DD process when airport construction projects are considered. An EIS typically specifies areas of the environment that will be impacted and the degree of impact on the environment, and requires a plan on the part of the airport to mitigate those impacts.28 They are also useful in obtaining environmental impairment liability insurance, which is used to protect the airport from liability and potential cleanup costs associated with environmental concerns. Provisions are made in federal environmental regulations for civil and criminal liability exposure in the event of violations, some of them requiring show of knowledge by the violator and some of them without specific requirements of knowledge. The outcomes of a civil suit can be fines or other financial penalties. Criminal action can involve fines and/or imprisonment. Only government agencies can seek criminal sanctions, but ordinary citizens can seek civil redress under certain environmental statutes or under other civil authorities.

In general, it is difficult for the government or a private citizen to prosecute the manager successfully if a good-faith effort has been made to comply with the law.

Provisions are made in federal environmental regulations for civil and criminal liability exposure in the event of violations, some of them requiring show of knowledge by the violator and some of them without specific requirements of knowledge.

Only government agencies can seek criminal sanctions, but ordinary citizens can seek civil redress under certain environmental statues or under other civil authorities.

DD

For examples of EIS, see http://www.epa.gov/oecaerth/nepa/eisdata.html

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Penalties for civil violations often accumulate rapidly because a violation is based on each infraction and each day it continues to exist. For example, a violation of a monthly average limit for two specific permit items could yield more than 60 counts to be multiplied by the maximum dollar amount in effect (as used to calculate fines). In pursuing civil enforcement, federal agencies may take either administrative or court action. Because environmental statutes carry strict liability provisions (meaning without regard to fault), an Airport Executive or other individual can be convicted of a crime even though there was no intent to do so.
Airport management should be aware that suits and penalties can extend to employees of the organization, and that individuals can be held personally liable for the costs of cleanup or remediation.

Airport management should be aware that suits and penalties can extend to employees of the organization, and that individuals can be held personally liable for the costs of cleanup or remediation. There are three basic factors that are likely to determine whether a given public or private employee is personally liable: (1) ability to make timely discovery of the problem, (2) power to direct the activities of persons who control the mechanisms causing the problem, and (3) ability to prevent and abate the damage. Most Airport Executives are in a position to meet the three criteria. The only real prevention measure is to know the requirements of the environmental statutes and to institute policies and procedures that identify problems and correct deficiencies found. Modern environmental issues now demand that airport administrators seek forms of mitigation that exceed standard abatement processes (e.g., identify and comply). Airport managers are now determining ways to enhance their airports environmental capacity. Environmental capacity refers to building environmental networks and communities of practice by stakeholders to the airport. These efforts strive to implement processes associated with public education, cooperative planning, conflict resolution, disclosure, and information dissemination as ways to be proactive in managing environmental concerns and enhancing the effectiveness of their EMS program.29 There are a number of airport operations that can cause environmental impacts. Examples include storm water discharge, weed and pest control, runway and taxiway de-icing, fire-rescue training, petroleum storage tanks (underground and aboveground tanks), electrical equipment and vaults, aircraft maintenance, vehicle maintenance including that of concessionaires rental cars, asbestos in buildings, restaurant or building maintenance grease, solvents, and other chemicals. Compliance requirements necessitate a review and monitoring of not only these

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potentially hazardous operations but also those of all tenants and contractors operating on the airport as well. Airports are continually faced with the consequences of both their own and their tenants past and present environmental actions. Airport owners and operators can be forced to assume liability for cleanup of contamination on property returned to them through lease expirations, or terminations, or bankruptcy. The best means for ensuring tenant and contractor compliance with environmental laws is to establish specific criteria in any initial bid specifications and/or requests for proposals. Afterwards, periodic inspections and audits are conducted to ensure compliance. Lease and contract agreements should clearly articulate the responsibilities and requirements for compliance of the parties. All agreements should include provisions for the right to access and reasonably inspect tenant premises and records. EnvironmentalManagementSystems Globally, airport planners and managers are embracing environmental concerns as a top priority in managing and operating an airport. In response to the global concern of sustaining compliance with environmental regulations and policies, airport administrations are now utilizing comprehensive Environmental Management Systems (EMS).EE FAA Advisory Circular 150/5050-B Environmental Management Systems for Airport Sponsors provides guidance on establishing methods for developing an EMS. An EMS is a business management practice that serves as a strategic plan for addressing environmental matters. EMS is based on the principles of process control, reducing the consumption of resources, and complying with environmental laws. EMS is based on a Plan, Do, Check, Act model, in which systematic processes are used to identify and complete goals, determine progress, and then continue to make improvements (see Figure 12).

The best means for ensuring tenant and contractor compliance with environmental laws is to establish specific criteria in any initial bid specifications and/or requests for proposals.

EE

See http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/advisory_circulars/media/150-50508/150_5050_8.pdf

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Figure8TheFiveComponentsofanEnvironmentalManagementSystem

The development of an Environmental Management SystemsFF usually requires the assistance of specialized consultants. Along with airport administration, these consultants normally build their environmental management system from the data and information documented in the EIS. The system is then typically (although not always required) formalized through accredited standards, such as the International Environmental Management System Standards ISO 14001(GG).30
An airport organization either establishes an EMS program internally or uses other resources, such as a municipal office, outside consultants, engineers, or attorneys. Airport operators should consider implementing an EMS that helps to asses, evaluate, establish, and maintain continuous environmental compliance.

An airport organization either establishes an EMS program internally or uses other resources, such as a municipal office, outside consultants, engineers, or attorneys. Airport operators should consider implementing an EMS that helps to asses, evaluate, establish, and maintain continuous environmental compliance. The main steps for developing a sufficient EMS program are to: 1. Establish a philosophy and position on environmental compliance.
See http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/advisory_circulars/media/150-50508/150_5050_8.pdf GG See http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_14000_essentials
FF

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2. Communicate compliance goals to employees, tenants, and the community. 3. Identify and assess the current level of compliance through an audit. 4. Establish programs to attain compliance. 5. Create processes and procedures to correct and maintain compliance. 6. Establish and implement strategies for building environmental capacity. Three key activities for maintaining environmental compliance are to have: (1) a sound employee and/or tenant training and informational program, (2) routine periodic reviews or audits of the airports EMS and compliance program, and (3) sound record-keeping practices. The benefits of the EMS include: increased overall efficiency and accountability; reduced costs and the reduction of potential liability; increased employee awareness of environmental responsibilities; and improved community relations.

EnvironmentalRegulations
WaterQuality The Clean Water Act of 1977 (CWA), the Water Quality Act of 1987 (WQA), the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA), and the Federal Water Pollution, Prevention, and Control Act of 1994 are prime examples of legislation established to restore and protect the nations rivers and lakes to safe conditions for wildlife and humans. CWA authorized the President of the U.S. to issue regulations establishing procedures, methods, equipment, and other requirements to prevent discharges of pollutants into navigable waters from vessels and facilities, and to contain such discharges if they occur. The President uses an Executive Order system to carry out these activities. An Executive OrderHH is a policy or other statement that has the impact of law.II The CWA prohibits any person from discharging pollutants into a waterway from a point source, unless a permit issued either by the EPA or another authorized agency, approves the discharge. The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)JJ permit program is the means of regulatory compliance for point source discharges. This prohibition is accomplished by eliminating the point
HH II

CWA authorized the President of the U.S. to issue regulations establishing procedures, methods, equipment, and other requirements to prevent discharges of pollutants into navigable waters from vessels and facilities, and to contain such discharges if they occur.

The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program is the means of regulatory compliance for point source discharges.

See http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/ Provided that U.S. Congress does not contest it within 30 days from the date of issuance. JJ See http://cfpub.epa.gov/NPDES/

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source (direct and indirect) discharge of pollutants into the nations navigable waterways through the issuance of NPDES permits. Non-Point Source (NPS) pollution results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage or seepage into a body of water, rather than from a specific, single location. NPDES permits are required for most discharges of industrial process water, noncontact cooling water, and collected or channeled storm water runoff. Discharges or runoff made directly to surface waters (point source) require a permit. Indirect discharges through separate municipal storm water sewers and publicly owned treatment plants may be regulated through a pretreatment program, in which permits may be issued by the local municipality, county, or state. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) requires a comprehensive approach to the prevention of oil spills and establishes compensation and liability requirements. OPA requires the preparation of response plans that cover the worst-case discharge of oil onto the environment. If an airport is located near navigable waterways or is determined to have discharges that empty into waterways, OPA places substantial compliance requirements on the airports owner and operator, especially when they are involved in the handling or storage of refined petroleum products, such as jet fuel and aviation gasoline. OPA requires a comprehensive and detailed oil response plan demonstrating the ability of the airport to clean up spills of all sizes from its facilities and without government assistance. OPA is administered and enforced by the EPA and the Coast Guard, with the EPA having primary responsibility over airports. Under OPA, airports are required to have available, or have access to, necessary personnel and equipment for responding to, and cleaning up any spills from their facilities. The personnel and equipment can be in-house, contracted out, or some combination of the two. Effective means for addressing the requirements of OPA are the assignment of a spill prevention task force, a system or structure for containing spills, a quality control program for the transfer and storage of fuel, development of a training program for those involved in product transfer, and the resource capability to handle any size of spill. OPA requires various facilities and airports to make provisions for Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans (SPCC Plans),KK and
KK

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) requires a comprehensive approach to the prevention of oil spills and establishes compensation and liability requirements. OPA requires the preparation of response plans that cover the worst-case discharge of oil onto the environment.

Effective means for addressing the requirements of OPA are the assignment of a spill prevention task force, a system or structure for containing spills, a quality control program for the transfer and storage of fuel, development of a training program for those involved in product transfer, and the resource capability to handle any size of spill.

See http://www.epa.gov/region5oil/plan/spcc.html

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provisions that may also affect Facility Response Plans (FRPs)LL, which are specific plans for a facility to respond to a worse case oil spill. SPCC Plans must be designed and used to prevent any discharge of oil into or upon navigable waters of the U.S. or its adjoining shorelines. Preparation of the SPCC Plan is the responsibility of the facility owner or operator, but it must be certified by a licensed Professional Engineer. Airports in most developed countries strive to monitor and control wastewater or chemical drainage in order to protect water quality. Of prime concern are activities associated with de-icing. Many airports now de-ice their aircraft in sealed areas that capture and retain the chemical fluids. Some of these airports now recycle various chemicals and liquid products used to operate the airport. In some cases, airports will modify or take measures to protect natural drainage patterns of the topography, in order to better control spillage or the mixing of chemicals with ground water. StormWaterDischarge Storm water discharge often represents the most prolific source of water pollution at most airports. Storm water often causes overflows, discharge, and the removal of chemicals and toxins located at many point sources in the airport operating area. Therefore, appropriate storm water drainage systems must be designed and operated as a physical facility at the airport. Installation and management of storm water drainage systems are considered a prime strategy for mitigating environmental damage.31 In contrast to surface water, which is water that has collected or is deposited on top of the earths surface, groundwater refers to water that is contained in the earths subsurface and permeates the soil. The point at which the soil becomes saturated is known as the water table. The water table depth can vary under different geological conditions. A water aquifer is established when enough water accumulates underground to provide a continuous water supply. Contamination of surface and groundwater occurs when precipitation leaches pollutants from products or wastes deposited or stored on the surface, or when pollutants are buried beneath the surface and they seep through subsurface materials to groundwater. If sufficient quantities of industrial, household, or other
LL

Storm water discharge often represents the most prolific source of water pollution at an airport.

Installation and management of storm water drainage systems are considered a prime strategy for mitigating environmental damage.

See http://www.epa.gov/oem/content/frps/index.htm

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The best way to protect groundwater is to prevent contaminants from reaching the critical groundwater aquifer.

products containing hazardous substances are spilled or dumped on the ground or flushed into septic systems groundwater could be contaminated. At airports, groundwater contamination occurs in a number of ways: through the storage and handling and disposal of wastes; through leaking petroleum storage tanks; and by the leeching of uncovered salt or sand stockpiles, landfills, septic tanks, and agricultural practices. The best way to protect groundwater is to prevent contaminants from reaching the critical groundwater aquifer. The protection of wetlandsMMis also a factor in storm water runoff and discharge. Wetlands are areas of land inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances does support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas. They have a filtering effect on water and support various plant and wildlife species. Contamination diminishes those effects. Airport operators should be aware that the determination of what are and what are not jurisdictional wetlands is a controversial matter, which the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is addressing by working together with the EPA and other federal agencies and by implementing recent court decisions. NPDES requires airports to obtain NPDES permits for storm water discharges. As part of the permit process, an airport operator is required to have a Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP),NN also known as a storm water management plan. The plan is a comprehensive approach to addressing storm water discharge from the various users and tenants located at an airport. It requires airport management to monitor all discharges, maintain records, and make reports in the event of unusual discharges. Four types of storm water permit applications exist: (1) general, (2) individual, (3) multi-sector general, and (4) construction. The first three relate to the operations and facilities aspect of an airport. For instance, an airport having aircraft or ground vehicle maintenance (including vehicle rehabilitation, mechanical repairs, painting, fueling, lubrication, and cleaning), equipment cleaning, engine test cell operations, airport pavement, aircraft de-icing operations, or pesticides and herbicides application would be considered to have operational industrial activities. Airports with over 50,000 operations a year are required to develop a
MM NN

As part of the permit process, an airport operator is required to have a Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP), also known as a storm water management plan.

See http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/ See http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/Stormwater/swppp.cfm

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storm water prevention plan, to implement Best Management Practices (BMPs), and to monitor various runoff parameters, such as oils and grease, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), pH, and levels of glycols and urea. These requirements may change as States implement their own standards and set their own parameters, which require monitoring. In addition, states may require permits and a storm water management plan, even if an airport has less than 50,000 operations a year. The fourth type of permit, construction, is related to rehabilitation or expansion activities on an airport that disturb five or more acres. If the permit is required as part of a federal AIP construction project, the cost of preparing the permit application may be an eligible cost. Recently, EPA has promulgated new construction activities permitting requirements that mandate permits for activities disturbing more than one acre of land. (The first three types of permits are not generally eligible for AIP funding; however, an airport operator should consult with FAA regarding the eligibility issues.) The permit process primarily affects an airport in three areas: (1) its operations, (2) its facilities, and (3) its construction activities. The NPDES regulation specifically identifies de-icing, fueling, maintenance, and refinishing activities as four primary operations at airports that require permits. The permit process allows for only those areas affected by the identified primary operation to be covered by a permit. The impact of identifying separate areas is to preclude and reduce the effect on areas such as a tie-down, apron, or FBO ramp areas, where de-icing or the other three primary activities do not occur. Some airports are also affected by regulations promulgated by the EPA that require operators of large, medium, and regulated, small municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s)OO to get authorization to discharge pollutants under an NPDES permit. Medium and large MS4 operators are required to submit comprehensive permit applications and are issued individual permits. Compliance with NPDES requirements and assurance that discharge limits will be met vary from simple maintenance practices to complex engineering solutions. They include improved facility maintenance, drainage reconfiguration, and new facility construction. The simplest and least costly method to improve the storm water runoff quality is to review and improve maintenance procedures and facilities on
OO

Airports having over 50,000 operations a year are required to develop a storm water prevention plan, to implement Best Management Practices (BMPs).

The permit process primarily affects an airport in three areas: (1) its operations, (2) its facilities, and (3) its construction activities. The NPDES regulation specifically identifies de-icing, fueling, maintenance, and refinishing activities as four primary operations at airports that require permits.

Compliance with NPDES requirements includes improved facility maintenance, drainage reconfiguration, and new facility construction. The simplest and least costly method to improve the storm water runoff quality is to review and improve maintenance procedures and facilities on the airport.

See http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/munic.cfm

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the airport. This could include sweeping of pavements (roads, aprons, parking lots), regular cleaning of storm drain inlets, and scheduled inspecting and cleaning of oil/water separators. Another possible alternative is to reconfigure the current drainage system to divert drainage that would cause contaminated storm runoff. The final alternative is to construct new facilities that will control or treat runoff. Such facilities include the construction of new wetlands, retention or detention ponds, holding tanks, on-site treatment plants, and de-icing facilities. In the area of de-icing, current practice is to either construct holding tanks, retention ponds, de-icing sites with collection systems, or de-icing sites with recycling systems. Unlike some of the other environmental regulations, the NPDES permits are obtained through a negotiation process. To minimize resource and financial exposure, an airport operator should know all of the options for compliance before preparing a management plan. Thorough and accurate preplanning saves airport owners significant expense and frustration. Implementation of BMPs can be used to prevent or reduce the amount of pollution from any type of activity. Airports should also be aware that staying informed about state and federal regulations throughout the life of the permit will assist in the permit renewal process and that compliance is not a one-time project but an on-going endeavor. TheSuperfund:TheComprehensiveEnvironmentalResponse, Compensation,andLiabilityActof1980(CERCLA) The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA)PP is generally known as the Superfund. Modifications were made to CERCLA through the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA)QQ. Both fund a national, toxic waste cleanup effort. The purpose of CERCLA and SARA is to provide authorities the means to respond to uncontrolled releases of hazardous substances from inactive sites that endanger public health and the environment. They accomplish this purpose by funding remediation of sites that have been contaminated through years of past abuse. The Superfund established prohibitions and requirements for closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites, provided for the liability of persons responsible for releases of hazardous waste at Superfund sites, and established a
PP QQ

The purpose of CERCLA and SARA is to provide authorities the means to respond to uncontrolled releases of hazardous substances from inactive sites that endanger public health and the environment.

See http://epa.gov/superfund/policy/cercla.htm See http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/sara.htm

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trust fund to provide for the cleanup when no responsible person or party could be identified. Potentially responsible parties (PRPs), who may be liable under Superfund, include: 1. The owner or operator of a facility. 2. Any person, who at the time of disposal of any hazardous substance, owned or operated any facility where the hazardous wastes were disposed. 3. Any person who arranged for hazardous substance treatment or disposal. 4. Any person who arranged for the transport of hazardous substances for treatment or disposal. 5. Any person who accepts or accepted hazardous substances for transport to disposal or treatment facilities, incineration vessels, or other selected sites. SARA requires the development of emergency response plans that address fuel spills and hazardous waste exposure, and provides for public participation in the selection of appropriate remedies for site contamination problems. SARA also broadened application of the Superfund law to include federal facilities. Superfund hazardous substances generally include toxic, flammable, corrosive, or environmentally harmful substances. Any release of these hazardous substances in quantities equal to or greater than their specified reportable quantities must be immediately reported to the National Response Center (NRC). The NRC is the primary communications center for reporting major chemical and oil spills or other hazardous substances onto the environment. Relevant state and local agencies may require notification, as well. In addition to sudden and unexpected spills, CERCLAs reporting obligations apply to gradual discharges that exceed reportable quantities over a 24-hour period and discharges in amounts that exceed permit limits. Civil and criminal penalties exist for failure to abide by these requirements. A toxic chemical is any type of hazardous material that causes severe illness, poisoning, or death when inhaled, ingested, or absorbed by living organisms. Under Superfund law, the airport is responsible for any hazardous substance it disposes of for as long as that waste exists and remains hazardous. Airport management is also responsible for any hazardous waste that exists on the airport 140

SARA requires the development of emergency response plans that address fuel spills and hazardous waste exposure, and provides for public participation in the selection of appropriate remedies for site contamination problems.

