1. Geo-economy object, essence, goals/ objectives and methods.

. Geo-economy studies the states strategies and international production rates that assure its economic development. Geo-economy appeared in the late 20th century as a result of worlds political changes. Geo-economy appeared due to the following factors: Globalization and regionalization; Economic integration; Labour division; Scientific revolution; Collapse of Soviet union. Geo-economy answers 2 questions: - What is the economic power ? (-> is about natural and human resources) - Where is concentrated this economic power ? (-> for each country the appreciation is different) Object: worldwide economic changes as a result of the increase of the economic dependence among countries, products internationalization and integration of financial markets. Basically, geo-economy is based on political economy and political geography. Political economy studies production as a whole and Political geography space role in economic development. Objectives: - Each states aim is to control the most important natural resources, maritime transportation and the main political and geographic positions, both water and land; - To elaborate strategies for national economic development; To create a competition among countries, referring to transportation corridors, commodity market and the main water and land positions; To apply specific economic strategies which will maintain economic security in case of competitions; - To combat economic crimes, such as: money laundering, non-payment of states taxes and other negative actions which diminish national security and states authority among international organizations; - To manage correctly the crises and geo-economic conflicts. Methods: geo-statistical the analysis of national and international statistics referring to worldwide economic development, natural and human resources reserves of different geo-economic space; systemic analysis of geo-economic space based on processing statistics by applying different calculation methods; historical research method re-establishing of economic, geo-economic, demographic, historic and political phenomena and comparison with current situation; balance the analysis of rates between production of goods and services, existence of energy resources and its consumption (energy balance), economic and demographic leaders, among different countries, regions and big geoeconomic spaces; Mathematical statistics analyzing economic, social and environmental phenomena. 2. Geo-economic notions. Geo-economy science which studies the states strategies and international production rates that assure its economic development; Geo-economic strategy the art of achievement of economic goals in worlds market, preventing potential conflicts by implementing geo-economic technologies; Geo-economic technologies a system of methods and techniques which create geo-economic situations in order to achieve strategic objectives; Geo-economic border conventional border that delimit spheres of influence of international economic organizations. Geo-economic boundaries may be different as political ones. Closed economy an economic space that avoids the entrance of foreign capital, goods and services; Open economy economic space aim of which is economic integration with large aspects of foreign capital, goods and services entrance; Economys liberalization transition from closed economy to the open one; Transition economy economy of post-socialist states where occurs the transition of production means from public to private property; Free economic zone an area with a favorable economic and geographic position, aim of which is to attract foreign capital, technologies and efficient utilization of human resources. Its main function is productive one; Technopolis free zone near big cities with a favorable economic and geographic position, perfect communication systems, favorable climatic conditions where occurs the match of science, capital, technology and traditional production (first San Francisco); International labour division states specialization in production and trade on the international market of some goods and services; Globalization the process of economical, political and cultural integration as a result of growing dependence among states; Transnational corporation company that extended its economic and financial activity outside its native country;

Cross-border corporation economic collaboration aim of which is to remove border barriers, to permit free circulation of individuals and elaboration of unique economic system; Transportation corridor way of transcontinental communication which creates the possibility of free transit; Techno-scientific parks specific space of industrial states which focus on production of goods based on technologies, intended for export exclusively (first park Korea); Geo-finance currency with an intense international circulation and that limits national ones. Nowadays there are 2 financial systems: based on USD and EURO; Free trade absence of conventional barriers in international trade; Protectionism states politics aim of which is to defend national economy from external competition; Geo-economic war causing economic damages through the use of geo-technologies after a previously planned strategy, avoiding military methods; AMERO common money for Latin countries (2015); Industrial park an area zoned and planned for the purpose of industrial development. 3. Geo-economical conceptions. Edward Luttwark he introduced the notion of geo-economics, calling 20th century geo-political and 21st geoeconomical one. According to his conception, society will build an economic system; F. List states that states development depends on both, goods trade and production processes improvement; D. Galbrit analyzing economic development of Western Europe, he realized that the most important factor of development is assuring a high standard of living; P. Drucker the main role in states development belongs to qualified labour force; L. Tirrou states that 20th century was for national economies, but 21st for global ones; M. Goldman the main factor of current economys development is technology; F. Fucuiama at the same time, all economies get through 3 revolutions: informational, technological and biotechnological; J. Attali modern world is divided into 3 geo-economical poles: North America, European Union and Asia Pacific region. 4. New geo-economical elements. Pct 5 + MERCOSUR (Latin America 4 countries: Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Venezuela) o Big integration center in south; o Collaboration among national industries. The Southern Common Market promotes: The free transit of production goods, services and factors between the member states, the elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions on the transit of goods; Fixing of a common external tariff (TEC) and adopting of a common trade policy with regard to nonmember states or groups of states;
The commitment by the member states to make the necessary adjustments to their laws in pertinent areas to

allow for the strengthening of the integration process. Mercosur initially targeted free-trade zones, then customs unification and, finally, a common market. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a cartel of twelve countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. + Venezuela. 13 countries, Muslims; Defense of members interests; Oil price matching; Avoiding fluctuations that appear in petroleum activities; Assuring profits and price stability; Members security; Control upon energetic market. Efficient and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations 5. Geo-economic configuration of the world economy. Geo-economical poles. Basically, the world economy is formed of 3 geo-economical centers: European, North American and Asian. North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA is an agreement signed by the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Canada; AMERO common currency (in 2015 ?);

