Important 6

1
(c) Dr. Hai J in, 2009-2011. All rights reserved.

Supplemental Materials
Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 2
Outline
Limit of number sequences
Monotone Convergence Theorem
An important limit
Inverse functions
Derivative of inverse functions
Derivative of inverse trig functions
Derivative of exponential and logarithmic
functions
What is a sequence?
(a) an ordered list of objects.
(b) A function whose domain is a set of integers.
Domain: 1, 2, 3, 4, ,n
Range: a
1,
a
2,
a
3,
a
4,
a
n
1 1 1 1
1, , , , . . .
2 4 8 1 6
Monotone Sequences
A sequence (s
n
) is increasingif s
n
s
n+1
for all n.
A sequence (s
n
) is decreasingif s
n
s
n+1
for all n.
A sequence is monotoneif it is
increasing or decreasing.
(a) s
n
=2n+1 (b) s
n
=1-1/n
(c) s
n
=(0.9)
n
(d) s
n
=-4n
(e) s
n
=(-1)
n
(a), (b) are increasing
(c), (d) are decreasing.
So (a), (b), (c) , (d) are monotone.
(e) is neither increasing nor decreasing. So
it is not monotone.
Write the first 5 terms for
1 2 3 4
0, , , ,
2 3 4 5
The terms in this sequence get closer and closer
to 1. The sequence convergesto 1.
On a number line
As a function
1
n
n
a
n
=
2
Write the first 5 terms
1 2 3 4
0, , , ,
2 3 4 5

The terms in this sequence do not get close to
any single value. The sequence diverges.
( )
1
( 1) 1
n
n
n
a
n
+

=
Write the terms for a
n
= 3
The terms are 3, 3, 3, 3
The sequence converges to 3.
Monotone Convergence Theorem
A monotone sequence is convergent iff it
is bounded.
Let {s
n
} be an increasing sequence which
is bounded above, then {s
n
} is a
convergent sequence.
Let {s
n
} be a decreasing sequence which
is bounded below, then {s
n
} is a
convergent sequence.
m x x x x
n n
> > > > > >
+

1 2 1
) ( lim M a x
n
n
s =

) ( lim m b x
n
n
> =

x
m
n
x
1 + n
x
1
x
2
x
x
a
b
1 2 1 n n
x x x x M
+
s s s s s s
n
x
1 + n
x
2
x
1
x
M
1
Prove that { (1 ) } converges.
n
n n
x = +
Proof. By the binomial formula,
n
n
n
x ) 1 (
1
+ =
+ =1
n
n1
! 1 2
1
! 2
) 1 (
n
n n
+
3
1
! 3
) 2 )( 1 (
n
n n n
+ +
n
n
n
n n n n
1
!
) 1 ( ) 1 ( +
+

+ + = 1 1
) 1 (
1
!
1
n n
+ ) 1 (
2
n
) 1 (
1
n
n

) 1 (
1
! 2
1
n
+ ) 1 (
1
! 3
1
n
+ ) 1 (
2
n

+ + = 1 1
n
x
) 1 (
1
!
1
n n
+ ) 1 (
2
n
) 1 (
1
n
n

) 1 (
1
! 2
1
n
+ ) 1 (
1
! 3
1
n
+ ) 1 (
2
n
+ + =
+
1 1
1 n
x ) 1 (
1
1
! 2
1
+
n
) 1 )( 1 (
1
2
1
1
! 3
1
+ +
+
n n
+
) 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
1 1
2
1
1
! ) 1 (
1
+ + + +
+
n
n
n n n

> >
Positive
) , 2 , 1 (
1
= <
+
n x x
n n
+ + < + = 1 1 ) 1 (
1
n
n
n
x
! 2
1
! 3
1
+
!
1
n
+ + Moreover,
Thus,
3
By the monotone convergence theorem,
{ }
n
x
e
n
n
n
= +