A toxic chemical is any type of hazardous material that causes severe illness, poisoning, or death when inhaled, ingested, or absorbed by living organisms.

regardless of how it got there, when it got there, or whether the manager was responsible for putting it there. Airport management can find itself affected by Superfund liability issues when acquiring or selling airport property. The current owners of contaminated property are required under Superfund to clean up the site. If not cleaned up before acquisition, the airport may be liable for cleanup costs. This may affect future airport expansion plans in cases where a proposed site is discovered to be contaminated. The same holds true for the selling of airport property. The airport may be required to clean a site before selling it, even though someone else caused the contamination. If hazardous substances are escaping or threatening to escape into the environment, or if the airport contributed any waste to a contaminated site, airport management can be held legally responsible for the entire cost of cleaning up the site. The task for recovering costs from any other responsible parties then becomes that of airport management. An important component of the CERCLA and SARA regulations is the right to know requirement under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-toKnow Act (EPCRA).RREPCRA requires states to establish programs for developing local, chemical emergency preparedness programs and to disseminate and make that information available to the public. EPCRA requires anyone who manufactures, processes, stores, or uses hazardous chemicals to report the information to appropriate state and local officials. If an airport facility is covered by EPCRA, then airport management must do three things. First, it must participate in efforts to plan a coordinated response to a serious emergency. Then, management must make general disclosures to the public about the potentially hazardous chemicals the airport uses. Finally, airport management must report to authorities certain emergency spills and other releases into the environment. Whether or not an airport is covered under EPCRA depends on one or more criteria: (1) Does it meet the requirements of the Federal Occupational Health and Safety Administration Hazard Communication Standard?SS (2) Does it have any of the chemicals listed in the EPAs extremely hazardous material substance list?TT or (3) Do any chemicals exceed the designated quantities that appear on the
RR SS

Airport management can find itself affected by Superfund liability issues when acquiring or selling airport property.

The airport may be required to clean a site before selling it, even though someone else caused the contamination.

EPCRA requires states to establish programs for developing local chemical emergency preparedness programs and to disseminate and make that information available to the public.

See http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/lcra.html See http://www.osha.gov/ and subsequent section on OSHA TT See http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/content/learning/substances.htm

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EPA list? The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is based on the premise that employees and the public have both a need and a right to know the hazards and identities of chemicals to which they are exposed. SARA exempts local governments from Superfund liability when they take actions in response to an emergency created by the release, or threatened release, of hazardous substances from a facility other than their ownexcept in cases of gross negligence or intentional misconduct. For instance, the exemption applies when eminent domain proceedings result in the airports acquiring contaminated property. It also limits the liability of local government employees under federal law (but not state laws) with respect to services provided while responding to a release, or threatened release, of hazardous substances. In order to reduce risks associated with Superfund liability in cases of airport land acquisitions, airport sponsors conduct an Environmental Site Assessment (ESA). ESA consists of policies and procedures used to help determine that there is a reasonable assurance that no hazardous wastes, other wastes, or unacceptable hazards exist, or that existing hazardous wastes are manageable.32 Of equal importance, the ESA process constitutes appropriate inquiry into previous ownership and uses of the property, thus satisfying the main requirement to qualify for the "innocent landowner defense" to CERCLA liability. The innocent landowner defense is a legal position used to defend landowners in CERCLA liability cases for environmental damages done prior to ownership of the land. According to the FAA, the following ESA policies and procedures help to ensure a strong innocent landowner defense: 1. We [the FAA] recommend using an environmental professional and the Phase I ESA process on all AIP land acquisition projects to meet the requirements set forth in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 1528UU. 2. Phase I Environmental Site Assessment: The final rule requires that a written report be prepared and signed by an environmental professional. The report must include: a. Interviews with past and present owners, operators and occupants b. Searches for environmental cleanup liens c. Review of Federal, tribal, State and local government records
UU

SARA exempts local governments from Superfund liability when they take actions in response to an emergency created by the release, or threatened release, of hazardous substances from a facility other than their ownexcept in cases of gross negligence or intentional misconduct.

ESA consists of policies and procedures used to help determine that there is a reasonable assurance that no hazardous wastes, other wastes, or unacceptable hazards exist, or that existing hazardous wastes are manageable.

See http://www.astm.org/

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d. Visual inspection of the subject property and, in some cases, the adjoining property e. A declaration by the environmental professional regarding any data gaps (missing information) that could affect the discovery of hazardous conditions or contamination on a site. 3. Phase II Environmental Oversight a. This practice is intended to confirm whether property under consideration for acquisition/disposal or construction is contaminated, as indicated by the Phase One ESA. This phase shall only be performed by an environmental specialist and includes, but is not limited to, soil sampling, grand water sampling, indoor air quality testing, drums and waste materials testing, asbestos testing, and underground tank testing. b. The Phase II ESA has the following elements: i. Sample and Analysis Plan Review ii. Field Sampling and Analytical Results Review c. Phase II Report review: i. Here again the final result should include the results of the investigation, a cost benefit analysis, (if further investigation is needed); and recommendations for future actions. ii. Not intended to find the extent of contamination. 4. Phase III ESA Oversight a. This portion of the process is intended to quantify and characterize the extent of contamination at the site and shall consist of a full site/remedial investigation and selection of an appropriate feasibility remedy. 5. It should be noted that the conduct of an ESA as an environmental practice is complex and may lead to significant penalties for noncompliance. The work described above should be carried out by persons with the requisite specialized training and experience to provide for the safety of the investigators conducting the audit and to properly meet all of the requirements established by both federal and state statute. Sponsors should consult with a specialist in this area prior to beginning any environmental auditing.33

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HazardousWaste A major regulatory law affecting airports is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA).VVRCRA requires the EPA to develop and implement a program to protect human health and the environment from improper hazardous waste management practices. Anyone who generates or transports hazardous wastes, or who owns or operates a facility for the storage, treatment, or disposal of hazardous wastes, falls under the RCRA. RCRA authorizes the EPA to regulate hazardous substances once they have been generated until their ultimate disposal. RCRA is in contrast to the CERCLA, which focuses on responding to inactive hazardous waste and disposal facilities already generated. Procedures under EPA regulations call for comprehensive record keeping requirements, the placement of waste into proper containers having warning labels, and the creation of a transport manifest for disposal. A waste, for purposes of RCRA, is any solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material that is no longer used and is either recycled, thrown away, or stored until enough is accumulated to treat or to be disposed of in another manner. Whether it is hazardous or not depends on whether it is listed on any of the hazardous waste lists contained in the RCRA regulations or under 40 CFR 261WW. Hazardous wastes are those that cause injury or death or which damage or pollute the land, air, or water. Even if not listed, a waste may be considered hazardous if it exhibits any of four characteristics: ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, or toxicity. Ignitability refers to an easily combustible or flammable waste. If the waste burns the skin or dissolves metals or other materials, then it is labeled corrosive. A reactive waste is unstable or undergoes rapid or violent chemical reaction with water or other material. A toxic waste contains high concentrations of heavy metals or specific pesticides, which could be released into the ground water. Hazardous wastes generators are classified under RCRA into one of three categories based on the volume of material that the facility generates per calendar month: 1. Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generators (CESQGs) that generate less than 100 kg per month.
VV WW

Anyone who generates or transports hazardous wastes, or who owns or operates a facility for the storage, treatment, or disposal of hazardous wastes, falls under the RCRA.

A waste, for purposes of RCRA, is any solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material that is no longer used, and is either recycled, thrown away, or stored until enough is accumulated to treat or to be disposed in another manner.

See http://www.fema.gov/plan/ehp/ehplaws/rcra.shtm See http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title40/40cfr261_main_02.tpl

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2. Small Quantity Generators (SQGs) that create more than 100 kg per month but less than 1,000 kg (2,200 pounds) per month. 3. Large Quantity Generators (LQGs) that generate more than 1,000 kg of waste per month. Determining whether the airport is a large, small, or conditional exempt generator requires adding up the weight of all the hazardous material that the airport generates in a month. If the airport generates more than 100 kg of waste in a month, an EPA identification number must be obtained (Form 8700-12). The RCRA regulations focus primarily on SQGs and LQGs. However, some wastes are so acutely hazardous, that even if generated in small quantities of only 2.2 pounds in a month, they would require an airport to come under the full requirements of the RCRA associated with large generators. Airport operators should note that the quantities above, as well as timetables, may change due to regulatory modifications, state law, or other factors and must check with regulatory agencies as to what quantities and timetables are applicable.
A LQG or SQG may accumulate or store hazardous waste on-site without a storage permit, provided that the generator complies with the RCRA accumulation rule found in 40 CFR 262. If the airport accumulates and stores waste, being a small generator limits the airport to 6,000 kg in any 180-day period.

A LQG or SQG may accumulate or store hazardous waste on-site without a storage permit, provided that the generator complies with the RCRA accumulation rule found in 40 CFR 262. If the airport accumulates and stores waste, being a small generator limits the airport to 6,000 kg in any 180-day period. A large generator is restricted to 90 days; otherwise, a special permit is required. An airport can accumulate no more than 1,000 kg at any time, if it is determined to be a CESQG. If the hazardous waste is stored in a container, then each container must be clearly marked with the date the material was first collected and with the words hazardous waste. The container must then be inspected weekly. (Please note that some of these timetables may be different depending on the applicability of certain regulations modifying them.) Any stored waste must be taken off-site or treated within 180 days (or 270 days if the treatment plant is 200 miles or further away), unless the permit allows for storage, treatment, and disposal on-site. Disposal of waste on the airport is not allowed unless a disposal permit has been obtained. The process for obtaining a disposal permit is identified in 40 CFR Part 270. For any temporary storage on the airport, it is important to maintain National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) buffer zones for ignitable or reactive materials.

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Whenever hazardous waste is generated or stored on the airport, management must take precautions to prevent sudden or accidental release into the environment. A preparedness and prevention plan detailing the appropriate types of emergency communication and fire equipment to be available for the kinds of waste handled is necessary. Communication equipment includes alarms, telephones, or two-way radios. Fire equipment can include fire extinguishers, hoses, automatic sprinklers, or spray equipment. Coordination with the local fire and emergency response personnel is imperative, and they must be informed of the types of hazardous material generated or stored on the airport along with disclosure of the materials location. A contingency plan for emergencies is required under the RCRA. It can be incorporated into the emergency plan for certificated Part 139 airports, or maintained separately for those airports not under Part 139. An emergency plan would include methods for contacting emergency response personnel and, in the event of a spill, fire, explosion, or other release, methods for containing the waste and notifying the NRC. The RCRA requires an individual to be appointed as the emergency coordinator to ensure that appropriate procedures are carried out in the event that an emergency under RCRA arises. The responsibilities of the emergency coordinator are to be available 24 hours a day, and to know whom to contact and what steps to follow in an emergency. The NRC is to be contacted: (1) whenever a serious emergency exists and the local fire department is called (2) when a spill extends outside the airport environs, or (3) when the spill could reach surface waters. Failure to notify the NRC can result in a $10,000 fine, a year in jail, or both. The RCRA is frequently updated with new policies and procedures. The airport administer should be aware of these updates when considering the acquisition of new land.XX

Whenever hazardous waste is generated or stored on the airport, management must take precautions to prevent sudden or accidental release into the environment.

An emergency plan would include methods for contacting emergency response personnel and, in the event of a spill, fire, explosion, or other release, methods for containing the waste and notifying the NRC.

XX

See http://www.epa.gov/waste/inforesources/data/biennialreport/index.htm

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UndergroundStorageTanks Amendments to RCRA now address the issue of Leaking Underground Storage Tanks (LUST).YY RCRA now requires the removal or monitoring of all underground storage tank facilities as a means to prevent contamination of ground water due to corrosion and wear. The EPA issues regulations setting minimum standards for new tanks and requiring owners of existing tanks to close, replace, or upgrade them. Tank owners and operators are now mandated to meet leak detection requirements and to show that they have the financial resources to pay for cleanups, should a leak or spill occur.
For the purpose of preventing groundwater contamination, the RCRA contains strict guidelines for the installation, monitoring, and removal of Underground Storage Tanks (USTs).

For the purpose of preventing groundwater contamination, the RCRA contains strict guidelines for the installation, monitoring, and removal of Underground Storage Tanks (USTs). The regulations apply to tanks that contain petroleum or hazardous chemicals and that have at least 10 percent of the tank volume (including piping) underground. Both existing USTs and new USTs must meet the requirements for corrosion protection, spill and overfill prevention devices, and leak detection devices. Tanks that meet the corrosion protection requirements are made of coated and cathodically protected steel or fiberglass, have fiberglass liners, or have a cathodic protection system. All piping must be cathodically protected. The guidelines also call for catchment basins, as well as one of the following: an automatic shutoff device, an overfill alarm, or a ball float valve. Monthly monitoring checks that document the integrity of the tanks system must then be made. If a tank has not been used for a period of 12 months or more, the tank owner or operator must comply with the permanent closure requirements of the RCRA. Those requirements include notification to the EPA, a determination of whether any leakage has occurred, and removal. If it is to be left in the ground, the tank must be filled with an inert material. In responding to a leak or spill, the airport is required to perform a number of procedures. The leak must be stopped and contained, the state regulatory agency responsible for overseeing leaks and spills must be contacted, and any explosive vapors and fire hazards must be removed or nullified. The airport is then required to investigate any possible environmental damage, to develop a corrective action
YY

Tanks that meet the corrosion protection requirements are made of coated and cathodically protected steel or fiberglass, have fiberglass liners, or have a cathodic protection system.

See http://www.epa.gov/oust/ltffacts.htm

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plan to prevent future occurrences, and to make progress reports as necessary. If environmental damage occurred, then airport management has three choices for remediating a leak or spill: extract the contaminant, contain it, or treat it. Under RCRA, the EPA requires owners or operators of underground, petroleum storage tanks to demonstrate evidence of financial responsibility for the costs of corrective action, and for the compensation of third parties in the event of bodily injury or property damage caused by sudden accidental releases from operating petroleum UST facilities.ZZ Financial responsibility can be demonstrated by several different methods: selfinsurance, a guarantee, insurance or risk-retention group coverage, a surety bond, a letter of credit, a state required mechanism, a state fund or assurance, or a fully funded trust fund. A certification of compliance must to be maintained at the airport or place of business by those who are responsible for the USTs. In most airports, operators are required to have environmental insurance coverage of at least $500,000AAA per occurrence. The management and environmental protection concerns related to underground storage tanks has become very complex, thereby causing many airport operators to employ dedicated, environmental monitoring teams. These highly educated teams establish systems and processes for underground tank construction and installation, inspection and monitoring, maintenance and secondary containment, and testing and overfill protection.34 Agriculture Agricultural and pesticide operations are governed by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)BBBand the Toxic Substance Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).CCCThese laws protect ground water through the normal use of pesticides and fungicides and for the accidental leaks, spills, misuse, and disposal of toxic substances. Under FIFRA, only a certified applicator can dispense pesticides. Aerial applicators operating off an airport must also be certified. Facilities at which pesticides are used in their operations must also comply with FIFRA regulations
ZZ

A certification of compliance must be maintained at the airport or place of business by those having responsibility for the USTs. In the case of most airports, operators are required to have environmental insurance coverage of at least $500,000 per occurrence.

Under FIFRA, only a certified applicator can dispense pesticides.

Various states have set up trust funds to address fiscal issues in these situations. See http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/publications_forms/publications/factsheets/docs/ust_qa.pdf BBB See http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/lfra.html CCC See http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/tsca.html
AAA

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and must be in compliance for worker protection. Facility managers are required to identify chemicals and supply first-aid information, make warning labels in English and Spanish, give proper directions for their use, provide protective equipment, restrict users, implement a safety training program, and have a decontamination plan on file. TSCA regulates Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) for use and phased withdrawal from the market. The regulations address the storage and handling of PCBs and require that all PCB containers be labeled and disposed of in a certain manner. PCBs are commonly found in old electrical transformers and regulators used at airports. The TSCA regulations required that airport management identify all PCB equipment having concentrations greater than 500 parts per million (ppm) and be familiar with the procedures to be followed in the event of a spill. AirQuality The Clean Air Act of 1970 (CAA)DDD was established to protect the nations air quality and the publics health. The CAA established federal standards to control air emissions and then delegated the implementation responsibilities to the states. Under CAA, five major pollutants are regulated in each of the air quality regions of the U. S. They are: (1) sulfur oxides (SO2), (2) suspended particulate matter (PM-10), (3) nitrogen oxides (NO), (4) carbon monoxide (CO), and (5) volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as hydrocarbons (HC), ozone (O3) and lead (Pb). In addition to the major pollutants, the CAA identified seven primary Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs); asbestos, inorganic arsenic, beryllium, mercury, vinyl, chloride, benzene, and radionuclides. In order to combat pollution, the sates have been required to develop State Implementation Plan (SIP). EEE These plans outline measures for combating air pollution within the state and for meeting federal air quality standards. Once approved, the SIP has the force and effect of federal law. Many medium to large airports are considered to be major contributors to the air quality in a region. The pollution is not just from aircraft operations, but also from the operation of ground vehicles and airport facilities such as power and treatment plants. There is a direct relationship between the amount of activity at an airport and the amount of
DDD EEE

State Implementation Plans (SIP) outline measures for combating air pollution within the state and for meeting federal air quality standards.

See http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/ See http://www.epa.gov/Region2/air/sip/

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pollutants emitted. Many state SIPs require and airport to obtain an air quality permit for continued operation. Any airport seeking funding from the Aviation Trust Fund must comply with clean air certifications and standards. The 1993 EPA Conformity Rule contains the processes by which air quality conformity is maintained. FAA Orders 1050.1D and 5050.4A attempt to make the legally complex EPA Conformity Rule more understandable for airports seeking general or specific compliance for an AIP project.FFF In seeking an operating permit, an airport will need to determine whether state regulations and SIP apply. If they apply, then an inventory of all emission sources must be prepared. An inventory evaluates and calculates all emissions at the airport and also looks at its future generation potential. Once the determinations are made, airport management negotiates with the appropriate regulatory agency to permit only those sources the airport directly controls and maintains, and further negotiates what emission sources that are to be tracked and at what intervals. Upon agreement with the state agency, the airport operator submits an application. To mitigate emissions, airport management can undertake several different measures. Some of these measures require close coordination with tenants and users. Examples of emission mitigation measures are implementing a single or reduced engine taxi operation; streamlining taxi routes; modernizing the airlines aircraft fleet; providing central ground or air auxiliary power to the airlines; requiring alternative fuels for ground service equipment (GSE), rental cars and/or commercial vehicles; reducing employee or passenger vehicle miles traveled by having a shuttle or other public transit service, and streamlining airport vehicle traffic circulation patterns. In 2003, the U.S. Congress authorized the Voluntary Airport Low Emissions (VALE) Program. Airports participating in VALE may receive credits for emission reductions achieved through VALE projects. Airports can use VALE credits to offset emissions from development projects required to comply with federal Clean Air Act requirements. As of 2008, nine airports out of 160 airports
See the FAA Air Quality Handbook at http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/policy_guidance/envir_policy/airquality_handbook/
FFF

Any airport seeking funding from the Aviation Trust Fund must comply with clean air certifications and standards.