 USA - First economic power of the world; idem, after the collapse of Soviet Union, USA becomes first military and politic power. During 20th century USA suffered from a big crisis The Great Depression (1929-1933); Has a favorable geographic location; in report with Europe, USA is an isolated territory (that is why basically USA wasnt so affected by those 2 World Wars); Problem: a big part of Canadas territory is covered by desert, but still, the standard of living is very high; Mexico demographical power (USA ~ 260 mln citizens, Canada ~ 30 mln and Mexico ~ 80 mln). European Union The main organization: European Council and European Union. European Council was founded in 1949 and has the following main goals: Defense of human rights and democracy; Settle ethnic conflicts; Environmental protection. European Unions aim is to create a unique economical and political force in Europe. Consists of 27 countries, with 500 mln of habitants; Demographical power goes down; Conflicts with Russia referring to territory; Religious principles - discrimination (firstly catholic, then others) + Turkey; EURO common currency; Horizontal integration problems a certain level of economic development. Asia Pacific region (1967, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand) Positive forecast of economic development; of the world population; Aim: to create economic power, a large Asian market; 2012 - 2015 AECU common currency. 6. Geo-economic strategy. Geo-economic strategy the art of achievement of economic goals in worlds market, preventing potential conflicts by implementing geo-economic technologies. Nowadays geo-economical strategy consists of: - Globalization; - Economic integration (collaboration); - Democratization of all activity areas of a state; - Economys liberalization; - Active participation in international labour division; - Privatization process for socialist countries One of the main geo-economical strategy is based on commercial trade among countries, representing the relation liberalism protectionism. Liberalism states for development of international trade without states limitations. But pure free trade doesnt exists, it is represented by zones of free trade, customs unions, common markets, economic unions, ports, trade unions, free economic zones. Protectionism states politics aim of which is to defend national economy from external competition. 7. New conception of the World Order. The apperance of the new conception of the World Order was caused by several inconvenience of the Old one (which consisted of 2 big powers: USA and Soviet Union). Super power: - Big surface; - Big reserves of naturale resources; - Economic and social potential; - Control over big land surfaces; - Control over oceans, seas; - Cosmos/ space recovery; - Demographic power; - Military power; - Nuclear weapon. The new conception of the World Order appears in 90. At this stage, as a big power might be: China, India, Iran, Belorusia, South Korea. In this way appeared the multipolar world, because of the need of controlling the world through several super powers and not only by 2. 8. Criteria of geo-econimcal structure of the world. Defining geo-economical structure of the world, we have several conceptions: a) Brodel conception the whole world structure consists of center, periphery and semi-periphery => geocentrical.

- Center: 25 countries (12%) with big potenial >> 46% GDP - Semiperiphery: 70-80 countries medium level of development: Ex-socialist countries (Poland, Romania..); New industrial countries (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong-Kong, Singapore); Second new industrial countries (Philipines, Indonesia, Malaysia); Third new industrial countries (Brazil, India, Mexico). - Periphery: 100 countries (50% - Africa undeveloped + 40 countries from Asia). b) Branch structure Economy: 1) Industry: - Energetical; - Metalurgy; - Machine construction; - Chemical; - High light industry; - Food industry (extraction and processing). 2) Agriculture: - Plants (basis for undeveloped countries); - Animals (the main in developed countries). 3) Transportation: - Water; - Land (railway, car, pipe, energy, informational); - Air. c) Space structure

Economic zone Economy Economic zone Ec. Districts (region)

Ec. Center (1-2 branches, Falesti for example) Ec. Knot (Chisinau >> 2+ branches)
Territorial complex of production

Economic zone

(are developed many branches)

d) By sphere: Primary: extraction; - Agriculture. Secondary processing industry; Third: - Services; - Transportation. Quaternary production of technology (nano-technology). e) Functional structure: - Peace; - Military. f) World economy: Urban (industry and services); Rural (agriculture, forestation). 9. Geo-economical units. Areal space where happen different processes, including economical ones; Zone space where happen different processes, but in report with areal which shows only the presence of phenomenon, the zone denotes its intensity; Provence peripherical space, in report with geo-economical centers (has a strong geo-economical structure and economic specialization);

Region space which will intesnively develop in future (Altai region); Euroregion cross-border collaboration zone among european countries in different areas: economy, culture, education, environment; Enclav a territory or a part of a state isolated by another state. In report with its origins, it is called exclav. 10. Types of labour division. Geo-economical modifications of labour division. International labour division requirements. Labour division refers to the specialization of a state in production of several goods and services and its trading. Types of LD: 1) Natural LD the process of human activity division by age and gender (metalurgy industry, textile industry); 2) Technical LD based on technology which are used in production of a good or service (e.g.: in machine construction there are several stages: production of the elements, welding, installation etc.); 3) Social LD natural and technical LD in report with economic factors, by which production of different activities is realized (extraction and processing industries). Social LD includes LD by branches and by territory. Social LD by branches is determined by conditions of production: raw materials, technology, technique and production (chemical industry, metalurgy, machine construction etc.); Territorial social LD caused by irregular localization of humans activities. This LD depends on natural conditions and economic factors. Geo-economical modifications of LD: International corporation LD dominates all economic activities; Pliant LD is flexible, depends on market demand, diversity of the goods; Specialization of intermediate goods. Requirements: - Presence of resources (climate, soil etc.); - Market demand of this resources; - Minimal expenditures for production of goods and services on the global market; - High level of quality of the goods. 11. Stages of international LD. Geographical labour division, its essence. Stages: 1) Appeared in families; 2) International colonization (colonies and developed countries); 3) 20th century traditional LD industrial processing (based on own resources and those imported from colonies); 4) 1960 development of LD in all branches (energetic, pollution, industrial..) and the use of huge amount of external resources; 5) Final decade of 20th century concentration on new regions with natural resources (Russia, kazahstan..). Geographical LD (space division): - Specialization of each state; - Depends on climate, soil, natural resources..; - Specialization of agriculture according to soils features: in North sugar, Center and South grapes and wine..; - High level of geographical LD agriculture belt 90-95% of cultures from national level are concentrated here. 12. Stages of economic integration (Bela Belasa). Analyzing EU, Bela Belasa identified the following stages of economic integration: 1) Creation of custom unions (if a country wants to integrate => it must to eliminate custom barriers; 2) Creation of common market; 3) Implementation of common currency for all regions, realizing the principle of globalization and regionalization 13. Types of geo-economic integration. (a) Vertical integration - occurs when one organization takes over another at an earlier or later stage of production or work. For example, if HMRC bought up some of the businesses that supply it with paper, this would be described as vertical integration. (b) Horizontal integration - occurs when one organization integrates with another business at the same stage of production or work. The creation of HMRC from two tax-collecting bodies is an example of horizontal integration. The main reasons were to: bring together people doing similar jobs; give customers a better service; achieve lower costs. (c) Conglomerate integration - occurs when a business merges with another that produces a completely different product. An example might be HMRC integrating with a cake maker. A major reason for this is to try and spread risks by producing more than one product. For example, many tobacco firms have bought businesses in areas such as hotels and leisure. Integration at the presentation layer (strat) . This layer is the human user interface, either web-based or a platform-specific GUI or terminal interface. This layer allows user to collaborate with an application. Integration at the presentation layer lets have to access to a user interface of a remote application.

