Microscopic theory (quantum-mechanical)

the search for better magnetic materials, is empirical an).way, and there are not

265

rnany magnetic devices clamouring for quantum theory to solve the riddle of their operation. I do think, however, that a brief look into the quantum theory of magnetism will yield some dividends. It is worth leaming, for example, how quantum numbers come into the picture. We have, after all, come across them when studying the hydrogen atom, so it is not unreasonable to expect them to be able to say something about magnetic properties. It is also worth knowing that there is a very simple experiment showing the quantized nature of magnetic moments, and there are a few devices which need quantum theory for their description. So let me describe the basic concepts. First, we should ask how much of the previously outlined theory remains valid in the quanfum-mechanical formulation. Not a word of itl rhere is no reason whatsoever u,hy a classical argument (as, for example, the precession of magnetic dipoles around the magnetic field) should hold water. when the resulting formulae turn out to be identical (as, for example, for the paramagnetic susceptibility at normal temperafures), it is just a lucky coincidence. So we have to start from scratch.

Let us first talk about the single electron of the hydrogen atom. As

rve

determine the propenies of the electron. As far as the specific magnetic properties of the elc-ctron are concemed, the following rules are relevant;

mentioned before. the electron's properties are determined by the four quantum numbers n. I. m1. and s, rvhich have to obey certain relationships benveen themselves: as for example, that / must be an integer and may take values between 0 and n - 1. Any set of these four quanfum numbers will uniquely

Fig. 'l 1.15

The possible directions ofthe angular rnomenrum veclor for a d-electron.

l.

The total angular momentum is given by

This is sheer nonsense classically because. according to classical

f7:

h,l

i( j +

ry1ttr,

(1i.33)

mechanics. once the an.gular momentum is known about three axes perpendicular

r.vhere 7 : i + j, that is a combination of the quantum numbers / and s. 2. The possible components of the angular momentum along ary specified

to each other, it is knou,n about any other axes (and it will not therefore
take necessarily integral multiples of a certain unit). In quantum mechanics we may knorv the angular momentum about several axes but not simultaneou.clt. Unce the angular momentum is measurid about one axis. the measurement u'ill alter the angular momentum about some other axis in an unpredictable way. If it rvere otherwise, rve would get into trouble with the uncertainty relationship. Were we to know the angular momentum

direction* are determined by the combination of z7 (which may take on any integral value betrveen -i and */) and s, yielding

i,

j - t, . ,-j +r,- j.
I:
2, the totai angular

Taking as an example a d-electron, for which momentum is

n:h(: 2) 2', \2 l)"':L1ts.

and its possible components along (say) the z-axis are

(rr14)

in all directions, it would give us the

plane of the electron's orbit. Hence, lve u'ould know the elecffon's velocity in the direction of the angular momentum

In.ln. L _! _1r._1, 222222

as shor.vn

vector (it would be zero), and also the position (it would be in the plane
perpendicular to the angular momenfum

in Fig.

I 1.15.

3. The quantum-mechanical relationship between magnetic moment

eqn ( I 1.8)

in line with the proton). But this

is

and

angular momentum is nearly the same as the classical one, represented by

/rm

: 8.e fl. 1m

forbidden by the uncertaintv principle, rvhich says that it is impossible to know both the velocify and the position coordinate in the same direction as the
velocity.

( l 1.35)