To mitigate emissions, airport management can undertake several different measures. Some of these measures require close coordination with tenants and users.

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that are qualified to participate in the program have sought VALE credits. The number of airports seeking VALE credits is expected to increase.35

EnvironmentalEnforcement
Environmental enforcement is a comprehensive program involving federal, state, local and tribal governments working together to enforce environmental laws. These laws standardize for what individuals and institutions must do to control or prevent pollution. Very similar to FAA enforcement and compliance standards, the two terms have different meanings. The term enforcement covers all efforts to encourage compliance with environmental laws. Compliance refers to the condition that exists when a person or company fully obeys the law. The fundamental aim of enforcement, whether by the FAA or the EPA, is to convince those who are regulated that complying quickly is better than waiting until they are caught. Actions available to the enforcing agency include civil and criminal prosecution in courts, administrative orders, and other forms of actions that take place after a violation has occurred. Enforcement causes a deterrent effect that tends to motivate other people to comply. States are primarily charged with administrating enforcement actions under their delegation agreements with the EPA. However, because the EPA always has concurrent jurisdiction, the EPA may take charge of a state program under various conditions, such as (a) if the state asks for help, (b) if the states enforcement response was not timely or appropriate, (c) if the case involves setting a national precedent or if an EPA order or settlement agreement has been violated. The EPAs policy is to respond to every violation and in a way associated with the seriousness or circumstance of the violation: 1) An informal response such as a notice of non-compliance or a warning letter; 2) Formal administrative responses, which are legal orders that may require the respondent to take some corrective or remedial action within a specific time frame, or to refrain from certain behavior, or to require future compliance; 3) Civil judicial responses, which are formal lawsuits brought in U. S. Federal Court by the Department of Justice at the EPAs request; and 4) Criminal judicial responses, which are used when a person or company knowingly and willfully violated the law and may be investigated by the EPAs criminal investigation agents and/or the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). 151

The fundamental aim of enforcement, whether by the FAA or the EPA, is to convince those who are regulated that complying quickly is better than waiting until they are caught.

As a result of enforcement action, the EPA often seeks both a remedy and a penalty. The types of penalties resulting from violations and/or negligence can be either civil or criminal. The basic remedies are to:(1) require the violator to comply with the law; (2) require the violator to carry out a supplemental project that will yield environmental benefits to offset the harmful effects of the violation; (3) impose penalties, such as non-deductible cash payments; (4) place the offender on the EPAs List of Violating Facilities, thereby suspending eligibility to receive federal grants, contracts, or loans; and (5) imprison violators, in certain criminal cases. Criminal actions are often used to respond to flagrant, intentional disregard for environmental laws and deliberate falsification of documents or records. The best strategy for an airport seeking long-term protection from liability resulting from environmental concerns is to create and routinely update an EIS that systematically addresses all major areas of each airports domain. In sustaining the airports EIS, administration should seek participation and feedback from community members, stakeholders operating at the airport, and environmental experts. Airport administration should integrate the concept of environmental justice into the development and periodic revision of their EIS. In this spirit, airport environmental planning and impact should include all stakeholders to the airport, regardless of demographic or socioeconomic background. OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA) OSHA is responsible for setting safety and health standards in the workplace, enforcing those standards through federal and state inspections, and providing public education and consultation regarding the establishment and enforcement of standards. OSHA rules require an airport to have a communication program that encompasses written guidelines, warning labels, and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), in addition to providing employees with information and training on safety matters. MSDS are technical bulletins that describe how to use, handle, and dispose of specific chemical hazards. They are required in all workplaces in which hazardous materials exist and must address the following concerns: 1) Assure that all waste facilities receiving airport waste have the proper and necessary permits for the treating or disposing of the waste; 152
The best strategy for an airport seeking long-term protection from liability resulting from environmental concerns is create and routinely update an EIS that systematically addresses all major areas of each airports domain.

Airport administration should integrate the concept of environmental justice into the development and periodic revision of their EIS.

2) Check the facilitys compliance record with the state or EPA regional office; 3) Visit the facility and observe its operational and safety practices; 4) Check the financial stability of the transporters and the disposal facility through insurance policies; 5) Ensure that contracts identify exactly where the airports waste will go, who will handle it each step of the way, whether it will be stored in transit, and how and by whom it will be disposed; 6) Have an indemnification clause that allows for recovery against the contractor in the event of a violation; 7) Conduct compliance audits on a regular basis.

SustainableDevelopment(SD)andtheGreenAirportInitiative
The concept of sustainable development (SD) is rooted in the global concern for socioeconomic policy, environmental factors, and business policy. In 1987, the United Nations issued a report titled Our Common Future,GGGdefining sustainable development as seek[ing] to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future.36While SD was initially offered as socioeconomic policy to exam the effect of commerce and social activity in developed cultures on those of lesser developed nations, its philosophy has now migrated into the business world as a process of quality management. SD is now a management ethic that proactively and continuously seeks to define and implement philosophies, strategies, and tactics for addressing environmental concerns, in order to establish processes benefit future societies. In 2005, the Transportation Research Board (TRB) defined airport sustainability as meet[ing] the transportation needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.37 The TRB characterized airport sustainability as a holistic approach to managing an airport so as to ensure the integrity of the Economic viability, Operational efficiency, Natural Resource Conservation and Social responsibility (EONS) of the airport.xvi Some of the major advantages and principles of sustainable development, as related to airport management, are listed below:

In 2005, the Transportation Research Board (TRB) defined airport sustainability as meet[ing] the transportation needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

GGG

Also known as the Bruntland Report.

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1) SD is a management strategy for sustaining long-term tactics implemented in consideration for the environmental impacts of all airport operations and development activities. 2) SD is a proactive approach to environmental management and is considered a business policy that reduces the potential for liability associated with environmental factors. In this regard, SD is a managerial ethic demonstrating social responsiveness. 3) SD is considered a management philosophy for improving airport profitability. In this regard, SD is considered a strategy for improving the competitive viability of an airport. 4) SD is considered a management philosophy for improving partnerships, community relations, and the image of the airport. 5) SD is a strategy that can help to reduce the environmental and carbon footprint of an airport. As a business theme, SD is often equated to going green. Airport managers seek accreditation as a green airport by going through the Green Airport InitiativeHHH offered by the Clean Airport Partnership, Inc. (CAP)III (a nonprofit organization). CAP offers the airport manager two phases of environmental audit and planning that lead to certification as a green airport. CAP offers expert environmental consulting and evaluation of an airports environmental footprint. SD is also supported by the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE). AAAEs Environmental WatchJJJ is an excellent source of content and best practices focused on airport environmental management. This online publication has both free and membership-only content that is updated weekly. Another important reference that is equated to airport environmental regulation and best practices in SD is the FAAs Airport Environmental ProgramKKK(Web site). From this site, the airport manager can search and review many sources of FAA policy related to sustainable development and to best practices in airport environmental management. A complete treatment of sustainable development and associated best practices is beyond the scope of this course. However, listed below are some examples of
HHH III

As a business theme, SD is often equated to going green. Airport managers seek accreditation as a green airport by going through the Green Airport Initiative offered by the Clean Airport Partnership, Inc. (CAP) (a nonprofit organization).

See http://www.cleanairports.com/reports/GAI.pdf See http://www.cleanairports.com/index.htm JJJ See http://www.multibriefs.com/briefs/aaae/ KKK See http://www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/

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environmental practices that were developed through processes related to airport management practicing SD: 1) 2) 3) 4) Xeriscaping airport landscapes. Providing shuttle service to airport employees. Providing discounts to tenants that utilize alternative fuel vehicles. Installing new, lower-energy technologies, such as environmentally friendly escalators, lighting, passenger transportation systems, and wind and solar power generators. 5) Providing new technologies that reduce or eliminate the need for aircraft engine operations on the ramp and taxi-ways (see TaxiBotLLL). 6) Developing recycling programs with tenants that also provide public relations and advertising opportunities. 7) Installing noise barriers around the airport environment and the surrounding community. 8) Developing environmental communities of practice with community and airport stakeholders. 9) Purchasing green or environmentally safe products for airport utilization. 10) Purchasing land in noise sensitive areas within the community. 11) Recycling contaminated fluids for alternative uses (e.g., anti-freeze, cooking oil). 12) Establishing green policy contracts with tenants and airlines.

In addition to the aforementioned references and noted organizations, the following entities may also be able to offer assistance related to sustainable development and the Green Airport Initiative: 1. The U.S. Green Building Council is a 501(c)(3) non-profit community of leaders working to make green buildings available to everyone within a generation.MMM 2. The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) carries out applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agencies.NNN
LLL

See http://blog.seattlepi.com/aerospace/archives/186092.asp?from=blog_last3 See http://www.usgbc.org/ NNN See http://www.trb.org/ACRP/Public/ACRP.aspx

MMM

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3. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is a network-based organization that has pioneered the development of the worlds most widely used, sustainability reporting framework and is committed to its continuous improvement and application worldwide.OOO LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign(LEED) In 2006, Logan International Airport in Boston became the first airport to have infrastructure certified as LEED compliant. LEED is a certification process that verifies that a building or other infrastructure meets stringent environmentally safe building and related performance measures. LEED is a project of the U.S. Green Building CouncilPPP and is administered by the third-party Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI).QQQ According to the GBCI, the certification endorses that buildings that have passed certification will perform in the following ways: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Lower operating costs and increase asset value. Reduce waste sent to landfills. Conserve energy and water. Be healthier and safer for occupants. Reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Qualify for tax rebates, zoning allowances and other incentives in hundreds of cities. 7) Demonstrate an owner's commitment to environmental stewardship and social responsibility.

LEED is a certification process that verifies that a building or other infrastructure meets stringent environmentally safe building and related performance measures.

LEED standards are especially important when considering the planning and management for airport heating and cooling requirements. Terminals generally require higher energy consumption than most public buildings because of their (1) generally unprotected locations, (2) high heat loss/gain resulting from the movement of people and baggage through the building around the clock, and (3) frequencies of those activities, The TRB views LEED as an initiative of SD. As such, LEED uses as a matrix to evaluate the criteria of: (a) sustainable land and building site issues, (b) water efficiencies and quality, (c) energy and atmosphere, (d) consumables and resource
OOO PPP

See http://www.globalreporting.org/Home See http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=124 QQQ See http://www.gbci.org/

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usage, (e) indoor environmental qualities, and (f) innovative designs or concepts applied to the airports environmental management and sustainability program. TerminalMaterials LEED certification processes and the expert consulting of many of the agencies aforementioned in this section can help the airport manager to identify and select environmentally sound materials to be used in the terminal area, as well as other airport infrastructure. For example, the Indianapolis Airport Terminal, under certification by LEED, utilized the following strategies for material selection in its terminal: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Installing roofing membrane star rated for energy efficiency. Utilizing local materials wherever possible. Using shielded and directed light fixtures for reduction of light pollution. Installing Infrared switches on bathroom and toilet fixtures. Installing high-efficiency toilet fixtures to reduce water consumption. Reusing old asphalt and concrete as back-fill in other areas of the project. Obtaining timber used in construction from the Forest Stewardship Council. 8) Using performance glazing with ceramic frits to reduce interior glare and solar heat build-up. 9) Using daylight-harvesting techniques that vary the amount of usage for artificial light as a function of available daylight. 10) Installing high efficiency heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. 11) Using sealants, coatings, paints and carpet systems with low levels of volatile organic compound to reduce allergic reactions and odors.38

LEED certification processes and the expert consulting of many of the agencies aforementioned in this section can help the airport manager identify and select environmentally sound materials to be used in the terminal area, as well as other airport infrastructure.

As the global population becomes more concerned with SD related issues and the environment, the relative cost for selecting environmentally safe materials is decreasing. Many materials are now developed from recycled material and are certified as low in toxic or allergenic agents. An extensive example of materials selection and other LEED parameters used by many airports can be found in the

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Airport Council International publication, Worldwide Airport Environmental Initiatives Tracker File (at http://www.airports.org).RRR

RRR

See http://www.airports.org/aci/aci/file/ACI_Priorities/Environment/TRACKER%20FILE_Airport%2 0environment%20initiatives.pdf

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AirportCapacityandDelay
The U.S. Congress and various courts have found that airspace is a limited national resource and should be administered by the FAA. These findings state that since it is a limited national resource, the FAA should efficiently manage the airspace in the public interest to ensure the safety of aircraft in the system. Congress has further mandated that full consideration be provided for national defense, commercial and general aviation, and the public right of transit. In making efficient use of the airspace, the FAA air traffic control function focuses on the ability of the airspace system to handle the volume of traffic desiring to use it without incurring an appreciable measure of delay. Delay results when the demand for use of the air traffic and airport systems approaches the ability of the systems to handle it.
Capacity refers to the ability of a portion of airspace or an airport to handle a given volume of traffic (demand) within a specified time period.

Capacity refers to the ability of a portion of airspace or an airport to handle a given volume of traffic (demand) within a specified time period. As a result of airline deregulation and the growth in population and the economy, more people are using the system. The increased activity affects not just the capacity of the airfield and gate areas but also the terminal buildings, public access routes, and parking facilities. Beginning with the 1987 Airport and Airway Safety and Capacity Expansion Act(ACEA) funding priority was given to airport projects that focused on enhancing safety and sustaining an airports overall capacity to handle aircraft and ground operations. The ACEA reauthorization of AIP funds also focused on objectives to increase the capacity of the airport and airway system. It called for giving highest funding priority to commercial service airports and maximizing the use of safety facilities. Examples of activities or enhancements under AIP Priority System for Capacity Enhancement include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Electronic or visual guidance on each runway; Grooving or friction treatment on each primary and secondary runway; Distance-to-go signs for each primary and secondary runway; A precision approach, vertical guidance, and full approach light system for each primary runway;

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5. A non-precision instrument approach for each secondary runway; runway end identifier lights on each runway that does not have an approach light system; 6. A surface movement radar (SMR) system at each CAT-III airport; 7. Taxiway lighting and sign systems; 8. Runway edge lighting, marking; and 9. Radar approach coverage for each airport terminal area.

ImpactofCapacityRestraints
Airport management must view the different areas of an airport as a set of interrelated and interdependent, physical facilities and components. For an airport to function efficiently, the capacity of each component must be matched to the others. Improving or restricting one part of the system has an impact on the others. When performing a capacity analysis, airport operators must investigate four distinct elements: (1) airspace, (2) airfield, (3) terminal, and (4) ground access. These are further broken down into the major system components of runways, taxiways, aprons, gate/terminal area, terminal/curbside interface, vehicle circulation and parking areas, and the access roadway. The larger the airport, the more likely that additional subsystems exist within each of the larger components. AirfieldCapacity Airfield capacity is a measure of the level of aircraft movements that the runway/taxiway system is able to handle over a specified time period. Airfield capacity is of major concern to the FAA and the aviation industry. For the FAA, the concern is the impact delay has on managing a safe airspace system. For the airlines and other aircraft operators, the concerns are safety and the economic cost of operating their aircraft. For the airport operator, the focus is on safety, economic operation, public service, and convenience. Two terms are commonly used when defining airfield capacity: throughput capacity and practical capacity. Throughput capacity is defined as the rate at which aircraft can operate into or out of the airfield without regard to the amount of delay incurred. Practical capacity is the rate at which aircraft can operate without exceeding a maximum acceptable level of delay. The same two terms can
Airfield capacity is a measure of the level of aircraft movements that the runway/taxiway system is able to handle over a specified time period. When performing a capacity analysis, airport operators must investigate four distinct elements: (1) airspace, (2) airfield, (3) terminal, and (4) ground access.

Throughput capacity is defined as the rate at which aircraft can operate into or out of the airfield without regard to the amount of delay incurred. Practical capacity is the rate at which aircraft can operate without exceeding a maximum acceptable level of delay.

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be applied to capacity considerations for the other components of the airport system. The throughput capacity is a theoretical measure derived from computer simulation or mathematical models and cannot be achieved in practice. Practical capacity, which is always less than throughput capacity, is that level of operation or airfield utilization attained without exceeding an agreed-upon acceptable amount of delay. The acceptable amount is usually expressed as an average delay, with the understanding that some users will experience less and some will experience more than the average. The capacity of an airfield is not constant over time. It can change during the course of a day, depending on runway configuration, weather, fleet mix, and other factors. Two measures of practical capacity are the Practical Hourly Capacity (PHOCAP) and the Practical Annual Capacity (PANCAP). These can be used for evaluating the feasibility and benefit of airport development and improvement projects. PANCAP is defined as the level of operation that results in not more than four minutes average delay per aircraft in a normal, peak two-hour operating period.
Another capacity measurement is Airport Acceptance Rate (AAR) which is used by Airport Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) to calculate the desired interval between successive arrival aircraft. A measure of practical capacity, AAR represents an agreedupon maximum number of aircraft that can land at any given airport during a onehour time period.

Another capacity measurement is Airport Acceptance Rate (AAR) which is used by Airport Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) to calculate the desired interval between successive arrival aircraft. A measure of practical capacity, AAR represents an agreed-upon maximum number of aircraft that can land at any given airport during a one-hour time period. Experience shows that delay increases gradually with rising levels of traffic until the practical capacity of an airport is reached, at which point the average delay per aircraft operation is typically in the range of four to six minutes. If traffic demand increases beyond that level, delays increase at an exponential rate. When average delays exceed nine minutes per operation, an airport is considered severely congested. Beyond that point, delays are very dramatic with small changes in traffic, weather conditions, or other disruptions. The result is that very lengthy delays disrupt flight schedules and impose a heavy workload on the air traffic control system. What constitutes an acceptable level of delay is a judgment involving three factors. First, it must be recognized that some delay is unavoidable simply because it occurs for reasons beyond anyones control (i.e., wind direction, 161

What constitutes an acceptable level of delay is a judgment involving three factors. First, it must be recognized that some delay is unavoidable simply because it occurs for reasons beyond anyones control (i.e., wind direction, weather, aircraft performance characteristics), and the randomness of demand for service.

weather, aircraft performance characteristics), and the randomness of demand for service. Secondly, some delays, though avoidable, might be too expensive to eliminate (i.e., the cost of constructing a second runway might well exceed the potential benefit of reducing delays occurring twice a day). Thirdly, even with the most vigorous and successful effort, the random nature of delay means that there will always be some aircraft encountering delay greater than some acceptable length of time. Thus, acceptable delay is essentially a policy decision about tolerability, taking into account the technical feasibility and economic practicality of available remedies. The second source of delay information is through the Airline Service Quality Performance (ASQP) data collection. It is collected from airlines with one percent or more of the total, domestic, scheduled passenger revenues. The delay is represented by phase of flight (i.e., gate-hold, taxi-out, airborne, or taxi-in delays). ASQP delays range from 0 minutes to greater than 15 minutes. Gate capacity is of major concern to airlines because of the impact it has on their net profit. An aircraft parked at a gate is not generating revenue, while an aircraft waiting on the ramp for a gate to become available is incurring additional expense. Gate capacity can be affected by the gate type or size, the gate mix (the percentage of wide versus non-wide bodied jets), and by gate occupancy time (the length of time it takes to cycle an aircraft through the gate). Delay in these and other areas are evidenced by increased congestion and usage of the airport terminal. Since airports are multi-modal facilities, any one transport-access mode or a combination of transport-access modes can also cause delay. The FAA has recognized this issue and now stipulates that AIP grants can be issued for capacity enhancement projects only if the airport certifies that all of its elements can handle the increased traffic. For example, if an airport applies for a grant to construct a parallel runway that will increase the airports traffic, the airport operator must then certify that the landside facilities (terminal, road access, and parking lot) can also accommodate the increased traffic.