Integration at the functional layer. This type of integration provides direct access to business logic of applications. It is attained by interaction between applications and API or by interaction with web services. Integration at the data layer. In this case we mean access to one or more databases used by a remote application Complex integration. Commerce solutions of web-integration as a rule include all three types of integration.

14. Geo-economical aspects of geographic configuration. Geo-economical parameters. Importance, types and its essence. Geo-economical position of a country may be favorable or unfavorable. This is determined by existence of: surface, market, seaside, number of neighboring countries and its level of development. Countries that have seaside have a big priority over enlarging their space. Types of geo-economical position: a) Central located in the central part of a region (e.g. Germany, USA); b) Neighboring in report with developed countries (e.g. Czech Republic in report with Germany); c) Peripheral Greece in report with EU; d) Transition between 2 regions or 2 parts of the world or 2 centers of polarization (e.g. Republic of Moldova). Notions: Geo-political position states localization in report with its neighboring forces; Geo-industrial position in report with main industrial resources; Geo-demographical position pressure of geographical neighboring spaces. 15. Geo-economic parameters. Surface: - Resources; - Number of population; - Human resources; - Productive potential; - Market; - Number of states. Configuration the result of a long historical/ political process in which there were numerous changes and territorial adjustments. A perfect configuration of a state is when the distances from center in radial directions are equal. Types of configuration: - Compact states the perfect form. Advantages: easy control of the territory, centrality, homogeneity, demographical factor etc. Examples: France, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Mongolia, Uruguay. - Oblong territory length usually exceeds 6 times its width. Advantages: climate variety, landscape diversity => tourism. Examples: Sweden, Norway, Finland, Chile, Benin, Togo etc. Disadvantages: incapacity of central control of extremities, high administrative costs, problems in communication distribution, danger of separatism. Borders: - Creates economic gaps; - Natural borders: rivers, mountains, forests etc.; - Artificial borders (Asia, South and North Korea); - Maritime and land borders. 16. Geo-economy of big spaces. Geo-economic poles. p. 5 ??? 17. Geo-economical changes in post-socialist countries. - Economic transition; - New independent states (12 countries), but it wasnt durable: Unique economic space (Russia, Kazakhstan, Belorussia, Ukraine); GUUAM (Georgia, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Moldova) national conflicts, energetic problem; creation of transportation corridors for energetic resources. The GUUAMs functionality is very low. ?? 18. Globalization. Stages. Globalization the process of economical, political and cultural integration as a result of growing dependence among states. Stages: - Flows of capital and goods; - Age of mobility; - Sharing in the worlds prosperity. Regionalization creation of regional systems for each geographical region (EU, Asia, America, Africa..)

Economic essence of globalization: - To create informational world systems; - Unique economic systems (market economy the goal of each country); - To create an unique system of transportation; - Unique financial system. Positive aspects Negative aspects + interaction among countries => - Technological hazards; development (social, economic, educational, - International delinquency; trade, technology etc.); - Terrorism (+ intensification of the + approximately the same standard of living; religious gap); + Labour division and economic integration; - Brake down of tradition. + markets interpenetration. 19. Factors and principles of geo-economic localization. Factors: Natural basis of localization each branch: climate, soil, water, rivers..; Economic agriculture, industry, services; Social level of organization of labour force; Technological; Historical. Principles: 1) Energy; 2) Raw materials; 3) Labour force and its quality (men, women, young..); 4) Market (high light industry, food, textile); 5) Water resources; 6) Ecological (chemical branch). Principles are: general and specific. Classification of geo-economic principles of localization is based on 3 main grades: 1) the principle itself; 2) labour force; 3) branch. For example, geo-economical localization of metallurgy industry: 1) raw materials; 2) branch: energetic; 3) labour force men. 20. Theories of geo-economic localization. Mashbits according to this conception, economic production has 2 cycles: 1) resources; 2) export of final goods (export cycle). This theory was characteristic for middle 19 th century. Idem, in this stage we can divide production in: resources extraction, production itself, transportation and redistribution of goods; Tiunin first part of 20th century; according to his theory, the main factor of economic localization is way of transportation because countries depends more and more on it: beginning with extraction with raw materials and finishing with distribution of goods. Idem, Tiunin stated that a country should develop its infrastructure; Webber middle of 20th century. The main factor of localization is qualified labour force. Webber explained that localization depends on 2 factors: general (raw materials, resources) and specific (labour force, market..). Through qualifies labour force we can reach a high level of economic development; Cristailer final decades of 20th century. The main factor market. In this way, labour force is moved in report with direction of financial capital. Idem, appears international migration in report with economical activity. 21. Localization of services. Principles and modifications. - Central part (city), with a large market; - Requirements: central administration, easy transportation and trade; - Services are located through networking (subsidiaries). 22. Geo-economic principles of thermal power stations. Geo-economic modifications. The use of electricity and heat energy gives a double result. Localization of these stations is next electricity and hot water. Raw materials for these stations are coal, gas, oil. Positive aspects Negative aspects + 1-5 years for construction; + might be accommodated with consumption; + is the main source of energy for all countries. Pollute; Consumes a lot of drinking water; Should be re-build every 2 years.