) 1 ( lim
1
e is an irrational, whose value
59045 7182818284 . 2 = e
is convergent.
+ + < + = 1 1 ) 1 (
1
n
n
n
x
! 2
1
! 3
1
+
!
1
n
+ +
+ + < 1 1
2
1
2
2
1
+
1
2
1
+ +
n
Since
3 <
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
+ =
n
1
2
1
3

=
n
1 1
Prove that lim(1 ) lim(1 ) .
x x
x x
x x
e

+ = = +
Proof. For 0, let 1, x n x n > s < +
x
x
) 1 (
1
+
1
1
) 1 (
+
+ <
n
n
< +
+
n
n
) 1 (
1
1
n
n
n
) 1 ( lim
1
1
+

+

lim

=
n
1
1
1
) 1 (
+
+
+
n
n
1
1
1
+
+
n
e =
1
1
) 1 ( lim
+

+
n
n
n
] 1 ) 1 [( lim
1 1

n
n
n
n
+ + =

e =
e
x
x
x
= +
+
) 1 ( lim
1
When , let ( 1),then , x x t t = + +
x
x
x
) 1 ( lim
1
+

) 1 (
1
1
) 1 ( lim
+
+
+
=
t
t
t
) 1 (
1
) ( lim
+
+
+
=
t
t
t
t
1
1
) 1 ( lim
+
+
+ =
t
t
t
)] 1 ( ) 1 [( lim
1 1
t
t
t
t
+ + =
+
e =
Thus,
1
lim(1 )
x
x
x
e
+ =
e z
z
z
= +
1
) 1 ( lim
0
1
Find lim(1 ) .
x
x
x

Let , t x =
=

x
x
x
) 1 ( lim
1
t
t
t

+ ) 1 ( lim
1

1
lim

=
t
t
t
) 1 (
1
+
e
1
=
] [ lim

=
x
1 1
Find lim(sin cos ) .
x
x x
x
+
2
] ) cos [(sin lim
2
1 1
x
x x
x
+

2
) sin 1 ( lim
2
x
x
x
+ =

) sin 1 (
2
x
+
e =
x
x
2
2
sin
x
2
sin
1
1
Find lim(1 ) .
x
x
x
L

=
Let , then t x =
=

x
x
x
) 1 ( lim
1
t
t
t

+ ) 1 ( lim
1

1
lim

=
t
t
t
) 1 (
1
+
e
1
=
( )
1
( )
( )
Since lim(1 ) ,
x
x
x
e

+ =
| |
1
1
1
lim (1 )
x
x
x
L e

= + =
4
One-to-one functions
Definition: A function f is called a one-to-one
functionif it never takes on the same value
twice; that is
f(x
1
) f(x
2
) whenever x
1
x
2
.
Horizontal line test: A function f is one-to-one
if and only if no horizontal line intersects its
graph more than once.
Examples: f(x) =x
3
is one-to-one
but f(x) =x
2
is not.
Inverse functions
Definition: Let f be a one-to-one function with
domain A and range B. Then the inverse function f
-1
has domain B and range A and is defined by
for any y in B.
Note: f
-1
(x) does not mean 1 / f(x) .
Example: The inverse of f(x) = x
3
is f
-1
(x)=x
1/3
Cancellation equations:
y x f x y f = =
) ( ) (
1
B x x x f f
A x x x f f
in every for )) ( (
in every for )) ( (
1
1
=
=

Find the inverse function
Step 1: Write y=f(x)
Step 2: Solve this equation for xin terms of y(if
possible)
Step 3: To express f
-1
as a function of x,
interchange xand y. The resulting equation is y = f
-1
(x)
Example: Find the inverse of f(x) = 5 - x
3
3
3
3 3
5 ) ( is function inverse the Thus,
5 5 5
x x f
y x y x x y
=
= = =
Another example:
( )
1
1
2
f x x = +
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
1
1
2
y x = +
1
1
2
y x =
2 2 y x =
2 2 x y =
Switch xand y:
2 2 y x =
( )
1
2 2 f x x
=
Inverse functions
are reflections
about y =x.
Solve for x:
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
( )
2
0 f x x x = >
We can find the inverse
function as follows:
2
y x =
Switch xand y.
2
x y =
x y =
y x =
2
y x =
y x =
2
df
x
dx
=
At x =2:
( )
2
2 2 4 f = =
( ) 2 2 2 4
df
dx
= =
4 m= ( ) 2,4
( )
1
f x x
=
( )
1
1
2
f x x
=
1 1
2
1
2
df
x
dx