ASQP delays range from 0 minutes to greater than 15 minutes.

ManagingCapacity
A major concern in airport system planning is the adequacy of runways to handle anticipated aircraft operations. If runway capacity is inadequate, air traffic is delayed, which causes expense to airlines and aircraft operators, inconvenience to 162

Most airports tend to be uncongested because a single runway can handle over 200,000 operations annually.

passengers, and a major workload for the FAA. Most airports tend to be uncongested because a single runway can handle over 200,000 operations annually. This amount of activity is approximate that would be generated by a city with a population of 350,000. Having more runways is one means to provide additional capacity. Another is dividing the air traffic among several airports in a region. Much of the strategy for successful management of an airfield involves devising ways to compensate for factors that lower capacity or induce delay. These factors can be grouped into five categories: airfield characteristics, airspace characteristics, air traffic control, meteorological conditions, and demand characteristics. AirfieldCharacteristics Airfield capacity is affected by a number of items, such as runway configuration and length, distribution of arrivals versus departures, fleet mix, share of touchand-go operations, location and type of exit taxiways, type of navigational and existing approach aids, availability of radar coverage, and weather conditions. Historically, the lateral distance for aircraft operations on parallel runways has decreased in accordance with emerging technology. Currently, FAA Air Traffic control procedures allow for simultaneous departure and arrival operations under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) when two parallel runways have a minimum spacing of 2,500 feet. Parallel runways having staggered thresholds can either increase or decrease the capacity for simultaneous operations, depending on whether the arriving aircraft is approaching the near or the far runway threshold. A spacing of 4,300 feet allows for parallel runways to operate fully independently of each other. Some airports have the capability to allow triple, simultaneous instrument aircraft approaches and landings. Computerized airfield/airspace management systems at airports are used to instantly select the highest capacity and most energy-efficient runway use configuration for the prevailing circumstances of wind, visibility, traffic mix, arrival-to-departure ratio, and noise abatement. Improved surveillance equipment and procedures can reduce runway separation standards. The use of better technology likely continues to reduce the current separation required for independent IFR landing operations on parallel runways.

Having more runways is one means to provide additional capacity. Another is dividing the air traffic among several airports in a region.

Some airports have the capability to allow triple, simultaneous instrument aircraft approaches and landings. Computerized airfield/airspace management systems at airports are used to instantly select the highest capacity and most energy-efficient runway use configuration for the prevailing circumstances of wind, visibility, traffic mix, arrival-todeparture ratio, and noise abatement.

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AirspaceCharacteristics Airspace and air traffic rules governing aircraft separation, runway occupancy, spacing of arrivals and departures, and the use of parallel or converging runways affect the capacity and delay characteristics of an airport. One mission of the FAA is to balance the air traffic demand for the National Air Space System (NAS) with system capacity in order to ensure maximum efficiency. The goal is a safe and expeditious flow of air traffic with minimal delays. Traffic management initiatives are used to limit the volume of traffic allowed into or out of an airport or airspace. The most common initiatives are: (1) mile-in-trail or minute-in-trail restrictions, (2) traffic reroutes, (3) ground delay programs, and (4) ground stops. The least disruptive, but also the least accurate, traffic management initiatives are the mile-in-trail or minute-in-trail restrictions that are intended to regulate the distance between successive aircraft. As aircraft approach a destination airport, approach controllers meter or otherwise regulate the arrival time of aircraft in the terminal area by limiting their number or by increasing the time between aircraft arrivals, departures, and/or en route separations. When capacity is expected to be reduced at the arrival airport, ground delay programs are used to hold the traffic at the departure airport. Ground delay programs are the primary tools for limiting the number of arrivals at an airport that is significantly affected by bad weather or is anticipated to have limited runway availability. Another tool used is a ground stop. This tool is used as a last resort because it holds aircraft on the ground for varying time periods. Though they immediately reduce the number of aircraft allowed to enter the NAS, the inconvenience and expense to the traveling public can be more disruptive. Normally, ground stops are instituted for unusual or unforeseen situations, such as runway closures, aircraft accidents, or severe weather conditions. The largest ground stop ever occurred after the terrorist attacks on 9/11/01. Metering is designed to match the arrival of aircraft to the ability of the airport to handle the volume (known as acceptance rate). Adjusting an aircrafts speed or modifying its arrival flight path generally accomplishes metering. Traffic reroutes may also be used to move traffic away from affected airspace or to direct traffic to areas of lesser demand. This management initiative is primarily used to avoid
Traffic management initiatives are used to limit the volume of traffic allowed into or out of an airport or airspace. The most common initiatives are: (1) mile-in-trail or minute-in-trail restrictions, (2) traffic reroutes, (3) ground delay programs, and (4) ground stops.

Ground stop is used as a last resort, because it holds aircraft on the ground for varying time periods.

Adjusting an aircrafts speed or modifying its arrival flight path generally accomplishes metering.

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significant weather and/or move arrival/departure traffic to instrument approach fixes with lower demand.
The advent of heavy jet aircraft added new separation and spacing standards. Depending on the size of the aircraft trailing a heavy jet, a separation of four, five, six, or even eight nautical miles is necessary to avoid the leading aircrafts wake vortex.

The advent of heavy jet aircraft added new separation and spacing standards. Depending on the size of the aircraft trailing a heavy jet, a separation of four, five, six, or even eight nautical miles is necessary to avoid the leading aircrafts wake vortex. This aerodynamic disturbance originates at the wingtips of an aircraft and trails in a corkscrew fashion behind the aircraft. An aircraft following another might encounter the turbulence if adequate spacing does not allow the vortex to dissipate. The smaller the trailing aircraft is compared with the lead aircraft, the greater the separation. Separation standards for departing aircraft require ATC to double departure release times from 60 seconds to 120 seconds after a heavy jet. At those airports that are the busiest and have a substantial percentage of heavy jets, capacity can be reduced significantly because of wake turbulence separation requirements. Sequencing entails specifying the exact order in which aircraft are to take off or land. As aircraft arrive in the vicinity of the airport, they are sequenced into a landing position. Standards for wake vortex separation require that adequate spacing exist between aircraft. Spacing involves establishing and maintaining the appropriate interval between successive aircraft. Sequencing takes into account operational safety, uniformity of traffic flow, efficiency of runway use, and weather conditions. Traffic management unit controllers are assigned to each ARTCC to coordinate the flow of aircraft through the centers airspace. The traffic management unit coordinates with the Air Traffic Control System Command Center (ATCSCC) located outside Washington, D.C. The ATCSCC is responsible for monitoring aircraft traffic across the nation for the purpose of alleviating congestion a function referred to as central flow control. If weather is affecting the capacity at a major, high-density airport, the ATCSCC may require aircraft waiting for a departure clearance at an airport hundreds of miles away and experiencing clear sunny skies to wait on the ground until the system can accommodate the en route portion of the flight.

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DemandManagement
A major factor influencing a decision to proceed with an airport improvement or other capital project is its benefit-to-cost ratio. The FAAs historical policy has been to accommodate all growth of air traffic demand. This was accomplished by providing financial aid through the use of aviation trust fund revenues for capital project development, such as the building of new facilities or improving existing ones. As the benefit-to-cost ratio decreases due to rising economic costs, other approaches for dealing with capacity and delay problems became more attractive. Those strategies focus on managing demand through either administrative or economic means, or both. Administrative or economic demand management methods promote a more effective or economically efficient use of existing facilities rather than adding true capacity. One administrative method is for an airport operator to allocate or restrict airport access by setting quotas on passenger enplanements or on the number and type of aircraft operations permitted. This is generally known as slot allocation. A slot identifies a block of time allocated to an airport user to perform an aircraft operation, either a takeoff or a landing. Other administrative management approaches used are: (1) diverting some of the intended air traffic (primarily general aviation) to reliever airports, (2) balancing the use of aircraft among several metropolitan air carrier airports, and (3) rehubbing or redistributing transfer traffic from busy airports to underutilized airports. Attempting to divert certain aircraft types helps to alleviate capacity problems by allowing for greater uniformity of aircraft mix at an airport. The mix of aircraft (large vs. small, fast vs. slow, radar equipped vs. basic instrument, etc.) using a runway helps to determine the ultimate airfield capacity and potential for delay. When aircraft are of similar size, speed, and operating characteristics, the runway acceptance rate is greater than when performance characteristics vary. Limiting or diverting traffic further helps to resolve capacity problems at airports by reducing the need for capital improvements. Yet, the diversion of aircraft to reliever or other airports has proven to be difficult, if not impossible. Airport operators do not necessarily have the legal power to exclude general aviation (GA) as a class of users at air carrier airports. Several courts have deemed such

One administrative method is for an airport operator to allocate or restrict airport access by setting quotas on passenger enplanements or on the number and type of aircraft operations permitted. This is generally known as slot allocation.

Other administration management approaches used are: (1) diverting some of the intended air traffic (primarily general aviation) to reliever airports (2) balancing the use of aircraft among several metropolitan air carrier airports, and (3) rehubbing or redistributing transfer traffic from busy airports to underutilized airports.

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action as being a restriction on interstate commerce, and therefore, it is considered discriminatory. However, some restrictions on GA usage have been upheld. A system-wide solution to alleviate or reduce delays at busy airports is the redistribution of operations to less busy airports in other regions. The development of transfer hubs at other than traditionally congested airports may not necessarily provide reduced delay for major airports, but it has allowed for growth that may not have been possible otherwise. This practice, known as rehubbing, generally takes advantage of certain excess capacity in the airspace system by making greater use of the facilities at medium airports. Administrative management of airport usewhether by restricting access for certain types of aircraft, by balancing demand among metropolitan area airports, or by establishing quotasappears to promise immediate and relatively low-cost airport congestion relief, but has had, at best, only modest success. An alternative is economic demand management. Economists argue that delay exists because the access to airports is priced below market value, thereby creating overconsumption of limited resources. Economic demand management attempts to create ways to internalize the cost of congestion in the price of airport access. The two most commonly advocated methods of achieving this goal are differential pricing and the auctioning of slots. In general, differential pricing, established by having peak hour surcharges, represents an attempt to manage demand by charging cost-based landing fees. A major problem with the concept of peak hour surcharges is how to determine their level. One possible method is to charge airport users the full marginal costs of airport facilities. Another is to base the surcharges on the delay costs, which each peak hour user imposes on other users. The end result would be a fee system that increases as delay increases. While it may sound good in theory, the FAA has determined that such a system would adversely affect general aviation users more and therefore is discriminatory.

Economists argue that delay exists because the access to airport is priced below market value, thereby creating overconsumption of limited resources. Economic demand management attempts to create ways to internalize the cost of congestions in the price of airport access. The two most commonly advocated methods of achieving this are differential pricing and the auctioning of slots.

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SlotManagement The term slot was originally used to identify the authority of an aircraft to conduct an IFR operation at a high-density airport. In common usage, a slot identifies a block of time allocated to an airport user to perform an aircraft operation, either a takeoff or a landing. Slots are controlled by the FAA but can be bought, sold, leased, or transferred among airlines, subject to FAA limitations and approval. Slot rules established a maximum limit on the hourly number of allocated IFR operations (takeoffs and landings) at each high-density traffic area (HDTA) airport and then apportioned the number of movements that may be reserved among the specified classes of users for each airport. Slot rules have existed at Chicagos OHare (ORD), New Jerseys Newark (EWR), New Yorks John F. Kennedy (JFK), New Yorks LaGuardia (LGA), and Washingtons National (DCA). The high-density rule was implemented in 1969 and formalized under Federal Aviation Regulation Part 93. Newark has since been removed from the list. At the high-density airports, slots were allocated according to three classes of users: scheduled air carrier, scheduled commuters, and others. Slot allocation results from administrative determinations, negotiation, or assignment through a reservation system. Administrative determinations are made through the Slot Administration Office of the FAA. Negotiation is accomplished among the airlines through joint Scheduling Committee Agreements at each capacity controlled airport. Considering that access to high demand airports is limited, slots represent a scarce resource. Slots also represent a form of administrative demand management. However, if slots are auctioned to the highest bidder, they instead represent a form of economic demand management. Slot auctions allow peak-hour access only to those users willing to pay a market-determined price. To prevent an air carrier from using a slot to prevent entry by a competitive air carrier, the highdensity rule contains a use-it-or-lose-it provision that allows unused slots to be recalled by the FAA. Slots are considered assets and, as such, may be bought and sold and are even given value in the event of an airline bankruptcy. In the event that slots become available due to capacity enhancement, use-it-or-lose-it provisions, or other FAA action, a lottery process is used to select slot beneficiaries. 168
Slot rules established a maximum limit on the hourly number of allocated IFR operations (takeoffs and landing) at each high density traffic area (HTDA) airport and then apportioned the number of movement that may be reserved among the specifies classes of users for each airport.

AirportNoiseandLandUseCompatibility
Few issues in the airport management profession are more challenging and emotional than those of aircraft noise and its subsets of issues concerning land use compatibility and air service development. In nearly every case, the lives of those living around airports, sometimes the vocal opponents to airport growth and its attendant noise issues are touched by aviation and airports. The emergence of aircraft noise as a social issue first began in the early 1960s with the advent of the jet aircraft. Its magnitude increased along with the number of commercial operations in the second part of the decade. Coupled with increasing environmental awareness and community activism, aircraft noise soon led to serious airport and community conflicts around the nation. Noise is both a technical and a political problem. Aircraft noise continues to be an important environmental constraint for the development and expansion of airports or the building of new ones. Noise, for people living in areas near the airport, tends to be the primary focus of complaints and objections. In the U.S., official federal interest in responding to aircraft noise effects dates back to 1970 when federal agencies first began to study the problem and develop planning guidelines.
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) was the catalyst for public awareness and response to aircraft noise issues in the U.S.

In nearly every case, the lives of those living around airports, sometime the vocal opponents to airport growth and its attendant noise issues are touched by aviation and airports.

ANAP clarified its responsibility in reducing aircraft noise at its source, for promulgating safe operational procedures to abate the impact of noise on populated areas and for promoting positive efforts to attain compatible land use in areas adjacent to airports. Airport proprietors primary responsibility was to plan and implement actions designed to reduce the effect of noise on residents of the nearby area.

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) was the catalyst for public awareness and response to aircraft noise issues in the U.S. It required, among a variety of environmental issues, assessment of noise effects for airports undertaking major projects. An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) may be required as part of the approval process. It identifies the effect any proposed airport project might have on the noise levels in areas surrounding the project. Identification of effects and a program of mitigation are mandated. The significance of NEPA on airports was not fully measurable until in November 1976, when the Secretary of Transportation and the Federal Aviation Administration adopted the Aviation Noise Abatement Policy (ANAP). The DOT/FAA Noise Abatement Policy was the first, clear identification of the responsibilities of the FAA, air carriers, airport operators, and local communities in dealing with the problem of aircraft noise exposure. For the FAA, the ANAP clarified its responsibility in reducing aircraft noise at its source, for promulgating safe operational procedures to abate the impact of noise on populated areas and for promoting positive efforts to attain compatible land 169

use in areas adjacent to airports. The airport proprietors primary responsibility was to plan and implement actions designed to reduce the effect of noise on residents of the nearby area. State and local governments were responsible for providing compatible land use planning and development, as well as zoning and housing regulation, that limits the use of land near airports. Under the ANAP, airlines became responsible for the retirement, replacement, or retrofit of older jets that did not meet federal noise level standards. They were to schedule and operate aircraft in a way that minimized the impact of noise on people. Meanwhile, air travelers and shippers, were generally responsible for bearing the cost of noise reduction. Finally, residents and prospective residents in areas surrounding airports were responsible for investigating the noise problem and taking steps to minimize its effect on people. Prospective residents of areas affected by airport noise should be aware of the effect of noise on their quality of life and act accordingly. The preface to the Noise Abatement Policy clearly states that those who might anticipate a complete, federal solution to the aircraft noise problem misunderstand the need for federal, local, and private interaction and that the primary obligation for addressing the airport noise problem always has been, and remains, a local responsibility. For the first time since aircraft noise had become a major public concern, the ANAP established the airport operator as being the entity upon which citizens with complaints about airport noise could place responsibility. Shortly thereafter, the number of lawsuits on airport noise started to rise. The responsibility of the airport proprietor for resolving noise issues has consistently been upheld by the courts. Basically, they have stated that airport proprietors have the authority to control the location, orientation, and size of the airport and from that authority flows the liability for the consequences of its operation, including the responsibility to protect citizens from residual noise. In essence, the courts have said that the airport proprietor can manage the noise generated at an airport. They make a distinction, however, between attempts to manage or regulate noise generated at an airport and attempts to regulate levels of aircraft noise. Those items are regulated under FAR Part 36 and are the responsibility of the FAA.

The preface to the Noise Abatement Policy clearly states that those who might anticipate a complete, federal solution to the aircraft noise problem misunderstand the need for federal, local, and private interaction and that the primary obligation for addressing the airport noise problem always has been, and remains, a local responsibility.

LegislativeActs

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Part 36 established noise certification standards for the design of turbojet and transport category aircraft.

In 1969, the FAA promulgated Federal Aviation Regulations Part 36, Certificated Airplane Noise Levels. Part 36 established noise certification standards for the design of turbojet and transport category aircraft. The purpose of the regulation was to mandate changes in design that would help to eliminate noise at its source. Noise source reduction under Part 36 has primarily centered on the modification of engine design to provide higher air bypass ratios, thereby reducing the amount of noise from the core engine. The noise limits for aircraft designed under Part 36 were not necessarily what was experienced at airports. Differences in sound readings existed because of the placement of noise monitoring equipment, terrain, atmospheric conditions, time of day, equipment calibration, tone weighting, and sound duration. In conjunction with Part 36, Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules was revised to identify a schedule for the removal by 1975 of all aircraft having Stage 1 noise characteristics. Stage 1 refers to aircraft with older technology engines. The Airport Safety and Noise Abatement Act of 1979 (ASNA) provided a basis for a great majority of noise abatement planning at airports. With the passage of the ASNA Act, Congress directed the FAA to develop and establish procedures for noise and land use compatibility programs for the nations airports. Federal Aviation Regulation Part 150, Airport Land Use Compatibility Planning was adopted in January 1985 as a result of the ASNA.