23. Worldwide balance between fuel and energy. Geo-economical modifications. Worldwide balance between fuel and energy represents the ratio between the main energetic resources used. Stages: 1) Wood till steam engines discovery (~17th century);

2) Coal 18-21 centuries; 3) Oil 20th century; 4) Gas (about 18-20% from energy); 5) Atomic. 24. Energetic crisis. Causes and solving ways. Energetic stability and security. 1974 1st crisis and in 1975 the 2nd one. => development of the atomic era. Causes: - Huge consumption of energy; - Unequal distribution of resources; - peaking of oil production in major industrial nations (Germany, U.S., Canada, etc.) and embargoes from other producers; - an OPEC oil export embargo by many of the major Arab oil-producing states, in response to western support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War. An electricity shortage is felt most by those who depend on electricity for their heating, cooking and water supply. In these circumstances a sustained energy crisis may become a humanitarian crisis. If an energy shortage is prolonged a crisis management phase is enforced by authorities. Energy audits may be conducted to monitor usage. Various curfews with the intention of increasing energy conservation may be initiated to reduce consumption. To conserve power during the Central Asia energy crisis, authorities in Tajikistan ordered bars and cafes to operate by candlelight. Warnings issued that peak demand power supply might not be sustained. In the worst kind of energy crisis energy rationing and fuel rationing may be incurred. Panic buying may beset outlets as awareness of shortages spread. Facilities close down to save on heating oil; and factories cut production and lay off workers. The risk of stagflation increases. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents and natural disasters. The limited supplies, uneven distribution, and rising costs of fossil fuels, such as oil and gas, create a need to change to more sustainable energy sources in the foreseeable future. Security threats: One of the leading threats to energy security is the significant increase in energy prices, either on the world markets as has occurred in a number of energy crises over the years or by the imposition of price increases by an oligopoly or monopoly supplier, cartel or country. In some cases the threat might come from a single energy superpower those states able to significantly influence world markets by their action alone. Rather than just manipulating prices, such suppliers might go beyond this by suspending or terminating supplies. This has been done to apply pressure during economic negotiations - such as during the Russia-Belarus energy dispute - or to apply political pressure, for example by OPEC in response to Western support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Suspension of supplies may also come about as a result of worldwide international sanctions against a country. Energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country as a fuel to power the economic engine. Hence, threats to energy security can also result from physical damage to the energy infrastructure either of the supplier, or of the importer as a result of natural events, misfortune, terrorism, or warfare. The political and economic instability caused by war or other factors such as strike action can also prevent the proper functioning of the energy industry in a supplier country. In recent years, new threats to energy security have emerged in the form of the increased world competition for energy resources due to the increased pace of industrialization in countries such as India and China. Although still a minority concern, the possibility of price rises resulting from the peaking of world oil production is also starting to attract the attention of at least the French government. Increased competition over energy resources may also lead to the formation of security compacts to enable an equitable distribution of oil and gas between major powers. However, this may happen at the expense of less developed economies. The Group of Five, precursors to the G8, first met in 1975 to coordinate economic and energy policies in the wake of the 1973 Arab oil embargo, a rise in inflation and a global economic slowdown. NATO leaders meeting in Bucharest in April 2008 may discuss the possibility of using the military alliance "as an instrument of energy security." One of the possibilities includes placing troops in the Caucasus region to police oil and gas pipelines. 25. Metallurgy industry principles of localization and geo-economic modifications . 1) Raw materials (natural resources); 2) Energy coal, electric energy; 3) Labour force, males (9 places from 10 are for men); 4) Located in ports (Harbor) => imports of raw materials and export of final goods.

