School of the Built Environment

Positioning by Intersection and Resection

1. Introduction Traditional methods of finding the position of unknown points using a theodolite are known as line-of-sight methods. They involve sighting targets using the telescope (hence the name of the method) and measuring angles. At some time in the surveying process at least one linear measurement must be made; however, as long as the lines of sight make up triangles and all angles are measured, then only one distance need be measured. This is the basis of triangulation, a technique used to provide control surveys for national map-making. Modern instruments such as the Total Station can measure long distances with ease, regardless of the intervening terrain, and triangulation has largely been superseded as a control survey technique. With the advent of modern computer techniques for the treatment of errors, triangulation can be combined with distance measurement (every angle and every distance measured) to provide a high degree of precision in control surveying. This is sometimes referred to as triangulateration. For small-scale work, however, where only a few points need to be positioned, the methods of intersection (the basis of triangulation) and resection (the basis of traditional ship navigation) are still useful, especially when combined with EDM distance measurement for setting out construction works. Both of these methods involve the measurement of angles within triangles; however, they differ as follows: Intersection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite at control stations and taking angle readings by sighting to the unknown point(s). Resection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite at the unknown point and taking angle readings by sighting to control stations.

2. Intersection A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown point visible from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-visible, but it makes it easier if they are. Clearly, the co-ordinates of the control stations will be known (otherwise they would not be control stations!) so that the distance between them can be calculated. The position is illustrated in the following diagram:

B b A a

p unknown point P

Figure 1. Sightings and angles measured for intersection. The theodolite is set up at each of the stations (control points) A and B in turn. At station A, the telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle a. Similarly, at B the angle b between line BA and line BP. Note that the theodolite is not set up at the unknown point P. For this reason, intersection is used for the positioning of points over which it is difficult or impossible to set up the theodolite, for example, surveying points high up on buildings, perhaps for later use as reference objects, measurement of the deflection of large structures (e.g. dams, bridges) setting out of curves.

Because we know the co-ordinates of stations A and B, and because we know that the sum of the internal angles in the triangle must equal 180, we can calculate the following: Length of line AB Bearing of line AB = = (E2 + N2) tan-1 (E / N)

Angle p

180 - a b

Further calculation allows us to find the length and bearing of each of the lines AP and BP: Sine Rule: and bearing AP bearing BP = = bearing AB + a bearing BA b AB sin p = AP sin b = BP sin a

Note that angle b is anticlockwise from BA to BP, hence the negative sign in the above equation. Once we have the bearing and length of lines AP and BP then the co-ordinates of P can be calculated from each line. These two sets of co-ordinates should correspond within the expected degree of accuracy. 2.1. Example

Stations A and B have the following co-ordinates, and angles are measured from the line AB to the unknown point P as follows: A B mE 3931.82 2959.39 AB to AP BA to BP mN 7491.98 7487.09 44 52 36 (clockwise) 284 26 38 (clockwise)

Angles:

The first task is to draw a diagram, as follows:

P p

44 52 36 A B 284 26 38 Figure 2: Intersection example Now, the length and whole circle bearing of line AB must be found: Eastings and northings differences between A and B are EAB = NAB = 2959.39 - 3931.82 7487.09 - 7491.98 = = -972.43 m -4.89 m

hence, the length of line AB is AB = 972.432 + 4.892 = 972.44 m

And its bearing is WCBAB = tan-1 (-972.43 / -4.89) + 180 = 269 42 43

Note that 180 must be added, as the line AB is in the third quadrant (i.e. between 180 and 270).

Next, calculate the whole circle bearings of lines AP and BP: WCBBP = = WCBAP = = 269 42 43 + 284 26 38 - 180 374 09 21 i.e. 14 09 21 269 42 43 + 44 52 36 314 35 19

Internal angles for the triangle ABP are: b p = = 360 - 284 26 38 180 - 75 33 22 - 44 52 36 = = 75 33 22 59 34 02

Using the sine rule, lengths AP and BP are calculated: BP sin a i.e. BP = = = AB sin p AB sin a sin p 972.44 x sin(44 52 36) sin(59 34 02) = 795.78 m

similarly, AP = = AB sin b sin p 972.44 x sin(75 33 22) sin(59 34 02) = 1092.18 m

and from the WCB and length of each line, the co-ordinate differences between the control points and the unknown point can be calculated: line AP BP WCB 314 35 19 14 09 21 length 1092.18 795.78 E -777.81 194.62 N 766.72 771.62

Hence, the co-ordinates of the unknown point, P, can be calculated from both point A and point B: from A: E 3931.82 -777.81 3154.01 E 2959.39 194.62 3154.1 N 7491.98 766.72 8258.90 N 7487.09 771.62 8258.71

and from B:

Calculating co-ordinates from both of the control stations allows a check to be made on the correctness of the calculations. It does not, however, give any indication of the accuracy of the original angle readings. To improve the accuracy of the position fixing, three or more control points should be used, forming at least two independent triangles, and any errors in the final calculated co-ordinates dealt with appropriately. 2.2. Standard formulae

The above method derives the co-ordinates of the unknown point from first principles. Standard formulae can also be employed to save time, though great care must be taken in adhering to sign conventions and conventions for labeling angles and stations. Lettering: Angles: EP = Triangle ABP must be lettered clockwise. Internal angles must be used. EA cot b + EB cot a - NA + NB cot a + cot b NA cot b + NB cot a + EA - EB cot a + cot b