Federal Aviation Regulation Part 150, Airport Land Use Compatibility Planning was adopted in January 1983 as a result of the ASNA.

Part 150 regulations govern the development and review of an integrated plan to achieve noise control objectives by encouraging compatible land uses in and around airports through the development of Noise Exposure Maps (NEM) and Noise Compatibility Programs (NCP). Part 150 provided an incentive for officials of airports and surrounding communities to work together in a good faith effort to reduce the adverse effects of airport-related noise and to discourage the introduction of non-compatible uses. This program is voluntary and undertaken by community initiative. The design of the Part 150 regulations and planning process owed much to two programs, which had been previously established, the FAAs Airport Noise Control and Land Use Compatibility (ANCLUC) program and the Department of Defenses Airport Installation Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ) program used for military airports.

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As a result of the Airport Noise and Capacity Act of 1990, U.S. airports are prohibited from adopting overly restrictive or outright, punitive, anti-noise ordinances. Courts have consistently disallowed attempts by local governments not operating an airport to regulate aircraft noise based upon that governments authority to use police powers (such as the establishment of ordinance restricting community overflights). Airports can deny access to the airport based upon noise considerations provided they are non-discriminatory and the airport abides by FAR Parts 150 or by Part 161 for Stage 3 noise restrictions. With passage of the 1990 Airport Noise and Capacity Act (ANCA), a limit was placed on the number of Stage 2 aircraft (over 75,000 pounds maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)) that were allowed to operate in the U.S. Stage 2 aircraft have engines that represent newer technology than Stage 1 aircraft, but the former still had unacceptable levels of noise generation. The 1990 ANCA further requires airport operators to notify the FAA and all interested parties that they intend to adopt noise ordinances or restrictions on aircraft operations. Noise ordinances in effect before 1990 were grandfathered under Part 161. Failure to follow the provisions in Part 150 or 161 can result in loss of AIP funds or PFC authorization. The three primary goals of ANCA were to phase-out nosier aircraft, place limits on local user restrictions, and establish non-restrictive noise abatement and land use actions. Most Stage 2 aircraft were phased out of U. S. airspace by December 31, 1999, though a provision in the 1990 law allowed for a limited number of exemptions beyond that date. Stage 3 standards, which represent the most technologically advanced aircraft engine design, apply to all aircraft certificated since November 1975. Stage 3 aircraft have been integrated into the air carrier fleets. In 1991, FAR Part 161, Notice and Approval of Airport Noise and Access Restrictions was promulgated as a result of the National Noise Policy (NNP). The noise policy had been developed in response to the requirements of the Airport Noise and Capacity Act of 1990. The ANCA initiated the rulemaking process to develop a national program for reviewing airport noise and access restrictions. In 1992, the Airport and Airway Safety, Capacity, Noise Improvement and Intermodal Transportation Act was passed. This Act required the FAA to study the social, economic, and health effects of airport noise at the 65, 60, and 55 dB 172

As a result of the Airport Noise and Capacity Act of 1990, U.S. airports are prohibited from adopting overly restrictive or outright, punitive, anti-noise ordinances.

With the passage of the 1990 Airport Noise and Capacity Act (ANCA), a limit was placed on the number of Stage 2 aircraft (over 75,000 pounds maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)) that were allowed to operate in the U.S. Stage 2 aircraft have engines that represent newer technology than Stage 1 aircraft, but the former still had unacceptable levels of noise generation.

Stage 3 standards, which represent the most technologically advanced aircraft engine design, apply to all aircraft certificated since November 1975. Stage 3 aircraft have been integrated into the air carrier fleets.

Airport and Airway Safety, Capacity, Noise Improvement and Intermodal Transportation Act required the FAA to study the social, economic, and health effects of airport noise at the 65, 60 and 50dB (decibels) DNL (Day-Night average Level) noise areas to determine the actual level at which noise creates an adverse impact on populations.

(decibels) DNL (Day-Night average Level) noise areas to determine the actual level at which noise creates an adverse impact on populations. The FAA was also to study the effects of single event noise on populations. In adopting the 65 dB DNL standard, the FAA attempted to balance the protection of public health and welfare with competing economic and technological considerations.

FactorsinAirportNoiseMitigation
Before a discussion of the mitigating efforts that airports can undertake, several elements first must be understood, including how airport noise is measured and recorded, how noise contours are calculated and the methods the FAA uses to appraise noise impacts on a community.
Noise is broadly defined as any unwanted sound. Identifying a sound as unwanted implies a subjective judgment on the part of the listener and, therefore, is difficult to measure.

Noise is broadly defined as any unwanted sound. Identifying a sound as unwanted implies a subjective judgment on the part of the listener and, therefore, is difficult to measure. For example, sounds that are music to the ears of one person, such as rock-n-roll to the resident of apartment 3A, might constitute noise to the resident of apartment 3B, who views it as an intolerable environmental intrusion. Likewise, the sounds of an over-flying aircraft might annoy one neighbor but also might represent jobs or important travel to another. Because of the subjective nature of the listener, opinions differ regarding the best method for analyzing and quantifying the effects of noise on a community. In the case of aircraft arrival and departure, these sounds are almost always unwanted and intrusive enough to be considered noise by the listener. For those who reside very close to the airport, exposure to these high levels of sound energy generally considered to be intolerable.

Sound is a form of energy, which is transmitted through the air and received by our ears. Higher levels of sound do not necessarily mean it is considered to be noise. People respond differently to sound energy, which makes quantifying the effects of sound exposure so difficult.

Sound is a form of energy, which is transmitted through the air and received by our ears. Higher levels of sound are not necessarily considered to be noise. People respond differently to sound energy, which is what makes quantifying the effects of sound exposure so difficult. With the possible exception of extremely high levels of sound, a consistent rule or method of determining sound exposure effects does not apply in all circumstances. Peoples attitudes are actually more important in determining their reactions to noise than the level of noise exposure. Attitudes that affect an individuals reactions include the following:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Apprehension regarding the safety of the noise source. The belief that noise is preventable. Awareness of non-noise environmental problems. A general sensitivity to noise. The perceived economic importance of the noise source.

The process of quantifying the effects of sound exposure begins with establishing a unit of measure that accurately compares levels of sound. The physical unit most commonly used to describe sound levels is the decibel (dB). The decibel is a relative measure or ratio compared with a reference sound pressure. It is measured in pascals, which is a unit of pressure. One decibel equates to 20 micropascals, which is the reference pressure that approximates the faintest audible sound heard by a person with excellent hearing in an extremely quiet room. The scale in decibels ranges from zero to 130 decibels. The threshold of sound is at zero decibels, and the threshold of pain for the human ear is at 130 decibels. The decibel rating is a logarithmic scale, meaning that sound pressure increases by powers of ten on the scale. For instance, 10 decibels is 10 times greater than one decibel, 20 decibels has 100 times more energy than one decibel, and 30 decibels is 1,000 times greater than one decibel. The accompanying Sound Level Comparison Chart (Figure 12) provides some representative sounds that occur at the various levels shown on the logarithmic decibel scale. The chart also provides insight into the difference between the relative sound energy and the perceived loudness. In essence, the perceived loudness doubles for every increase of 10 decibels. For instance, if a person adjusts a stereo to 60 decibels as a comfortable and normal sound, a listener raising it to 70 decibels would perceive the sound as being twice as loud. Raising it to 80 decibels would make it four times louder than 60 decibels. Similarly, turning it down to 50 decibels would be perceived by the listener to be half as loud as the normal 60 decibels to which he or she was originally tuned (see Figure 13).

Sound Level Comparison Charts provide insight into the facts that there is a difference between the relative sound energy and the perceived loudness. In essence, the perceived loudness doubles for every increase of 10 decibels.

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Figure9SoundLevelComparisonChart

Although the decibel provides an accurate measure of the maximum sound level made by a source, it does not provide a reliable measure of the human response to that sound. Neither does it provide a measure of the duration of the event, or a measure of the number of times such an event occurs. In order to accurately define the effect of noise on a community, an appropriate measure of cumulative noise exposure is necessary.
A noise measure (or metric) used to describe aircraft noise should support a rational understanding of the noise impact.

A noise measure (or metric) used to describe aircraft noise should support a rational understanding of the noise impact. The following are specific criteria that must be met in the selection of a noise metric: 1. It assesses the cumulative effect of all aircraft noise perceived at a location over a specified period of time. A one-year period is required for FAR Part to climate and aviation activity levels. 175

2. It is recognized by appropriate governmental bodies and professional associations. 3. It correlates with the degrees of human response, such as annoyance, speech interference, and hearing loss, according to nationally accepted standards. 4. It is predictable and based on knowledge of the actual aircraft events producing that noise. 5. It is closely related to measures used for noise from other sources such as ground transportation. Cumulative metrics are based on extensive research developed to highly correlate with human response. Acousticians doing research have formulated the equal energy rule, which holds that, over a given period of time, people respond most predictably to the total noise energy they receive rather than to the characteristics of any single noise event The FAA uses the DNL method of calculation as the standard to be used for forecasting cumulative noise exposure under Part 150 studies. This determination was made despite critics arguing that DNL is based on noise averaging rather than noise from a loud, single event normally characterized by aircraft. DNL is the 24-hour, average sound level in A-weighted decibels for the period from midnight to midnight, obtained after the addition of ten decibels to sound levels occurring between midnight and 7:00 a.m., and between 10:00 p.m. and midnight. The purpose of the ten-decibel penalty from 10:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. is to account for the increased annoyance during late night and early morning hours. Since the DNL metric uses decibels as its base, it has the same logarithmic characteristics in that it increases by powers of ten. This results in the loudest events actually dominating the metric while the number of daily events becomes a major input. To obtain a daily DNL reading, noise is measured each second and recorded for a 24-hour period. For the hours 10 p. m. to 7 a. m, 10 decibels are added to the recorded measurement. The cumulative total or summation of all of the readings over the 24-hour period is then averaged on both an hourly and daily basis. Yearly DNL, the average day-night sound level over 365 consecutive days, is the national standard used by airports in the preparation of Part 150 studies.
DNL is the 24-hour average sound level in A-weighted decibels for the period from midnight to midnight, obtained after the addition of ten decibels to sound levels occurring between midnight and 7:00 a.m., and between 10:00 p.m. and midnight.

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The selection of DNL over the other metrics remains somewhat controversial because it is believed that people are bothered by individual noise events rather than some calculated average noise level

The selection of DNL over the other metrics remains somewhat controversial because it is believed that people are bothered by individual noise events rather than some calculated average noise level. Clearly, people are bothered by individual noise events, but their sense of annoyance increases in relation to the number of events and the time of day in which they occur. Using dBA measurements and a 10-decibel nighttime penalty helps to address these concerns. Studies have shown that human response to sound is intensified during nighttime hours. In fact, this response is significantly greater than it is during daytime hours and must be treated differently, if the resulting measure is to be meaningful. Therefore, all sound events that occur during the 9-hour period from 10:00 p. m. to 7:00 a. m. are weighted by adding 10 decibels (dB) to the measurement of each event. Using the precipitation analogy, this adjustment would be similar to that made to convert inches of measured snowfall into inches of precipitation.

Integrated Noise Model (INM) valuates aircraft noise impacts in the vicinity of airports. INM has many analytical uses, such as assessing changes in noise impact resulting from new or extended runways or runway configurations, assessing new traffic demand and fleet mix, evaluating revised routing and airspace structures, and assessing alternative flight profiles or modifications to other operational procedures.

NoiseContoursandtheIntegratedNoiseModel An Integrated Noise Model (INM) is the standard airport noise prediction model used by airports and involves a complex and detailed procedure for determining the DNL noise contour area for a specific mix of aircraft. The INM valuates aircraft noise impacts in the vicinity of airports. INM has many analytical uses, such as assessing changes in noise impact, resulting from new or extended runways or runway configurations, assessing new traffic demand and fleet mix, evaluating revised routing and airspace structures, and assessing alternative flight profiles or modifications to other operational procedures. INM outputs include noise contours used in land use compatibility studies, noise impacts by aircraft on individual flight tracks, and user-defined point analysis of noise impacts.39 The INM is used to assess current, aircraft noise impacts around a given airport or heliport, changes in noise impact resulting from new or extended runways or runway configurations, or changes in noise impact resulting from new traffic demand and fleet mix, and for evaluating noise impacts from new operational procedures. The model utilizes flight track information, aircraft fleet mix, standard and userdefined aircraft profiles, and terrain as inputs. It can also process U.S. census population data and flight schedules from the Official Airline Guide (OAG). INM produces noise exposure contours that are used for land use compatibility maps. The INM program includes built-in tools for comparing contours and 177

utilities that facilitate easy export to commercial Geographic Information System.40 It is important to remember that the INM contour, or footprint, does depict actual measurements of the noise being emitted. Noise measurements should be verified by ground-based, sound measuring equipment.41 Though numerous noise contours around an airport could be plotted on a map, only those with the most significance are usually included in noise mapping. The contours of greatest significance are those in which the level of exposure begins to be unacceptable. Using the DNL method for calculating noise, these standard contours developed are the 65 and 75 DNL levels, respectively. The FAA recommends that the airport own all property within the 75 DNL contour. The majority of noise mapping completed in the U.S. also uses other contour intervals such as 50, 55, 70, 80, 85, and 90 DNL. In cases when planning choices have to be made, the supplemental contours assist planners in differentiating where the noise level begins to be unacceptable and where it is undesirable. Under the federal land-use guidelines included in Part 150, all land uses are considered to be compatible with noise levels less than 65 DNL. Residential land uses and places of public assembly (hospitals, schools, churches, etc.) are generally considered incompatible with noise levels higher than 65 DNL. As a frame of reference, noise exposure in an urban residential environment with no recurring, disruptive noise events is roughly 60 DNL. Commercial, recreational, and industrial land uses are considered less noise sensitive and are considered compatible with higher noise exposure levels. Final land use determinations usually rest with local officials. Some State agencies use alternate methods of noise measurement, such as the Community Noise Equivalent Level (CNEL), and have implemented their own noise restrictions. For example, in California, The California Airport Noise Standards (California Code of Regulations, Title 21, Section 5000 et seq.) apply to any airport that is determined to have a noise problem by the local County Board of Supervisors in accordance with the provisions in the regulation. At this time, 10 airports in California have been determined to have a noise problem by local county governments. The CNEL metric adds a 5 dB penalty for noise generated between 7:00 p.m. and 10:00 p.m., in addition to a 10 dB penalty between 10:00 p.m. and 7:00 a.m.
Under the federal land-use guidelines included in Part 150, all land uses are considered to be compatible with noise levels less than 65 DNL. Residential land uses and places of public assembly (hospitals, schools, churches, etc.) are generally considered incompatible with noise levels higher than 65 DNL.

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A popular tool for airports is the establishment of the Airport Influence Area or Public Airport Disclosure Maps that are produced by the airport to reveal potentially noise-impacted areas around airports to current boards and planning commissions.42 The Noise Integrated Routing System (NIRS) is a noise-assessment program designed to provide an analysis of air traffic changes over broad areas. Intended to work in conjunction with other Air Traffic modeling systems that provide the source of routes, events, and air traffic procedures, such as altitude restrictions, the NIRS is used to optimize flight operations within the national airspace to minimize the impact of noise on communities. A hierarchy of rules based on FAA guidance and local requirements are then employed to determine if an airspace alternative is likely to be controversial based on noise considerations. Where possible, the system identifies the principal source of the change of exposure.
The Air Traffic Noise Screening (ATNS) is a computer program that assists in determining whether a change in air traffic procedure for airport arrivals and departures between 3,000 and 10,000 feet AG will generate 5 dB(A) increase in noise to underlying communities and therefore is likely to be controversial.

The Air Traffic Noise Screening (ATNS) is a computer program that assists in determining whether a change in air traffic procedure for airport arrivals and departures between 3,000 and 10,000 feet AGL will generate a 5 dB(A) increase in noise to underlying communities and, therefore, is likely to be controversial. ATNS is a computerized version of the former FAA Notice N 7210.360, Noise Screening Procedure for Certain Air Traffic Actions Above 3,000 Feet AGL. This notice provides guidance to air traffic managers in identifying air traffic changes that will increase aircraft noise exposure and the possible need for an environmental assessment (EA), as required by FAA Order 1050.1, Policies and Procedures for Considering Environmental Impacts. The ATNS evaluates the potential noise impacts resulting from changes in airport arrivals and departures by screening proposed changes to determine whether new or increased noise is likely to exceed permissible levels over communities beneath the aircraft route. This helps air traffic planners and other decision makers to determine which certain air traffic actions are likely to cause adverse community reactions. If so, preparation of an Environmental Assessment (EA) is warranted. The ATNS was developed because of community protests to changes in FAA flight patterns at distances of up to 40 miles from an airport. Changes in flight patterns caused communities previously not exposed to noise to suddenly start receiving increased aircraft noise. 179

FARPart150
The Aviation Safety and Noise Abatement Act of 1979 (ASNA) is the principal law supporting federal efforts to identify and reduce noise issues involving land use around domestic civil airports. It required the FAA to establish, by regulation, three primary requirements that would simplify and standardize the process for carrying out noise compatibility planning and programs. These requirements are: 1. Establish a single system of measuring noise at airports. It should contain a highly reliable relationship between projected noise exposure and surveyed reactions of people. The goal is to provide a system that could be uniformly applied at airports and their surrounding areas. 2. Establish a single measurement system for determining the exposure of individuals to noise from airport operations. It should includebut not be limited tointensity, duration, frequency, and time of occurrence. 3. Identify compatible land uses, given the level of noise exposure. Congress specifically designated eight percent of airport planning and development funding from the 1970 Airport and Airway Development Act to fund noise compatibility planning and mitigation measures at airports. This was the first time funds for such uses had been specifically identified in any federal legislation. Funding has continued to be included in subsequent Airport Improvement Program (AIP) authorizations. The percentage provision was increased to ten percent in 1987. The federal share for noise compatibility projects varies by airport classification. For medium- and large-hub airports (as defined by AIP), it is now 80 percent of allowable costs, and 90 percent for small, non-hub, and general aviation facilities. As a result of the ANSA Act, the FAA issued FAR Part 150, which establishes procedures, standards and methodologies used by airport operators for the preparation of Airport Noise Exposure Maps (NEMs) and Airport Noise Compatibility Programs (NCPs).43 Those two products provide avenues for the development of noise abatement actions. ThePart150Process
The Aviation Safety and Noise Abatement Act of 1979 (ASNA) is the principal law supporting federal efforts to identify and reduce noise issues involving land use around domestic civil airports.