Examples: Japan, Germany, Asian countries. 26. Geo-economical principles for locating engineering industry branches. Locating geo-economical transfigurations. Engineering industry is new in report with other industries, such as metallurgy for example. This industry is specific for developed countries, because it requires big capitals, high qualified labour force, etc. Over 500 millions people are involved in engineering industry, 4 from 5 being from Germany. Nowadays, engineering industry produces over 400 thousands kinds of machines. Even if the costs for producing the machineries are very high, and the market prices are high as well, this industrial branch, more precisely its outlet, is vital for every countrys economy, as for industry and agriculture. Engineering industry ensures all economic branches with technology and machines. As for geo-economical principles of locating, this industry requires high qualified labour force. A second principle of localization depends on the type of activity of the enterprise and it is divided into 2 groups: the industry which is located near row materials, because it uses many metals (to produce 1 unit of machinery it uses 10 units of metal); and the second is the industry which is located near the market, which produces such goods like TV, radio, home appliances, the products which are demanded more on the market and are not very complicated to transport. 27. Geo-economical principles for locating chemical industry branches. Geo-economical transfigurations. The chemical industry has shown rapid growth for more than fifty years. It is a new branch, central to modern world economy, converting raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products. Chemicals are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands inputs to agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and service industries. The chemical industry itself consumes 26 percent of its own output. Chemical industry is nearly a $3 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers. It is specific for developed countries with a wide developed infrastructure. Usually, the chemical plants are located near row materials (the row materials have different nature, starting with minerals, and ending with materials from agriculture); near energy, because it requires huge energy resources for all the intricate reactions used in order to obtain certain goods and substances; it is also located near water (huge amounts of water are used in order to provide the necessary conditions of the transformation process of the substances a simple example of which could be the production of paper, which requires 30-40 tones of water for just 1 tone of paper); also, when locating chemical plants, one of the first factors which have to be taken into account is the ecological factor. And thats because chemical branch is a very dangerous one. It affects the environment and human life. It requires harsh disciplinary rules, and proper working conditions, as well as discipline, because any little mistake could kill thousands of people or destroy millions of kilometers of flora and fauna. 28. Geo-economical principles for locating light industry branches. Geo-economical transfigurations. Light industry is usually less capital intensive than heavy industry, and is more consumer-oriented than businessoriented (most light industry products are produced for end users rather than as intermediates for use by other industries). Light industry facilities typically have less environmental impact than those associated with heavy industry, and zoning laws are more likely to permit light industry near residential areas. Light industries require only a small amount of raw materials, area and power. The value of the goods is low and they are easy to transport. The number of products is high. It causes relatively little pollution, as compared to heavy industries. The light industry enterprises are grouped into 4: big enterprises (over 5000 employees, e.g. textile industry); medium enterprises (500-1000 employees, e.g. carpet industry); small enterprises (100-200 employees, e.g. knitting industry); very small enterprises (20-50 employees, e.g. confections industry). Usually, light industry and metallurgy are located together, so there is a balance between male and female labour force. All production is oriented for consumption, so the light industry is located near the market. Also it is located near female labour force (9 of 10 employees are women). 29. Geo-economical principles and characteristics for locating food industry branches. Geo-economical transfigurations. Food industry is usually located near the market. Thats because all the products are oriented to the immediate consumption and the transportation shouldnt take much time, because the food is rapidly perishable. It is also located near drinking water. It may be explained by the fact that in order to process 1 unit of vegetable are needed 10 units of water. When speaking about labour force, food industry requires not qualified labour force, the same as in agriculture, where the cycle of production is very short. Again, 70-80% of al the labour force is female labour force. So, to summarize, food industry is located in report with regions with row materials and is oriented to the market (basically it is the city). The waste products from food industry are used as provender for animals. 30. Agriculture development and its geo-economical transformations. Extensive and intensive agriculture. Types of agriculture. Agriculture is the production of food and goods through farming. There are several factors of agriculture development: natural factor (climate conditions infrastructure of agriculture; relief; soil), economic factor (capital, technology, agricultural machines) and social factor (the level of organization and education of the society). Agriculture is very important for people and society, because 50% of human life depends on agriculture. Also 90% of world population works in agriculture and 2/3 of industrial branches perform their activity due to agriculture. Lately appeared the food problem, which is due to the low productivity and capacity of agriculture. Developed countries dont have problems with the quantity of agricultural goods, in report with low developed countries, which have low agriculture productivity and at the same time which deal with demographical explosion. Thus, these countries deal with difficulties when speaking about quantity of agricultural goods and cant ensure the population fully with food.