NP

3. Resection In this method, the theodolite is set up over the unknown point and angle readings taken to at least three control points. Because the theodolite is only set up once, it is considered to give a less secure fix from the point of view of checks and accuracy. However, it is an ideal method for the positioning of an instrument station close to a particular piece of setting out work where it is difficult or impossible to set up a permanent control point. Suitable reference objects (e.g. spires,

beacons, aerials etc.) are chosen around the site for their good visibility and their positions reliably established by triangulation or intersection. A temporary point is marked by a peg or other marker in a convenient position for setting out, the theodolite set up over it and angle readings taken on three of the reference objects. Many Total Station instruments have software incorporated, which will perform the calculations automatically. Setting out then continues using angles and distances calculated from co-ordinates. Note that, although a direct calculation of the position of the theodolite is gained in this way, it is good practice always to set the instrument up over a mark so that its position can be checked frequently and re-established if, for instance, the instrument is taken off the tribrach or tripod for security reasons or to avoid a rain shower. The three control stations will form a triangle, and there are therefore two possible relationships between the unknown instrument station and the control triangle; either the instrument is inside it or outside, as shown in the diagram below: A 1 C 1 P A P C 2 2 B B

Figure 3: Arrangement of control triangle and instrument station for positioning by resection. To derive the necessary relationships, we look at the line PC, which is common to the two triangles ACP and BCP. Note that only angles and are measured with the theodolite. Angle can be calculated from the WCBs of lines AC and BC (i.e. from the co-ordinates of the control stations) and angles 1 and 2 must be calculated. From the sine rule, AC sin hence, = CP sin 1 = and AC sin 1 sin CB sin = = CP sin 2 1

CP

CB sin 2 sin

also,

+ + 1 + 2 +

360

Equation 2 can be re-arranged to give an expression for 1 and substituted into equation 1, allowing 2 to be obtained. Co-ordinates of P can now be found in the same way as for intersection. Note again that, although there are three lines from which these co-ordinates can be obtained, agreement between them is only a check on the accuracy of the arithmetic, not on the accuracy of the measurement of angles. To improve the accuracy of the fix, a further reference object must be sighted and two combinations of three used to obtain independent calculations. 3.1. The Tienstra formulae Although co-ordinates can be calculated from first principles, as above, it is more usual to use standard formulae, the most common of which are attributed to Tienstra. Considerable care must be taken in assigning labels to the stations and signs to the angles, as follows: A a c b C P P A a c C b The control triangle ABC must be lettered clockwise. All angles must be measured clockwise. B B

Figure 4: Station labels and angles for the Tienstra formulae. The angles are lettered as follows: Angles measured at P: = clockwise angle between PB and PC = = clockwise angle between PC and PA clockwise angle between PA and PB

Angles calculated in the control triangle: a = clockwise angle between AB and AC b c = = clockwise angle between BC and BA clockwise angle between CA and CB

Notice the equivalence between the lettering of the two sets of angles. First, calculate the following: K1 K2 K3 = = = 1/(cot a - cot ) 1/(cot b - cot ) 1/(cot c - cot )

Note that (cot ) = 1/(tan ) and not (tan-1 ). Now, the co-ordinates of the instrument station, P, can be calculated as: EP NP = = K1 EA + K2 EB + K3 EC K1 + K2 + K3 K1 NA + K2 NB + K3 NC K1 + K2 + K3

3.2. Example Control stations have the following co-ordinates: W F K mE 2876.24 3810.80 2959.39 mN 8754.11 7997.09 7487.09

The theodolite is set up as station T, which is situated within the triangle WFK, the target at F is sighted and the horizontal circle set to zero. Angle readings are taken to the other control stations as follows: stn K 82 28 14 stn W 219 01 09

A simple sketch is first required to establish the sign of the angles and the station lettering convention. W Angle KTW = 219 01 09 - 82 28 14 = 136 32 55 Angle WTF T = 140 58 41 F K = 360 - 82 28 14 - 136 32 55

Figure 5: Example of resection calculations using the Tienstra formulae. It can be seen that the triangle WKF is lettered clockwise. We must now calculate the angles within this control triangle by first calculating the whole-circle bearing of each of the lines from the co-ordinates of the control stations: WCB = Hence, Line WF FK KW E 934.56 -851.41 -83.15 N -756.86 -510.16 1267.02 WCB 129 00 09 239 04 13 356 14 43 tan-1 (E / N)

And the angles within the control triangle are: Angle KWF Angle WFK Angle FKW = = = 356 14 43 - 129 00 09 - 180 = 47 14 34 69 55 56 62 49 30 180 00 00

129 00 09 - 239 04 13 + 180 = 239 04 13 - 356 14 43 + 180 = Check

These figures can now be entered into the Tienstra formulae, using the following convention: Station W is re-labeled A Station F is re-labeled B Station K is re-labeled C So the angles are labeled a b c Hence, K1 K2 K3 = = = 1/(cot (47 14 34) - cot (82 28 14)) 1/(cot (69 55 56) - cot (136 32 55)) 1/(cot (62 49 30) - cot (140 58 41)) = = = 1.2619110 0.7037878 0.5723085 = = = 47 14 34 69 55 56 62 49 30 = = = 82 28 14 136 32 55 140 58 41

and inserting these into the Tienstra formulae, we obtain ET NT = = 3154.16 mE 8258.53 mN

These calculations can be done rapidly on site using a computer spreadsheet or programmable calculator if the software is not available in the Total Station.