As a result of the ANSA Act, the FAA issued FAR Part 150, which establishes procedures, standards and methodologies used by airport operators for the preparation of Airport Noise Exposure Maps (NEMs) and Airport Noise Compatibility Programs (NCPs)

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As a part of the FAR part 150 process, the FAA formally accepts the Noise Exposure Maps, which creates the official noise contour maps for the airport. The maps can then be used by local planning agencies for compatible land use planning as well as alerting prospective residents to areas of aircraft noise exposure around the airport.

Airport sponsors have the option of implementing noise mitigation programs. Federal funding may be available to pay for the program, but the Sponsor is required to base the program on a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)approved Noise Exposure Map and Noise Compatibility Program. Federal Aviation Regulation Part 150 is the FAA-approved process that is used to develop the NEM and NCP. A FAR Part 150 Study also provides an opportunity to secure the required federal approvals for certain measures such as air traffic changes to reduce aircraft noise impacts. In addition, as a part of the FAR part 150 processes, the FAA formally accepts the Noise Exposure Maps, which creates the official noise contour maps for the airport. The maps can then be used by local planning agencies for compatible land use planning, as well as alerting prospective residents to areas of aircraft noise exposure around the airport.44 A consultant familiar with the 150 process is usually hired to conduct the study. The first phase is to generate the Noise Exposure Map, which is then submitted to the FAA for approval. Phase two is the drafting of the Noise Compatibility Plan, which is also subsequently submitted to the FAA for review. The review period is 180 days, followed by the implementation of the noise program. NoiseExposureMap(NEM) Part 150 contains the basic requirements and procedures for approval of noise surrounding it as described in the INM model. The NEM is designed to clearly identify an airports present and future noise patterns and the land uses, which are not compatible with the noise impacts. It serves as the standard reference for anyone proposing noise sensitive development in the vicinity of an airport.45 Because of the nature and information contained in noise exposure maps, the ASNA prohibited the use of the NEM or related information as evidence, or for any other purpose in lawsuits, or actions seeking damages from noise, once the NEM has been accepted by the FAA. The intent of the legal prohibition was to respond to the sensitivities of airport operators who felt that noise maps, which are considered part of an environmental assessment by the federal government under NEPA, would be used in court against them by affected landowners. However, the courts have allowed the establishment of some legal precedence by allowing NEM information and maps 181

The NEM is designed to clearly identify an airports present and future noise patterns and the land uses, which are not compatible with the noise impacts. It serves as the standard reference for anyone proposing noise sensitive development in the vicinity of an airport.

to be entered into evidence, if they are in process or under review by the FAA and have not yet been approved. Noise Exposure Maps are required to show unabated noise exposure, as expressed in terms of the yearly Day-Night Sound Level (DNL), for the current year and for the fifth year following submission of the document. The NEM must show noisesensitive or incompatible land use, include a discussion of forecasted aviation activity, and present, in detail, the underlying assumptions upon which the noise contours are based. Any noise monitoring conducted as part of the study, must also be referenced and explained. Finally, an analysis of ambient noise (noise generated by sources other than aviation) and background community noise (acoustical and electronic noises in a noise measurement system that interfere with the measurement of aviation noise) must be presented. According to Part 150, incompatible land uses affected by high levels of ambient noise do not have the same adverse standing as those with aircraft noise alone. This means a property owner would not be considered affected by airport noise, if a nearby highway is generating noise levels at or above those generated by aircraft. The NEM document must be submitted to the FAA for review and approval. Under the ASNA, approval of an NEM theoretically imposes certain limits on the ability of people moving into the vicinity of an area affected by airport noise to recover damages from noise exposure. It precludes their ability to recover damages attributable to airport noise if they had actual or constructive knowledge of the existence of noise exposure maps. Specifically, a person who acquires an interest in airport property within the 65 DNL contour after the approval of a Noise Exposure Map cannot recover damages for noise unless he or she can show that a significant change in the aviation noise environment has occurred since the maps were prepared. The significant change can be the result of a change in the type and frequency of aircraft operations at the airport or a significant change in the airport layout, flight patterns, or nighttime operations. The FAA currently defines significant change in noise exposure as an increase in DNL of 1.5 dB if the new DNL is above 65 dB. In order for the significant change provision to be effective, the person must have had what is legally known as constructive knowledge that an NEM exists. The ASNA states that constructive 182

Noise Exposure Maps are required to show unabated noise exposure, as expressed in terms of the yearly Day-Night Sound Level (DNL), for the current year and for the fifth year following submission of the document.

According to Part 150, incompatible land uses affected by high levels of ambient noise not have the same adverse standing as those with aircraft noise alone. This means a property owner would not be considered affected by airport noise, if a nearby highway is generating noise levels at or above those generated by aircraft.

The FAA currently defines significant change is noise exposure as an increase in DNL of 1.5 dB if the new DNL is above 65 dB. In order for the significant change provision to be effective, the person must have had what is legally knows as constructive knowledge that an NEM exists.

knowledge is presumed if notice of the existence of the NEM was published at least three times in a local newspaper, or if copies of the NEM were furnished to the person at the time of property acquisition. For this reason, many states and localities have reinforced zoning and land use restrictions, or notification procedures in and around airports, to preclude future legal action. The purpose of the publication provision is to prevent suits or damages from individuals who moved into a non-compatible area after being made aware of the noise exposure. Generally, the courts have substantiated landowners claims when a significant change in airport operations has been made. NoiseCompatibilityPlan(NCP) The second part of a complete Part 150 study is the Noise Compatibility Plan (NCP). This plan involves a discussion and analysis of a number of noise abatement and land use management measures that are specifically listed in Part 150. They include land acquisition, easements, acoustical shielding, preferential runway use, modified flight procedures, and airport operating restrictions.
Noise Compatibility Plan (NCP) involves a discussion and analysis of a number of noise abatement and land use management measures that are specifically listed in Part 150. They include land acquisition, easements, acoustical shielding, preferential runway use, modified flight procedures, and airport operating restrictions.

The NCP includes provisions for noise abatement through the modification of flight procedures, regulations, and perhaps even the airfield itself. It also includes provisions for land use management aimed at mitigating residential noise effects. Included under this classification are property acquisition for buffer zones, urban redevelopment programs, noise easement acquisition, and soundproofing. Other land use management measures are designed to prevent future noise effects. Use of zoning and subdivision regulations, capital improvements policies, and acquisition of property or development rights can be appropriate techniques to meet this objective. FAR Part 150 requires that noise compatibility plans be developed in consultation with airport users and all public agencies having jurisdiction for the area. Public comment is also solicited. An approved NCP makes the airport eligible for funding from the noise set-aside of the Airport and Airway Improvement Program (AAIP). Only eligible items in the approved NCP can be funded. FAA Order 5100.38, Airport Improvement Program Handbook, identifies the eligibility requirements and allowable costs. Eligible items may include soundproofing, property in fee or easement acquisition, and a number of airfield improvements, such as runway and taxiway extensions, new runways, and taxiways. Funding priority is given to projects in higher noise exposure areas (75 DNL or greater). 183

Eligible items may include soundproofing, property in fee or easement acquisition, and a number of airfield improvements, such as runway and taxiway extensions, new runways, and taxiways. Funding priority is given to projects in higher noise exposure areas (75 DNL or greater).

While a Part 150 study is voluntary on the part of the airport sponsor, it is most appropriate if any of four general conditions applies: 1. Significant amounts of noise-affected incompatible land use. 2. The receipt of serious noise complaints. 3. A threat from urban development pressure to increase incompatible land use near the airport. 4. The introduction of major changes in airport facilities or operations that are likely to shift or increase noise patterns. The study may be especially appropriate if, in addition to any of the four conditions, the airport is interested in developing, or enhancing, its community relations program or if the neighboring community has significant community development needs in the airport vicinity.

Part150StandardsofReview
The FAAs review and approval procedures for Part 150 studies were designed to achieve dual objectives. The first is to place substantial review responsibility and authority at the regional level. The FAAs regional offices are in direct contact with airport operators and have more extensive knowledge of local noise and land use situations. The second goal is to retain enough oversight review and decisionmaking authority at the national level to ensure overall consistency of the FAAs Part 150 determinations. Additionally, the FAAs review includes a broad spectrum of professional skills, so that technical, policy, and legal issues receive due consideration. FAA Approval rests upon the FAAs review process and on whether the NCP meets certain standards or criteria. Primarily, a Part 150 study must be fair and objective, including measures that are reasonably consistent with achieving the goals of reducing existing, non-compatible land uses around the airport and of preventing the introduction of additional, non-compatible land uses. Additionally, the NCP should not derogate safety or adversely affect the safe and efficient use of airspace, meet both local needs and the needs of the national air transportation system and not adversely affect any other powers and responsibilities of the FAA Administrator prescribed by law or any other program, standard, or requirement established in accordance with the law. Information that must be contained in a Part 150 Plan includes: 184

FAA Approval rests upon the FAAs review process and on whether the NCP meets certain standards or criteria. Primarily, a Part 150 study must be fair and objective, including measures that are reasonably consistent with achieving the goals of reducing existing, noncompatible land uses around the airport and of preventing the introduction of additional, non-compatible land uses.

1. A copy of the noise exposure map and its supporting documentation; 2. A categorization of the parties responsible for implementation; 3. The development of a noise compatibility program that meets Part 150 standards; 4. The actual or anticipated effect of the program on reducing noise exposure; 5. A description of how the recommendations may change previously adopted action; 6. A schedule for implementation of the program; 7. Costs of program implementation and anticipated sources of funding; 8. Provision for revising the program if necessary; and 9. A description of public participation and the consultation process used during the programs development, including a summary of comments at any public hearing on the program and a copy of all written material submitted to the airport operator together with the operators response and disposition of comments, to demonstrate that the program is feasible and reasonably consistent with obtaining the objectives of airport noise compatibility planning under FAR Part 150.(Source: FAA) FAA approval under Part 150 requires the airport operator to consider and analyze certain alternatives or strategies, subject to the constraint that the alternatives are appropriate for the airport. An example of an alternative inappropriate for the airport would be the potential noise benefit of a night restriction, if there are no existing or forecasted night operations at an airport. Historically, noise abatement action has been accomplished through three general means: (1) reduction of noise at the source, (2) relocation of the source of the noise in either space or time, or (3) acoustical changes to the area receiving the noise. As a minimum, airport operators in each Part 150 program must consider alternative measures. Other noise strategies are available for consideration and generally fall under one of 37 different categories. The Aviation Safety and Noise Abatement Act of 1979 and FAR Part 150 do not limit consideration of alternative noise compatibility measures. Rather, within a framework, they provide maximum flexibility for airport operators to use local initiative.

FAA approval under Part 150 requires the airport operator to consider and analyze certain alternatives or strategies, subject to the constraint that the alternatives are appropriate for the airport.

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The FAAs regional staff makes a recommendation to the regional administrator for action on each individual measure presented in a Part 150 study. The recommendation is based on a thorough review by all applicable FAA regional program areas (e. g., airports, air traffic, flight standards). The regional administrators recommendations are then subject to concurrence at the national level by the FAA associate administrator for airports, the associate administrator for policy and international aviation, and the chief counsel. The action is based on oversight reviews by their respective staffs. Final approval or disapproval authority resides with the FAA administrator. Decisions are recorded in the Federal Register. Each airport noise Part 150 compatibility program is developed locally and is not considered a federal program. In the review process, the FAA does not substitute its judgment for that of the airport operator with respect to which measures should be recommended for action. Neither does the FAA supplement a local program by providing analysis in order to approve a program recommendation when airport operators have failed to analyze a program recommendation or when they have analyzed it inadequately or with faulty methodology. If Part 150 documentation does not adequately support the determinations required by one or more of these program standards, the FAA most likely disapproves the relevant recommendation, pending submission of additional information. Alternatives for Mitigating Noise under FAR Part 150 include: 1. The use of takeoff and landing procedures by the FAA, including the modifications of flight tracks, to abate noise through the operational control of aircraft over noise sensitive areas. 2. The implementation of a preferential runway use system by the FAA. 3. The construction of barriers and acoustical shielding, including the soundproofing of public and residential buildings. 4. Acquisition of land and interests therein, including air rights, easements, and development rights to ensure the use of property for purposes which are compatible with airport operations. 5. Restrictions on the use of the airport by any type or class of aircraft based on the noise characteristics of those aircraft established in FAR Part 36. Such program restrictions may include, but are not necessarily limited to: a. Denial of the use of the airport to aircraft types that do not meet federal noise standards; 186

Each airport noise Part 150 compatibility program is developed locally and is not considered a federal program. In the review process, the FAA does not substitute its judgment for that of the airport operator with respect to which measures should be recommended for action.

b. Capacity limitations based on the relative noisiness of different types of aircraft (a noise budget); c. Use of noise abatement takeoff or approach procedures approved as safe by the FAA; d. Complete or partial curfews (i.e., nighttime use limitations); and e. Differential landing fees based on FAA certificated or estimated noise emission levels or on time-of-day annoyance. The precise technical and economic data required by the FAA to complete a review of a specific airport operators Part 150 programs are dependent upon the individual airport and upon the unique way in which each noise compatibility measure has been formulated and how it interacts with other measures in the program. Table D identifies the most common noise compatibility measures experienced in Part 150 program submissions. Many of the noise abatement programs allowed under current legislation are eligible for federal aid. Over the years, however, many airports have proposed noise compatibility projects that were found to be ineligible for federal assistance. The primary reasons for this ineligible rating were that they involved no capital costs, that they could not be implemented by eligible grant recipients, or that they were not approved noise abatement measures in a noise compatibility program prepared by the airport operator. CommonNoiseCompatibilityMeasures Any compatibility measure must meet five objectives: The measure must: (1) achieve the goal of reducing non-compatible land uses around the airport; (2) not derogate safety or adverse affect the safe and efficient use of airspace; (3) does not unjustly discriminate against an airport user; (4) does not create an undue burden on interstate or foreign commerce; and (5) does not adversely affect other powers and responsibilities of the FAA Administrator as prescribed by law. Common compatibility measures include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Acquisition of Land and Interests in Land Soundproofing Preferential Runway Use System Noise Barriers Airport Development Measures 187

Any compatibility measure must meet five objectives: The measure must: (1) achieve the goal of reducing noncompatible land uses around the airport; (2) not derogate safety or adverse affect the safe and efficient use of airspace; (3) does not unjustly discriminate against an airport user; (4) does not create an undue burden on interstate or foreign commerce; and (5) does not adversely affect other powers and responsibilities of the FAA Administrator as prescribed by law.

6. Airport Use Restrictions 7. Engine Runup and Ground Operation Provisions 8. Flight Procedures 9. Off-Airport Land Use Plans and Controls 10. Noise Monitoring 11. Administrative Measures and Studies 12. Navigational Aids AcquisitionofLandandInterestsinLand The most effective control measure for reducing noise impact is land acquisition. It must be reasonably consistent with achieving the goals of reducing existing non-compatible land uses around the airport and of preventing the introduction of additional non-compatible land uses. Acquiring an air navigation easement (sometimes called an avigation easement) is considered the same as having an interest in the land. A properly described air navigation easement renders a property compatible because the owner has granted the airport the legal right to allow aircraft to make noise over the property. If federal funds are used for land acquisition, the airport operator is governed by the procedures found in 49 CFR Part 24 and the Uniform Relocation and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act. Under Part 24, the purchase price is established by a fair market value appraisal. The appraised valuation is subject to appeal and, if eminent domain proceedings are used, relocated residents are eligible to receive relocation benefits and other assistance. The cost of relocating private residences exposed to excessive noise levels at the nations airports is a major factor in determining the viability of comprehensive airport relocation and soundproofing plan. A voluntary acquisition program does not necessarily provide the same assistance as an eminent domain or project acquisition proceeding. A voluntary program is one in which the airport operator or the local government agrees to acquire the property of residents who wish to relocate outside a noise-affected area. These are commonly known as purchase assurance programs. Under a voluntary acquisition, no specific property needs to be acquired, and no obligation exists if negotiations fail. It allows a residential owner to sell his or her property to the airport or government agency. The airport can, then, turn around and sell the property to 188
Acquiring an air navigation easement (sometimes called an avigation easement) is considered the same as having an interest in the land.

A voluntary acquisition program does not necessarily provide the same assistance as an eminent domain or project acquisition proceeding. A voluntary program is one in which the airport operator or the local government agrees to acquire the property of residents who wish to relocate outside a noise-affected area.

another party for similar residential use, but with the added stipulation of a newly attached noise and avigation easement. Soundproofing of residential or other buildings, such as schools, churches, or nursing homes, is an eligible alternative, provided that: (1) it is within the existing or future 65 DNL noise contour, (2) it is within a noise level contour that has been determined to be non-compatible under local noise/land use guidelines, (3) the structures are non-compatible under either Part 150 or local land use guidelines, or (4) a satisfactory, interior noise level reduction can be achieved. Sound-attenuation improvements and sound insulation of homes are intended to reduce interior residential noise levels to at least 50 dBA within the 65 DNL contour. Overall, a noise reduction of 30 to 35 dBA is the goal of noise insulation projects. Home modifications could include new insulated windows, chimney baffles, insulation, landscaping, etc. For non-compatible, public use buildings, an average sound level of 45 dBA (with a maximum of 55 dBA) is the nominal design objective. The goal is to absorb the sound energy, dampen it, or prevent it from reaching the occupant. If the interior noise level reduction attributable to soundproofing does not achieve compatibility under Part 150 or local land use guidelines, an avigation noise easement should supplement the soundproofing. An avigation easement allows for the passage of aircraft overhead and waives a homeowners right to any claim for damages from aircraft noise. In all cases, FAA encourages (but does not require) a noise easement to accompany soundproofing since soundproofing does not mitigate exterior noise levels. Active noise control (ANC) techniques are another means for noise abatement. Insulation provides for effective, high frequency, sound attenuation. ANC works for low frequency noise reduction by using a system of microphones to detect the frequencies. An electronic controller then activates a counter frequency through a loudspeaker system set up in a house or building. The generation of a sound wave opposite that of the recorded sound results in a cancellation or null sound wave. Noise cancelling headphones used by frequent air travelers work much the same way. NoiseBarriers Noise barriers are erected to help attenuate ground level noise from airport operations. Typically located along the perimeter on airport property, they can be 189

Sound-attenuation improvements and sound insulation of homes are intended to reduce interior residential noise levels to at least 50 dBA within the 65 DNL contour.