There are 2 main ways to develop one countrys agriculture: extensive and intensive. The extensive one relies on increasing the agricultural areas year by year, in order to cover the necessities. These extra agricultural areas as a rule are obtained by clearing woods, and this is a negative effect of this type of agriculture. The intensive type of agriculture implies: gyratory cultivation; electrification of agriculture; mechanization of agriculture; selection of plants; irrigation (it may provide 2 or even 3 harvest per year); using chemicals (utilizing fertilizers, protecting plants); improving the soil productivity. There are 3 main types of agriculture: subsistence, traditional and commercial agriculture. Subsistence agriculture may be characterized by low productivity, all products are oriented to consumption, its typical for low developed countries, the trade is absent or only in 1 st stage only barter. The traditional agriculture is distinctive by its specialization, the relation goods-money. A big share of cultivations are colonial and also intended for export, which is a very important source of income and capital. In the commercial agriculture everything is intended for export (or at least 90%). The price for the goods is established by the low of demand and supply, and this kind of agriculture is characteristic for developed countries. 31. Territorial organization of agriculture. Tunins conception. According to Tunins conception, which was characteristic for the first part of the 20 th century, the main factor in economical location is the way of transportation. This factor is crucial because it ensures the independence of all countries in report with the sources of natural resources and at the same time broadens the limits of the market. Also, Tunin explained that each country should develop the infrastructure, by extending the ways of transportation. This should be the next stage in the economical development. He made the classification of all industrial branches, as follows: common industrial branches and new branches (pulled by the scientific revolution, new technology and better quality). 32. Agro-industrial complex. Green Revolution essence, stages. Geo-economical transformations. Agro-industrial complex is the economical unit in which agriculture and industry go together and develop together. Agriculture ensures with row materials the industrial branches. And industrial branches ensure agriculture with machinery and modern technologies and techniques. The industry provides factors of production, for example chemical branch ensures with fertilizers, engineering branch ensures with agricultural technology and machines. It also includes hi-tech and biotechnology based agriculture. The agro-industrial complex is characteristic for medium and developed countries, representing a strategy for all developed countries. As for the Green Revolution, it was started in the middle of 20 th century by United Nations Organization (UNO). It includes 2 stages: 1. In the first stage it had the aim to solve the food problem in the low developed states from Africa, Asia. In this way, there were created scientific research centers in the plant selection domain, in order to implement in low developed countries highly productive cultures. It had a partial efficiency, because the plants selected hadnt been acclimatized, and besides, small farmers couldnt afford to buy the selected cultures. This stage had a success only in the countries with big private property, and partially in India. 2. The second stage is typical for the last decades from the 20 th century, in the developed countries. The aim was to create agro-industrial complexes, especially in European countries. It was also aimed to develop farm households, and to transform landlord households into farm ones. In all the developed countries, the green revolution was finalized as an agrarian reform in the stage of economical integration of the European countries. 33. World communication systems. International communication knots. The transportation and communication system represents Earths carcass, which connects different civilizations, and multiple economic systems. Among the biggest and oldest communication ways can be mentioned: the great silk route, Tran-Siberian highway, the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, the European tunnel, Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, PanAmerican Highway. The communication system is vital for the proper development of the economy. It is a real vascular system of the world economy. The great rivers, ocean wiring, railways and highways, the world informational system, build the world communication carcass and create the base of inter-civilization dialogue. The communication and transport system ensures the link between row materials production consumption, between the information promoter and receiver. Transport and communication system facilitates the proximity between households, countries and continents; doesnt allow the isolation of countries and full economic zones, which are located peripheral in report with the economic centers of the world. 34. Geo-economical advantages and disadvantages of world transportation systems. Transport, throw its volume and structure, determines the level and dynamics of the local and world economic development. It sets the functional specialization and is the material basis of labour division. We should take into account that the price for transport sets the price for products, it is a relevant source of work places. Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use. Railways have big transportation capacity, are frequent and circulate regularly. It is safe, and lately it is capable of high speeds, at a relative low cost. Of course one of the big disadvantages is that it is slower than other transportation systems, like air transport for example. Road transport, represented by automobiles, offers high flexibility and with low capacity, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. Although slow, modern sea transport is a

highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping. There also exist pipeline transport, cable transport, etc. 35. Free economic zones. Geo-economical characteristics. Types. Their diversity and classification. Many countries have, or have had at some time, designated areas where companies are taxed very lightly or not at all to encourage development or for some other reason. These are known as free economic zones. FEZ is a part of the national territory (enclave), with a favorable economic-geographical position, where are originated the best conditions for attracting internal and external investments. It is a model of economic integration; throw an agreement between the member countries to abolish the tax boundaries. One of the main reasons which conditioned the appearance of FEZ is the trade. Also, there are such factors as labour division, the diversification of economic relations, scientific and technical revolution etc. There are several types of organization of geo-economic space: a duty free zone or only with preferential taxes; an export oriented industrial free zone; a territory with no administrative an economic boundaries pressure. According to the economic specialization, there are 5 types of FEZ: commercial, industrial-processing, scientific-technological (technological innovative), service providing and complex. A special category is international FEZ, which are grouped into: free trade zone (located in transport knots, authorized and controlled by the customs administration; duty-free); industrial processing zone (besides trade there is performed also production activity; it can be import or export oriented); scientific technological zones (located near big scientific centers, with a special infrastructure, elaboration and implementation of IT); service providing free economical zones (tertiary sector banking, finance, insurance, tourism); complex free economic zones (various types of zones). Lately the level of economic development requires the appearance of international FEZ. Special types of FEZ are: off-shore zones and scientific and technological zones. Off-shore zones the companies which perform their activity outside the territory of their residential state. The scientific and technological zones require the existence of a technical university or an international center of scientific research, the presence of technological infrastructure and a risk capital, high qualified labour force and comfortable standard of living. 36. Transnational corporations. Geo-economical strategy for their development. Types of transnational corporation subsidiaries. Transnational corporations -- those corporations which operate in more than one country or nation at a time -- have become some of the most powerful economic and political entities in the world today. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has defined a transnational corporation as a corporation that has its management headquarters in one country, known as the home country, and operates in several other countries, known as host countries. The first modern multinational corporation is generally thought to be the Dutch East India Company. Nowadays many corporations have offices, branches or manufacturing plants in different countries from where their original and main headquarters is located. Some multinational corporations are very big, with budgets that exceed some nations' GDPs. Multinational corporations can have a powerful influence in local economies, and even the world economy, and play an important role in international relations and globalization. The presence of such powerful players in the world economy is reason for much controversy. 37. Future transportation systems. Their geo-economical essence. Nowadays there are various projects which predict the construction of intercontinental corridors of transportation, which would link the main world centers of economic development: Western Europe, Asia-Pacific region, and North America. The main directions imply: Construction of corridors of transportation, which will include railways, motorways, sea transport, pipeline transport, and telecommunications and the communication knots which would emerge between these systems. To create the Euro-Asian communicational system, by building many highways, railways, tunnels, in Europe, Asia, North America, etc. The formation of European corridors of transportation; To build The Great Energetic bridge the link between the main fuel extracting regions and the consumption regions. An efficient transportation system will provide a proper control over the trade of goods and the harmony in international economic relations. 38. Euro-Asian transport routes. The creation of Euro-Asiatic communicational system is one of the biggest goals for developing the Euro-Asian economy. One of the most important events of XXI century was the formation of big communicational system of Euro Asian island, which include the Asian and North American highways, and the Great Silk Road. The main projects are: a) The highway-railway route: AsiaNorth America. It will cost about 50 billions American dollars. After their creations the expenses on transport will be reduced, and the capacity and safety will rise. b) The European-Asian intercontinental highway: Europe Russia Asia America, the project provides the construction of auto ban Hamburg Berlin Warsaw Minsk Moscow Yekaterinburg Novosibirsk Krasnoyarsk- Irkutsk c) The construction of tunnel under the Tatar Strait and under the Leprous strait, it will unite Japan with Europe and other projects.

d) Intercontinental highway Europe-Russia-Asia-America the link of Euro-Asian roads with the Pan-American Highway. 39. European Union geo-economical evolution. The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states, located primarily in Europe. The EU has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws, which apply in all member states, and ensures the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, including the abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement between 22 EU and 3 non-EU states. It maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Sixteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro, constituting the Euro zone. The EU has legal personality, and guarantees a European area of freedom, security and justice by enacting legislation in judicial and home affairs. The European history of integration is pretty old; during the last 50 years, since 1957, European Union became one of the largest and fastest growing unions, and today it counts 27 countries. It has 500 mln habitants (1/12 of all world population), but lately the demographic power of EU is going down. EU has various strong point, but it also has its problems. First of all, it is uncertain which the future borders are, because it should be only European countries, but Turkish wants to integrate as well. It is a problem as well with other strategic countries which want to integrate, but their situation is uncertain, such as Russia, Turkish, and Kazakhstan. There also are huge discrepancies between the center and the periphery of EU, and this is reflected in the economic development and in every countrys GDP. There are also religious problems. But besides all that, EU is one of the most developed communities, with a high level of living and economic development. 40. NAFTA essence, geo-economical evolution. The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA is an agreement signed by the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. In data from 2007, the trade block is the largest in the world and second largest by nominal GDP comparison. The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers of trade and investment between the USA, Canada and Mexico. The implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994, brought the immediate elimination of tariffs on more than one half of US imports from Mexico and more than one third of US exports to Mexico. Within 10 years of the implementation of the agreement, all US-Mexico tariffs would be eliminated except for some US agricultural exports to Mexico that were to be phased out in 15 years. Most US-Canada trade was already duty free. NAFTA also seeks to eliminate non-tariff trade barriers. Some argue that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, which has seen its poverty rates fall and real income rise (in the form of lower prices, especially food. Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S. workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. Critics also argue that NAFTA has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico. Some economists believe that NAFTA has not been enough (or worked fast enough) to substantially reduce poverty rates. Some have suggested that in order to fully benefit from the agreement, Mexico must invest more in education and promote innovation in infrastructure and agriculture. 41. CIS geo-economical evolution. Economical integration problems and perspectives. GUAM and Russias allies within CIS. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization whose participating countries are former Soviet Republics, formed during the breakup of the Soviet Union. The CIS is comparable to a very loose association of states and in no way comparable to a federation, confederation or supra-national organization such as the old European Community. Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization, possessing coordinating powers in the field of trade, finance, lawmaking, and security. It has also promoted cooperation on democratization and cross-border crime prevention. As a regional organization, CIS participates in UN peacekeeping forces. Some of the members of the CIS have established the Eurasian Economic Community with the aim of creating a common market. The Common Economic Space would involve a supranational commission on trade and tariffs. The ultimate goal would be a regional organization that would be open for other countries to join as well, and could eventually lead even to a single currency. The GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development is a regional organization of four post-Soviet states: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova. On April 21, 2005, the GUAM countries formed a common front on several issues. Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova lodged complaints against restriction imposed by Russia against some of their national products. At the same time, the four GUAM countries made a proposal to discuss the "frozen conflicts" of Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia (which remain under de facto Russian military control) and Nagorno-Karabakh. Another of the issues associated with GUAM is competition between two proposed transportation corridors to better link Europe with Asia. Although the problems and the intentions are huge, such as energetic problem and corridors of transportation, national conflicts, the functionality of GUAM is very low, because it has a big counter-force Russia in report with which they couldnt take any action. No member country took any action in report with the problems of the other countries. 42. Trans-border cooperation. Stages of Trans-border cooperation. Stage A: cross-border cooperation Cross-border cooperation between adjacent regions aims to develop cross-border social and economic centers through common development strategies. The term cross-border region is often used to