Active noise control (ANC) works for low frequency noise reduction by using a system of microphones to detect the frequencies. An electronic controller than activates a counter frequency through a loudspeaker system set up in a house or building. The generation of a sound wave opposite that of the recorded sound results in a cancellation or null sound wave. Noise cancelling headphones used by frequent air travelers work much the same way.

vegetative or earthen barriers, or stand-alone structures. With vegetative barriers, consideration is given to whether they may act as a bird attraction. As with any type of object placed in close vicinity to an airport operating area, an FAA obstruction evaluation is required. PreferentialRunwayUseSystem Runway use programs may be informal or formal. Informal programs primarily affect those aircraft weighing more than 12,500 pounds. A formal runway use program requires a Letter of Agreement (LOA) in which the FAA and the airlines outline the conditions under which the runway can be used. Under either a formal or an informal program, a pilots request to use an alternate runway will be honored by the FAA Air Traffic Control. Wind, weather, and airspace considerations are of primary importance in a preferential runway use system. FAA Order 8400.9 provides safety criteria on acceptable crosswind and tailwind components of aircraft. To designate a preferential runway in use, the wind direction must be within 90 degrees of runway heading and must not exceed 15 knots on runways that are clear and dry. If runway is wet, or otherwise contaminated, the crosswind component is reduced. From an airspace perspective, considerations from the FAA would include the effect on terminal airspace capacity, routing and sequencing, and any potential encroachment into adjacent airport terminal airspace. The demand on air traffic controller workload would also be considered. A preferential runway use may not be unjustly discriminatory. In this regard, the FAA is interested in whether all aircraft using the airport are subject to the preferential runway use and, if not, whether aircraft are assigned to the runway according to their noise characteristics or on a combination of noise characteristics and reasons relating to separation of traffic for efficiency. A preferential runway use system that would result in significant inefficiencies would be subject to closer scrutiny for potential, undue burden to commerce. The implementation of a preferential runway use system is exclusively the authority and responsibility of the FAA. Local ordinance and enforcement are not acceptable, since the issuance of air traffic control clearances to use specific runways is exclusively a federal function and not a matter for local regulation.
Wind, weather, and airspace considerations are of primary importance in a preferential runway use system. FAA Order 8400.9 provides safety criteria on acceptable crosswind and tailwind components of aircraft.

A preferential runway use may not be unjustly discriminatory. In this regard, the FAA is interested in whether all aircraft using the airport are subject to the preferential runway use and, if not, whether aircraft are assigned to the runway according to their noise characteristics or on a combination of noise characteristics and reasons relating to separation of traffic for efficiency.

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FlightProcedures For the implementation of new flight procedures, consideration is given to whether aircraft are physically capable of performing noise abatement flight maneuvers in a safe and efficient manner. Takeoff or approach flight procedures must be able to fit technical parameters and requirements of terminal en route procedures and any other Air Traffic or Flight Standards requirements governing the safe and efficient use of airspace. Any new or modified Standard Instrument Departure procedures (SIDS) and Standard Terminal Arrival procedures (STARS) require review and study by the FAA. In a Part 150 program, the FAA also checks for information indicating whether enforcement of other noise measures may encourage potentially unsafe flight practices or maneuvers in order to avoid restrictions or penalties. As with a preferential runway use system, the implementation of flight procedures is the FAAs exclusive responsibility. Airport use restrictions are variable. Examples of Part 150 proposals received by the FAA are: (1) the establishment of a single-event noise limit for an entire airport, or for a particular runway at an airport, or for a specified time frame (usually nighttime), (2) the establishment of a noise contour limit at an airport, (3) the requirement that an airport or a runway be served by only Stage 3 aircraft either at night or at all times, (4) noise-based operating fees, (5) limits on the number of operations or the type of operations, (6) training restrictions, and (7)runway use restrictions.
Additionally, various types of restrictions have been voluntarily agreed to by the airport operator and airport users.

Additionally, various types of restrictions have been voluntarily agreed to by the airport operator and airport users. The FAA requires minimal justification under Part 150 regarding these voluntary agreements. Primarily, the FAA is interested in whether the voluntary agreement provides noise benefits and whether it is, in fact, voluntary. In reviewing proposed airport use restrictions, the FAA looks for as precise an explanation as possible. This is because there are so many variations from the benefits or effects of a restriction and the way in which it is formulated for a particular situation. The FAA reviews all restrictions to insure reasonableness, and any local restrictions cannot interfere with safety or the federal prerogative to control aircraft in the navigable airspace.

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Any noise benefits derived from a use restriction need to be quantified. Items reviewed include the number of people or households that would be removed from a non-compatible noise/land use situation, noise contour comparisons with and without the restriction, single event noise level relief, or correlation of differences in single event noise to activity interference (such as sleep interference). Some noise benefits may be more indirect than direct. An example of an indirect benefit would be a noise-based operating fee where the primary beneficial impact is increasing revenue for implementation of a land acquisition or soundproofing program rather than discouraging particular aircraft operations. However, any proposal to exclude certain users would require a thorough review of the number (or percentage) of operations excluded and the type of excluded users. The FAA expects a clear explanation of methods and information used to formulate or calculate a restriction. The noise metrics should be properly calculated in accordance with FAA-approved methods. Airport operators using Part 36 stage classifications cannot redefine stages or otherwise alter federally established classification schemes (for instance, excluding tradeoffs provided for in Part 36). A proposed, single event limit is expected to use FAA Advisory Circular 36-3, Reestimated Airplane Noise Levels in A-Weighted Decibels, or an acceptable equivalent. In a Part 150 program, the airport operator is expected to fully analyze the anticipated burden on commerce of any proposed airport use restriction. Determination of a burden on commerce is quite sensitive to the way a use restriction is structured and to the factors involved at a particular airport. Similar restrictions may have little impact at one airport but a major impact at another airport.

Any noise benefits derived from a use restriction need to be quantified. Items reviewed include the number of people or households that would be removed from a non-compatible noise/land use situation, noise contour comparisons with and without the restriction, single event noise level relief, or correlation of differences in single event noise to activity interference (such as sleep interference).

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The magnitude of the capacity versus demand impact and the effect of exclusion are expected to be clarified in the NCP proposal. For instance, an analysis of the impact on interstate commerce on the elimination of flights from an airport would address such factors as the markets served, the number of passengers (or amount of cargo) carried, and the costs of dislocation to the operators. Also reviewed are any effects on their scheduling and fleet management, the extent to which other comparable service to the markets exists at that airport and is capable of handling the passengers (or cargo) affected by the restriction, and the availability of capacity and service at nearby alternative airports. The impact of a seemingly local restriction on other airports in the system can be an important consideration. The program standard of meeting both local needs and the needs of the national air transportation system is addressed by a balanced analysis comparing the benefits and impact to commerce with those of noise and costs of alternative mitigation.
Implementation or enforcement of proposed Part 150 restrictions is of concern to the FAA. Airport proprietors have certain rights in this regard, but they also have limitations. Airport operators may not regulate runway assignments of aircraft, air traffic management, or airspace use since these areas are federally preempted (i.e., proposed restrictions must rely on FAA implementation and enforcement rather than local ordinance).

Implementation or enforcement of proposed Part 150 restrictions is of concern to the FAA. Airport proprietors have certain rights in this regard, but they also have limitations. Airport operators may not regulate runway assignments of aircraft, air traffic management, or airspace use since these areas are federally preempted (i.e., proposed restrictions must rely on FAA implementation and enforcement rather than local ordinance). States and localities may not enact or enforce any law relating to the regulation of rates, routes, and services of an air carrier; and it is unlawful for a state or local government to control access, for noise purposes, to Engine Runup and Ground Operation Provisions. Most Part 150 recommendations in this category involve the voluntary or mandatory prohibition of engine maintenance runups within certain nighttime hours, or at specified locations, to reduce single event ground level noise on noncompatible, adjacent land use. In this category, there have been acceptable noise reduction proposals relating to aircraft taxiing, towing, and the use of auxiliary power units.

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AirportDevelopmentMeasures The most common airport development measures proposed under Part 150 are runway extensions, new runways, and taxiway development. Noise benefits are presented in a number of ways, including a quantified noise reduction in dB for non-compatible areas, a percentage of time when certain areas receive noise relief, the number of people for whom noise is reduced, the effect on the airports noise contours, or in other narrative explanations. There can be indirect benefit as well, such as the ability to implement a preferential runway use system for noise abatement or to displace a landing threshold by extending a runway. NavigationalAids Navigational aids proposed in Part 150 programs that have been approved have helped to facilitate preferential runway use systems, preferred flight tracks, or other airport development measures related to noise compatibility. As long as the Part 150 documentation clearly and reasonably relates a navigational aid to one of these noise compatibility measures, which has adequate documentary support under Part 150, the FAA has required no further data. OffAirportLandUsePlansandControls This category includes a long list of well-used planning schemes. They include zoning, comprehensive, local land use planning, building codes, subdivision regulations, private development initiatives, transfer of development rights, fair disclosure, community redevelopment projects, urban growth management programs, airport zoning overlay districts, and other local land use regulations and policies. It should be noted that zoning alone is not always an effective means of controlling land use. Local governmental bodies are responsible for zoning and land use policies. A clear description of a particular proposal is usually sufficient to determine whether its program standard can be met. When the necessary implementing authority resides within a local jurisdiction other than the airport proprietor, it is especially important that the Part 150 documentation include information about jurisdictional approval. Ideally, zoning should preclude residential property within the 65 and above DNL contour. It is normally recommended that the airport own all the property within the 75 and above DNL, and that the area generally be sterile or free of buildings. However, property with allowable uses within high 194

Noise benefits are presented in a number of ways, including a quantified noise reduction in dB for non-compatible areas, a percentage of time when certain areas receive noise relief, the number of people for whom noise is reduced, the effect on the airports noise contours, or in other narrative explanations.

Ideally, zoning should preclude residential property within the 65 and above DNL contour. It is normally recommended that the airport own all the property within the 75 and above DNL, and that the area generally be sterile or free of buildings.

noise impact areas can be used for parking areas, transportation facilities, agriculture, or other low personnel exposure purposes. Noise monitoring is used primarily to help support other Part 150 program measures with more direct, noise compatibility benefits. An example of this support is the establishment of specific flight tracks to and from the airport. Monitoring also provides general feedback of noise compatibility program success. It not only provides the long-term measurements needed to validate noise contours but also facilitates airport efforts in responding to citizen inquiries and complaints. The FAA is interested in noise monitoring from the standpoint of whether any special demands on FAA equipment or on air traffic controller workload exist. Its use to enforce laws, to cite individual operators, or to assess monetary penalties is generally discouraged because this use may encourage unsafe flight activities. Enforcement, however, is recognized as a valid tool for seeking noise restriction compliance, especially for repeat offenders. AdministrativeMeasuresandStudies Within this category are the creation of noise advisory committees, publication of pamphlets and programs for residents and airport users, and capital improvement policies. The creation of a noise abate office, complaint procedures, interagency coordination, pilot educational services, and a noise compatibility program monitoring all contributes to the functioning of a workable aircraft noise abatement process. Although these types of measures do not usually entail a readily quantifiable benefit in terms of reducing either noise or non-compatible land uses, they are considered to be generally supportive of Part 150 program goals and reasonably consistent with achieving compatible land use goals. Typically, a general explanation of a measures purpose, in the context of the airport operators Part 150 program, will suffice. Categories of Action for Developing a Noise Control Plan include: 1. Location of engine runup 2. Time of day when maintenance engine runups can be done. 3. Establishment of landing fees based on aircraft noise emission characteristics and/or time of day. Actions an airport proprietor can implement directly if he or she has the authority to do so: 195

The creation of a noise abate office, complaint procedures, interagency coordination, pilot educational services, and a noise compatibility program monitoring all contributes to the functioning of a workable aircraft noise abatement process.

1. Planning and control land use adjacent to airport by zoning or other land use controls, such as utility expenditures or issuance of building permits. 2. Enact building codes that require residential and public buildings near airports to have noise insulation. Actions the airport proprietor can implement directly in conjunction with other local authorities: 1. Acquiring land to ensure its use for airport compatible purposes. 2. Acquiring interests in land, such as easements or air rights. 3. Acquiring noise suppressing equipment; construct physical noise barriers and landscape to reduce impact of aircraft noise. 4. Undertake airport development, such as new runways or extend runways to shift noise away from noise sensitive areas. Actions an airport proprietor can propose to the FAA as operational procedures: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A preferential runway use system. Preferential approach and departure flight tracks. A priority runway use system. A rotational runway use system. Flight operation procedures, such as thrust reduction on takeoff. A higher glide slope angle and/or glide slope intercepts. Displacement of the runway threshold.

Actions an airport proprietor can establish after receiving general public and user input: 1. Restrictions on the use of or operations at the airport during a particular time period or by aircraft type, such as a. Limiting number of operations per day or year. b. Prohibit operations at certain hours through a curfew. c. Prohibit operation by a particular type or class. d. Any combination of the above.

Actions an airport proprietor can propose to an airline: 1. Shifting operations to a neighboring airport. 196

2. Reschedule operations by aircraft or time. AdvantagesofConductingaPart150 Part 150 planning provides a framework for the consultation and cooperation of all interested parties, including the airport, air carriers, general aviation interests, land use regulatory and economic development agencies, and the general public. This cooperation is essential if the fragmentation, which characterizes both the aviation industry and the land use regulatory process, is to be overcome. Cooperative efforts are extraordinarily important and effective in building longlasting and effective institutional relationships. Other specific, potential advantages of the Part 150 planning process are in the areas of public relations, intergovernmental coordination, airport facilities development, improved land use planning, and noise abatement. PublicRelations The Part 150 process is a potentially valuable tool for the airport in improving its public relations. It provides an opportunity to consult and cooperate with a wide variety of airport users, land use regulatory and economic development agencies, and the general public. If handled well, this process gives the airport an excellent opportunity to tell its story, to present its program for the future, and to enlist support. Many participants in the Part 150 planning process are potential allies of the airport. These might include local chambers of commerce, business representatives, economic development agencies, local governments, aviation buffs, and the general public. The process presents the airport with an excellent opportunity to enhance its credibility with and build bridges to these groups. IntergovernmentalCoordination The Part 150 process also helps to develop intergovernmental coordination in those situations where an airport straddles municipal or county boundaries. It is in everyones interest to create a means of coordinating land use policies and capital improvement policies near the airport. In the absence of any state or regional mandates, (and these are present in only a relative handful of states), the Part 150 process may be the only available means to coordinate land use policy among neighboring jurisdictions.

Part 150 planning provides a framework for the consultation and cooperation of all interested parties, including the airport, air carriers, general aviation interests, land use regulatory and economic development agencies, and the general public.

Public relations process gives the airport an excellent opportunity to tell its story, to present its program for the future, and to enlist support.

It is in everyones interest to create a means of coordinating land use policies and capital improvement policies near the airport.

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AirportFacilitiesDevelopment Much has been written about the adverse effects of noise abatement on airport capacity. Though there is some cause for concern in this regard, the Part 150 process provides an opportunity for an airport to improve and develop its facilities. Improvements, including runways, taxiways, hush houses, and navaids, are eligible for funding under the AIP noise set-aside, provided that they are included in an approved Part 150 Noise Compatibility Plan. Although these potentially expensive measures are not appropriate everywhere, their consideration has merit. For example, extending and strengthening short runway may enable air carrier operations to be diverted from a runway whose activities affect a residential area. Installation of a VOR or other navaid may allow the establishment of a tightly-defined, noise abatement turn, allowing aircraft to fly through a narrow noise compatible corridor. Construction of a parallel taxiway may reduce noise from aircraft idling on the ground as they wait for access to the runway. While these measures have obvious operational benefits, they can also be valuable as noise abatement measures. ImprovedLandUsePlanning From the noise compatibility perspective, one of the explicit objectives of the Part 150 planning process is to improve airport land use planning. Local planning agencies, with limited resources, may view it as a valuable aid. This can be especially true if planning agencies, local governments and affected residents work collaboratively. Since zoning and land use planning are local government responsibilities, planners and government officials may see the Part 150 process as an important opportunity to build support for initiatives that are only partly related to the airports needs. For example, the process has been used to promote the concept of county or township zoning, the exercise of extraterritorial zoning by a city, and the establishment of strict, farmland preservation zoning. NoiseAbatement At airports where noise abatement has never been directly considered, relatively simple and obvious techniques may prove worthwhile. At others, the consultative process itself may help induce key players to try abatement measures that they would not have considered on their own.

Though there is some cause for concern in this regard, the Part 150 process provides an opportunity for an airport to improve and develop its facilities.

Local planning agencies, with limited resources, may view it as a valuable aid. This can be especially true if planning agencies, local governments and affected residents work collaboratively.

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DisadvantagesofPart150Planning
By its very nature, a Part 150 study can ignite local controversy and, in a worst case scenario, can do so without solving any problems at all.

By its very nature, a Part 150 study can ignite local controversy and, in a worst case scenario, can do so without solving any problems at all. This risk is inherent in the process and is partially caused by the emotional nature of the airport noise issue, the lack of centralized control and responsibility, and the need for organizations unfamiliar with each other to cooperate in areas that are often of only marginal interest to them. The Part 150 process may result in heightened controversy, unrealistic expectations, and uncooperative participants. HeightenedControversy Anytime one undertakes a public project where potentially divergent interests are at stake, the potential for conflict exists. If an airport stands to gain very little from the planning process, it may be better to avoid it entirely. On the other hand, the airport operator must recognize that it is running an operation that is rarely seen as a subtle part of the community. Controversy over noise is expected, regardless of whether or not one does a Part 150 study. UnrealisticExpectations

If an airport stands to gain very little from the planning process, it may be better to avoid it entirely.

In areas where public attitudes are generally supportive of the airport, the improvements may be enough to satisfy many people; in those areas where there is extreme opposition to aviation activity, nothing short of closing the airport will satisfy the opponents. In either of these situations, the airport has a responsibility to resist telling people what they want to hear and to focus on what is fair and realistic.

It is critical to avoid raising unrealistic expectations regarding the prospects for improvements in the airport noise environment as a result of a Part 150 study. While dramatic improvements can be made at some airports, it is more likely that the plan will result in relatively modest ones. In areas where public attitudes are generally supportive of the airport, the improvements may be enough to satisfy many people; in those areas where there is extreme opposition to aviation activity, nothing short of closing the airport will satisfy the opponents. In either of these situations, the airport has a responsibility to resist telling people what they want to hear and to focus on what is fair and realistic. Airport management and their planning consultants must set the proper tone for the study at its outset. Both must be genuinely committed to considering new and different points of view, and the planning process itself should be structured to reflect this attitude. If an airport has a set of grandfathered noise abatement procedures in place, these procedures may be subject to change or elimination as part of the Part 150 approval process.

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UncooperativeParticipants For the Part 150 process to work, all participants must be willing to give and take. Airport management should remember that the process is inherently consultative. While the airport normally conducts the study and must submit the plan for FAA approval, its implementation depends on the cooperation of all the parties. If any one of the key players is unwilling to consider changes in its way of operating, the process will be jeopardized. Participants should have a willingness to consider different viewpoints and make reasonable accommodations for each other. The airport undertaking the Part 150 process must be aware of this risk in structuring its study.

Participants should have a willingness to consider different viewpoints and make reasonable accommodations for each other. The airport undertaking the Part 150 process must be aware of this risk in structuring its study.