refer to the resulting entities. The term Euro region is also used to refer to the various types of entities that are used to administer economic integration funds. Stage B: transnational cooperation. Transnational cooperation involving national, regional and local authorities aim to promote better integration within the Union through the formation of large groups of European regions. Stage B is the intermediate level, where generally non-bordered regions from several different countries cooperate because they experience joint or comparable problems. Stage C: interregional cooperation. Interregional cooperation aims to improve the effectiveness of regional development policies and instruments through large-scale information exchange and sharing of experience (networks). This is financially the smallest stage of the three, but the programs cover all EU Member States. 43. Possibilities and ways for RM to integrate EU. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union and is implementing its first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) of the EU. The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) (was signed on 28 November 1994 and entered into force on 1 July 1998 for the next 10 years) represents the legal framework for the Republic of Moldova - European Union relationship. This arrangement provides for a basis of cooperation with the EU in the political, commercial, economic, legal, cultural and scientific areas. The EU is developing an increasingly close relationship with Moldova, going beyond co-operation, to slowly economic integration and a deepening of political co-operation. The major strategic priority of Moldova now is membership in European institutions. Moldova has to focus on the resolution of the crisis in Transnistria. Implementation of the Action Plan will significantly advance the approximation of Moldovan legislation, norms and standards to those of the European Union. In August 2009, four Moldovan parties agreed to create a governing coalition, called Alliance for European Integration. The Alliance has committed to achieve such goals as European integration and promoting a balanced, consistent and responsible foreign policy. 44. Advantages and risks of geo-economical cooperation within CIS for RM. Once RM is a very small state, foreign economic relations are extremely important for the national economy, and the conditions of isolation are inadmissible, because of a low natural potential, poor market, and a big dependence to the foreign trade. The states members of CIS have the biggest weight in the foreign trade of RM. It has risen slightly from 68.9% in 1992, to 72% in 1994, and a further decrease to 43.2% in 2004. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus detain 95-97% of the RMs trade with CIS states. The trade with these states presents both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages consist in: the diversified specialization of RM in report with other CIS states; the technical and production conditions; unique standards and common transport network of member states; keeping the traditional market, where Moldavian products are well known and dont require extra expenses on promotion, and dont have high standards. The disadvantages consist in: the imperfect mechanism to adjust inter-governmental agreements and the lack of guarantees about their accomplishment; the insolvency of economic agents; high prices for row materials and production; the limitation in the free circulation of goods; huge dependence on import of row materials and energy. 45. Labour division in transport. Geo-economical essence. Aspects of labour division. There is no doubt that many factors influenced the development in transport, but one of the most relevant is labour division. Here we can highlight the fact that in transport, international labour division plays a central role. Deep changes occurred in the structure of the tertiary sector in the last century, basically little and low developed countries had become peripheral in report with transportation system. The number of workers in this domain is over 100 million. Historically an increasingly complex division of labour is closely associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialization processes. As it is said in the branch international labour division, transportation, which is included in tertiary sector, is characteristic for developed countries. As for car construction, we can mention Germany, Japan, and USA; as for plane construction, USA is definitely the country which dominates the market, as well as for spaceships and water ships. The Great Britain also is one of the biggest producers of water ships. 46. Geo-economical vulnerable aspects of RMs sovereignty. One of the biggest problems which RM faces is the Transnistrian one. It has deep routs in history, and many polemics in the foreign affairs of the country. RM couldnt be totally independent and sovereign, because it has no access to the sea. The political and economic relations in report with our neighbors are pointed. Another vulnerable aspect is the language identity and national identity. The state language is Moldavian, though the history says its Romanian. The same is with the national identity; it ranges between Romanian and Moldavian, according to the political orientation of each citizen. The Giurgiulesti harbor is also a weak point; because Ukraine claims RM has a bad ecologic influence upon it. Another problem is the fact that we are not energetically secured. Also, the border with Romania is not set up by any official document, so basically there are 2 Romanian states, and not 2 different countries. 47. Techno polis geo-economical characteristics, structure. A science park or science and technology park is an area with a collection of buildings dedicated to scientific research on a business footing. There are many approximate synonyms for "science park", including research park, technology park, techno polis and biomedical park. The appropriate term typically depends on the type of science and research in which the park's entities engage, but many of these developments are named according to which term gives the park the best profitability and naming advantages. Often, science parks are associated with or operated by institutions of higher education (colleges and universities).

These parks differ from typical high-technology business districts in that science parks and the like are more organized, planned, and managed. They differ from science centers in being concerned with future developments in science and technology. Typically businesses and organizations in the parks focus on product advancement and innovation as opposed to industrial parks that focus on manufacturing and business parks that focus on administration. Usually in techno polis are produced nano-technologies, which are used in industrial parks. 48. ASEAN essence, geo-economical evolution. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated, ASEAN is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth, social progress, cultural development among its members, the protection of the peace and stability of the region, and to provide opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully. ASEAN spans over an area of 4.46 million km 2 with a population of approximately 580 million people, 8.7% of the world population. In 2009, its combined nominal GDP had grown to more than USD $1.5 trillion. If ASEAN was a single country, it would rank as the 9th largest economy in the world in terms of nominal GDP. 49. Food problem. Geo-economical aspects. Ways of solving. In most poor countries, large fractions of land, labor, and other productive resources are devoted to producing food for subsistence needs. This "food problem" can delay a country's industrial development for a long period of time, causing its per capita income to fall far behind the world leader. Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades. One way to solve world hunger would be to develop new ways to grow food on a worldwide scale. Many people today live in areas of the world which were never capable of producing sufficient food crops or are nearly impossible to irrigate. Some arable land remains underused because it is under the control of rogue governments or is currently too inaccessible for farming. By developing new methods for maximizing crop growth on substandard land, inhabitants can grow enough food to meet their needs. Another way to solve world hunger would be to improve the food distribution infrastructure. A number of first-world countries have massive surpluses of staple crops and grains, especially wheat, rice and corn. Creating new farming technologies could also help solve world hunger. If food can be grown in large hydroponics farms, for example, there would put less strain on traditional soil farms. Farmers in poorer countries could be trained to rotate their crops in order to keep the soil healthier season after season. 50. F. Broudel geo-economical conception of world structure. Its essence. According to Broudels conception, the world has the same structure as the earth: center, periphery and semi-periphery. In the center of the world are situated 25 countries, which are very potential when speaking about economic development. They represent only 12% of all world countries and 46% of global GDP. The semi-periphery is represented by 70-80 medium economic level countries, basically it includes ex socialist countries (Poland, Romania etc), new industrialized countries (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore), second new industrialized countries (Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia), third new industrialized countries (Brazil, India, Mexico). The periphery describes 100 countries, 50% of which are from Africa, being very undeveloped, and other 40 are from Asia.