FARPart161NoticeandApprovalofAirportNoiseAccessRestrictions
Created as part of the Airport Noise and Compatibility Act of 1990 (ANCA) this section applies to restrictions on Stage 2 aircraft operations proposed after October 1, 1990 and restrictions on Stage 3 aircraft operations that became effective after October 1, 1990. Aircraft engine category information can be found in AC 36-4C Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification. While many airports have conducted Part 150 studies, few have conducted a study under Part 161. Similar to the Part 150, the airport noise study area is within the DNL 65 dB contour and the DNL is the specified measure for noise exposure. Part 161 requires local airports seeking to impose new noise rules, such as curfews, to comprehensively study the benefits, costs and impacts of these proposed new noise rules before they can seek approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), including a benefit-cost analysis. Also similar to the Part 150, the Part 161 study submittal must meet the following six FAA requirements: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Be reasonable, non-arbitrary, and nondiscriminatory; Avoid creating an undue burden on interstate and foreign commerce; Result in maintaining safe and efficient use of the navigable airspace; Not conflict with Federal law; Be developed through a process that afforded adequate opportunity for Not create an undue burden on the national aviation system
Part 161 requires local airports seeking to improve new noise rules, such as curfews, to comprehensively study the benefits, costs and impacts of these proposed new noise rules before they can seek approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), including a benefit-cost analysis.

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The aviation community has debated what constitutes access restrictions. Restrictions under Part 161 are very broadly defined and include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Limits on single event or cumulative noise exposure Direct or indirect limits on numbers of operations Limits on hours of operations Use charges directly or indirectly controlling airport noise

While Part 150 studies require public participation, the level of participation increases significantly under a Part 161 study.

A Part 161 study does not include other airport actions under a Part 150 study. Under a 161, Stage 2 restrictions include a cost/benefit analysis, extensive public notice and documentation and, unlike the Part 150, the FAA does not approve the conclusions of a study but instead approves the process itself. A threshold requirement under the Part 161 regulations is there must be a positive benefitcost analysis. This means that the benefits of the proposed action must outweigh its costs. Stage 3 restrictions require a reasonable expectation that benefits will exceed costs, and the FAA must approve the restriction based on the six aforementioned criteria. Part161inPractice Part 161 studies have been rare with only Naples, Florida, and a few airports in California conducting studies (Burbank, Los Angeles International, Van Nuys, San Francisco, San Jose and Pease). While Part 150 studies require public participation, the level of participation increases significantly under a Part 161 study. At least 180 days prior to the effective date of a Part 161, airports must publish notices in local newspapers and post notices that are accessible to users and the public. Written notice must be sent to the FAA, based and itinerant aircraft operators, potential, new entrants to the airport, any land use control jurisdictions in the vicinity, fixed-based operators and other tenants, and community and business organizations that have an interest or are affected by the airport. A comment period of at least 45-days must be provided. A Part 161 analysis must describe the proposed restriction and alternative restrictions and non-restrictions that were considered and the cost/benefit analysis of the proposed restriction and alternatives. The airport must demonstrate that any remedies are less cost-effective than the proposed restrictions.

A Part 161 analysis must describe the proposed restriction and alternative restrictions and nonrestrictions that were considered and the cost/benefit analysis of the proposed restriction and alternatives. The airport must demonstrate that any remedies are less costeffective than the proposed restrictions.

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The Part 161 must use the Part 150 land use criteria and identify an airport noise study area, which includes the noise contours that are also used in the Part 150. The Part 161 study must also integrate any pre-existing Part 150 studies. The FAA must then approve any Stage 3 restriction, provided that it meets the six aforementioned criteria, and the FAA must also find that adequate opportunity for public comment was included. Naples,LessonsLearned Naples, Florida was the first airport to conduct a Part 161 study. After conducting a Part 150 study in 1987, the City and County of Naples, FL., adopted a 60 dB DNL, and the FAA approved a Stage 1 night restriction in 1997. The FAA approved a Stage 1 24-hour restriction in 1999, but due to high peak-season DNL and single event noise levels, subsequent Part 150 plans were unsuccessful in eliminating the concerns of the community.46 In 1999, Naples assessed three alternatives under a Part 161 study: a full night curfew, a Stage 2 curfew and a 24-hour, Stage 2 ban, which was identified as the most sensitive issues and most cost-effective solution. At the time, Stage 2 operations caused 35 percent of the complaints, and a stage 2 ban was forecasted to cut the population residing in the 60 DNL by 90 percent. Stage 2 operations were five times more likely than Stage 3 to cause three or more people to complain about an operation. Sound insulation or land acquisition options were more costly.47 The same day the airport moved forward on the Stage 2 ban, the FAA initiated a Part 16 enforcement action alleging the ban violated FAA grant assurances. In its complaint the FAA listed three essential arguments:48 1. The ban was preemptive; no one had successfully sued the Authority over noise issues. 2. The ban was unreasonable because no incompatible land use problem existed; there were no sensitive uses within 65 dB DNL. 3. The ban does not reflect balanced approach between federal and local issues. As a result, the FAA suspended the airports eligibility for grants. Naples appealed to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in 2003, and the court ruled in its 202

The FAA suspended the airports eligibility for grants. Naples appealed to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in 2003 and the court ruled in its favor in 2005. Since then, the airport has successfully defended the ban in state and federal court.

favor in 2005. Since then, the airport has successfully defended the ban in state and federal court.49
The lessons learned regarding Part 161 studies include the fact that ANCA and Part 161 are largely legislative or regulatory processes, not a safe harbor from grant assurances.

The lessons learned regarding Part 161 studies include the fact that ANCA and Part 161 are largely legislative or regulatory processes, not a safe harbor from grant assurances. Further, the Naples study created precedent by establishing the 65 dB DNL as a standard, unless local conditions justify a lower standard that has been thoroughly implemented by a local government and that the airport has faced identifiable liability charges. The Naples 161 also means that airports must demonstrate that they have exhausted non-restrictive approaches that prior Part 150 studies are not sufficient demonstration and that airports must follow a balanced approach to noise abatement.50

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AirportConstructionManagement
At most airports in the U.S, construction is a fact of life. Projects are developed as part of annual capital improvement projects and carried out virtually every year at major airports and frequently at smaller airports. While general contractors and subcontractors, managed by an airport engineering firm, do most of the construction, airport operators benefit from having a general knowledge of those areas of airport construction that affects the operation of the airport. Typical construction work items include: land acquisition; site preparation; construction, alteration, and repair of runways, taxiways, aprons, and airport access roads; construction and installation of airport lighting systems, utilities, navigational aids, and aviation related weather reporting equipment; safety equipment required for certification of an airport facility; security equipment required of the sponsor by the Secretary of Transportation or the Secretary of Homeland Security by rule or regulation; snow removal equipment and buildings; terminal development; and equipment to measure runway surface friction; hangar construction, parking garages or lots, art objects or decorative landscaping. FAR Part 157, Notice of Construction, Alteration, Activation and Deactivation of Airports addresses the requirements of construction on and around airports. Part 157 requires airport owners and operators to notify the FAA 30 days in advance of any construction, alteration, deactivation or changes in use of any airport through the FAA Standard Form SF-7460-1, Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration, or the FAA Standard Form SF-7480-1, Notice of Landing Area Proposal. PreconstructionMeetings FAA Advisory Circular 150/5300-9A, Predesign, Prebid and Preconstruction Conferences for Airport Grant Projects provides guidance on the construction management phase. After the selection of an engineering consultant, the first phase of the construction project is the Predesign Conference. At the Predesign Conference the airport sponsor and project manager bring together parties affected by proposed airport construction to discuss items such as project scope, grant and construction scheduling, design and design report requirements, certification requirements, 204

While general contractors and subcontractors, managed by an airport engineering firm do most of the construction, airport operators benefit from having a general knowledge of those areas of airport construction that affects the operation of the airport.

After the selection of an engineering consultant, the first phase of the construction project is the Predesign Conference. At the Predesign Conference the airport sponsor and project manager brings together parties affected by proposed airport construction, to discuss items such as project scope

airport operational safety, routing of aircraft and equipment, navigation aid shutdowns, environmental considerations, and civil rights requirements. Airport tenants may also be involved in this conference if their facilities or facilities used by them will be directly affected. The predesign conference should be held as soon as preliminary design work has been completed and prior to the preparation of the final plans and specifications. The next step is the Prebid Conference to further discuss the project and to clarify and explain construction methods, procedures, minority business enterprise and other civil rights, labor requirements, and safety measures. The Prebid should be held at least 10 days before the contractor bid opening date. The third step is the Preconstruction Conference to discuss operational safety during construction, shutdowns of FAA navaids, construction acceptance, quality control, security, safety and environmental factors. In order to gain a better understanding of potential problems and identify solutions, the meeting should be attended by all parties affected by the construction. ManagementduringConstruction During construction, the airports engineering firm usually oversees the management of the contractors and the construction work. Certain events may occur that require the contractor to perform other work related to the project. These events are often handled with change orders. A change order is a written order (including email) by the sponsor (airport operator) that is within the right of the sponsor to make a change in the design, drawings, or specifications within the general scope of the contract. Wage rates remain unchanged for the handling of a change order; however, any change that exceeds an increase or decrease of 25 percent of the estimated cost of the contract is a major item, as defined in the contract specifications, and must be accomplished by supplemental agreement. A supplemental agreement covers work that is not within the general scope of the existing contract and which the contractor is not obligated to perform under the terms of the contract, or is work that exceeds the 25 percent of the cost of the contract. A supplemental agreement is a separate contract and requires execution by both parties with the same formality as any other contract. A new wage rate decision may be required for each supplemental agreement, unless it involves work under a project for which a wage determination decision was issued and such decision has not expired at the time of award of the supplemental agreement. 205

The third step is the Preconstruction Conference to discuss operational safety during construction, shutdowns of FAA navaids, construction acceptance, quality control, security, safety and environmental factors.

A change order is a written order (including email) by the sponsor (airport operator) that is within the right of the sponsor to make a change in the design, drawings, or specifications within the general scope of the contract.

A supplemental agreement is a separate contract and requires execution by both parties with the same formality as any other contract.

Extension of contract time as a result of the supplemental agreement must be justified and so specified as a part of the supplemental agreement. The FAA does not normally sign off on change orders; however, a list of change orders should be sent to the FAA project manager and discussed whenever a grant amendment is required or eligibility of the work is in question. OperationalSafetyDuringConstruction Prior to construction, the airport operator must have a construction safety plan in order to ensure safe operational practices during flight operations and for the duration of the project. Airport operators can look for guidance in AC 150/53702C, Operational Safety on Airports During Construction. Hazardous practices and marginal conditions created by construction activities can decrease or jeopardize operational safety on airports. To minimize disruptions and avoid safety issues, the airport operator has the overall responsibility to plan, schedule and coordinate construction activities. The airport operator must take several steps to ensure the safety of a construction project, including: 1. The development or approval of a safety plan; 2. Requiring contractors to submit plans showing how they intend to comply with the safety requirements; 3. Meeting with all entities involved in the project including airport operations and maintenance personnel that may be overseeing the actual safety during construction, contractors and tenants (if applicable); 4. Ensuring accurate contact information for all entities, particularly afterhours points of contact for contractors; 5. Hold weekly or, if necessary, daily meetings to coordinate construction activities; 6. Notify users, particularly ARFF personnel of construction activities that may affect response routes; issue Notices to Airmen as appropriate; 7. Ensure construction personnel know of any changes in procedures, such flight or vehicle ground operation, bad weather, or low visibility, that may affect their work; 8. Ensure that contractors are trained in the safety plan, which may include airfield driver training, security processes interaction with air traffic control, airport signs, marking and lighting, vehicle operation and communication; 206

To minimize disruptions and avoid safety issues, the airport operator has the overall responsibility to plan, schedule and coordinate construction activities.

9. Conduct frequent inspections to ensure contractor compliance with established rules and regulations and the safety plan. Contractors and tenants performing construction also have safety responsibilities, which include providing the airport with plans for how they intend to comply with the safety plan, providing a safety officer and point of contact, and restricting the movement of construction vehicles through flagging, barricades, temporary fencing and escorts. The safety plan should focus on procedures for protecting runway and taxiway safety areas including object free areas and obstacle free zones and threshold siting criteria. This protection should extend to navaids and emergency notification procedures. General safety provisions are contained in AC 150/5370-10, Standards for Specifying Construction of Airports, paragraphs 40-05, Maintenance of Traffic; 70-08, Barricades, Warning Signs, and Hazard Markings; and 80-04, Limitation of Operations. At any time during construction, aircraft operations, weather, security, or local airport rules may dictate more stringent safety measures. The airport operator should ensure that both general and specific safety requirements are coordinated with airport tenants and ATCT personnel. The airport operator should also include these parties in the coordination of all bid documents, construction plans, and specifications for on-airport construction projects.
Particular focus should be given to airport security requirements such as access control and credentialing (for airports under Part 1542) and vehicle movement and operation.

Contractors and tenants performing construction also have safety responsibilities which include providing the airport with plans for how they intend to comply with the safety plan.

Particular focus should be given to airport security requirements such as access control and credentialing (for airports under Part 1542) and vehicle movement and operation. A comprehensive vehicle plan should include marking construction vehicles, ensuring the training of vehicle operators, escort requirements, marking and procedures for access routes and haul roads, radio communications and procedures for violating elements of the safety plan, including traffic infractions. Other issues regarding construction on airfields: 1. No construction can be performed within 200 feet of the runway centerline unless the runway is closed or restricted to aircraft operations that require less than a 200-foot safety area. Excavations must be prominently marked and, when appropriate, lighted. Open trenches or excavations are not

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permitted within 200 feet of the runway centerline or within the Runway Safety Area, unless appropriately covered. 2. Ensure displaced thresholds and hazards including closed portions of a taxiway or runway, are appropriately marked, lighted and a NOTAM is issued. 3. Construction material stockpiling should be carefully monitored to ensure stockpiles are not within any object-free areas or obstacle-free zones and that materials are secured so as not to be affected by wind. FAA A/C 150-5370/2e offers a list of hazards to watch for during construction on airfields. Aviation safety is the primary consideration during construction on airports. Many hazardous practices can be mitigated with effective communication and the development and enforcement of a safety plan. PostConstruction After construction, the Airport Layout Plan must be updated, as it is a requirement for issuance of grants for future airport development, and all certificated airports must have an up-to-date sign plan, approved by the FAA. After construction, the airport should submit a new sign for approval by the FAA. The final as constructed (sometimes referred to as the as-built) plans are the revised original plans that depict all construction work as finally constructed. Revisions to the original plans are those made necessary by any design and field changes as a result of change orders, supplemental agreements, and other major changes made by the engineer or sponsor. One copy of the as constructed plans must be submitted to the FAA at project closeout. The FAA Airport Data Record (5010 Form) should also be updated after the project has closed out.

One copy of the as constructed plans must be submitted to the FAA at project closeout. The FAA Airport Data Record (5010 Form) should also be updated after the project has closed out.

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References

1 Fritsch, B. (2009). Airport System Planning Practices. ACRP Synthesis 14. Retrieved October 11, 2009, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/acrp/acrp_syn_014.pdf, p1. 2FAA. (2007). Advisory Circular 150/5070-6B Change 1. p1 3 Ibid p. 5 4 Ibid p. 5 5 Ibid p. 6 6 Ibid p. 7 7 Ibid p. 10 8 Ibidp. 10 9 Ibid p. 10 10 Ibid p. 18 11 Ibid p. 18 12 Ibid p. 18 13 Ibid p. 23 14 Ibid p. 23 15 Ibid p. 24 16 Ibid p. 24 17 Ibid p. 24 18 Ibid p. 35 19 Ibid p. 37 20 Ibid p. 37 21 Ibid p. 39 22 Ibid p. 49 23 Ibid p. 49 24 Ibid p. 86 25Horonjeff, R.. &, McKelvey, F. X. (1994). Planning and Design of Airports (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. 26 Oldham, J. (2007). Environmental Management. In L. E. Gesell and R. R. Sobotta (Eds.). The Administration of Public Airports (pp. 275-322). Chandler, AZ: Coast Aire Publications. 27 Graham, A. (2008). Managing Airports (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. 28 Wells, A. T., & Young, S. B. (2004). Airport Planning and Management (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (p. 407) 29 Oldham, J. (2007). Environmental Management. In L. E. Gesell and R. R. Sobotta (Eds.). The Administration of Public Airports. Chandler, AZ: Coast Aire Publications.(pp. 275-322) 30 Graham, A. (2008). Managing Airports (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. 31 Oldham, J. (2007). Environmental Management. In L. E. Gesell and R. R. Sobotta (Eds.). The Administration of Public Airports. Chandler, AZ: Coast Aire Publications.(pp. 275-322) 32 September 1). AIP Sponsor Guide. From http://www.faa.gov/airports/central/aip/sponsor_guide/media/1300.pdf (CERCLA)

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33 United States Federal Government. Federal Aviation Administration. Central Region Airports Division. (2009, September 1). AIP Sponsor Guide. From http://www.faa.gov/airports/central/aip/sponsor_guide/media/1300.pdf (The ESA Processes) 34 Oldham, J. (2007). Environmental Management. In L. E. Gesell and R. R. Sobotta (Eds.). The Administration of Public Airports (pp. 275-322). Chandler, AZ: Coast Aire Publications. 35 United States Government Accounting Office. (2008). Aviation and the Environment: Initial Voluntary Airport Low Emissions Program Projects Reduce Emissions, and FAA Plans to Assess the Program's Overall Performance as Participation Increases. From http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-37 36 Bruntland, G. (Ed.). (1987). Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 37 Airport Council International. (n.d.). Airport Sustainability: A Holistic Approach to Effective Airport Management. Retrieved from http://aci-na.org/static/entransit/Sustainability%20and%20LEED.pdf 38 Kidwall, H. (2006). Indianapolis Airport Terminal Leads the Way. Retrieved from http://www.airporttechnology.com/features/feature554/ 39 Computer Modeling of Noise Exposure. Retrieved on December 21, 2009 from http://airportnoiselaw.org/inm.html

40 Ibid 41 Gesell, L., Sobotta, R. (2007). The Administration of Public Airports, Fifth Edition. Coast Aire Publications, Chandler, AZ. p. 328 42 Ibid p335 43 Jackson, K., Edwards, L. (2009). Federal Aviation Regulations Explained: Airport Edition. Jeppesen. Englewood, CO. Part 150 p3. 44 The Ohio State University Part 150 website. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from http://osuairportpart150.com/faq.html 45 Ibid p. 14-15 46U.C. Davis Symposium on Aviation Noise and Air Quality Revolution in Aviation Pre-Symposium Tutorial Regulatory Environmental Policies 401 Noise March 1, 2009. Presented by Ted Baldwin. Retrieved on December 22, 2009 at http://airquality.ucdavis.edu/pages/events/2009/revolution/Baldwin401.pdf 47Ibid 48Ibid 49Ibid 50Ibid

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