=
1
1
2
df
dx x
To find the derivative of the

inverse function:
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
( )
2
0 f x x x = > 2
y x =
y x =
2
df
x
dx
=
At x =2:
( )
2
2 2 4 f = =
( ) 2 2 2 4
df
dx
= =
4 m= ( ) 2,4
( )
1
f x x
=
1
1
2
df
dx x
=
( )
1
1 1 1
4
2 2 4 2 4
df
dx
= = =
At x =4:
( )
1
4 4 2 f
= =
( ) 4,2
1
4
m=
Slopes are
reciprocals.
5
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
8 6 4 2 0
8
6
4
2
0
x
y
x
y
2
y x =
y x =
4 m= ( ) 2,4
( ) 4,2
1
4
m=
Slopes are
reciprocals.
Because x and y are
reversed to find the
reciprocal function, the
following pattern always
holds:
Derivative Formula for Inverses:
df
dx df
dx
x f a
x a
=
=
=
1
1
( )
evaluated at ( ) f a
is equal to the reciprocal of
the derivative of ( ) f x
evaluated at . a
The derivative of
1
( ) f x

Calculus of inverse functions
Theorem: If f is a one-to-one continuous
function defined on an interval then its inverse
function f
-1
is also continuous.
Theorem: If f is a one-to-one differentiable
function with inverse function gand f '(g(x))
0, then the inverse function is differentiable
and
1
'( )
'( ( ))
g x
f g x
=
Example: Find (f
-1
)'(1) for f(x) = x
3
+x +1
Solution: By inspection f(0)=1, thus f
-1
(1) =0
Then
1
1 0 3
1
) 0 (
1
)) 1 ( (
1
) 1 ( ) (
2 1
1
=
+
=
'
=
'
= '

f f f
f
A typical problem using this formula might look like this:
Given: ( ) 3 5 f =
( ) 3 6
df
dx
=
Find:
( )
1
5
df
dx
Derivative Formula for Inverses:

df
dx df
dx
x f a
x a
=
=
=
1
1
( )
( )
1
1
5
6
df
dx

-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
sin y x =
1
sin y x
=
We can use implicit
differentiation to find:
1
sin
d
x
dx

1
sin y x
=
siny x =
sin
d d
y x
dx dx
=
cos 1
dy
y
dx
=
1
cos
dy
dx y
=
We can use implicit
differentiation to find:
1
sin
d
x
dx

1
sin y x
=
siny x =
sin
d d
y x
dx dx
=
cos 1
dy
y
dx
=
1
cos
dy
dx y
=
2 2
sin cos 1 y y + =
2 2
cos 1 sin y y =
2
cos 1 sin y y =
But
2 2
y
t t
< <
so is positive. cosy
2
cos 1 sin y y =
2
1
1 sin
dy
dx
y
=
2
1
1
dy
dx
x
=
6
We could use the same technique to find and
.
1
tan
d
x
dx

1
sec
d
x
dx

1
2
1
sin
1
d du
u
dx dx
u
1
2
1
tan
1
d du
u
dx u dx
=
+
1
2
1
sec
1
d du
u
dx dx
u u
1
2
1
cos
1
d du
u
dx dx
u
1
2
1
cot
1
d du
u
dx u dx
=
+
1
2
1
csc
1
d du
u
dx dx
u u
1 1
cos sin
2
x x
t

=
1 1
cot tan
2
x x
t

=
1 1
csc sec
2
x x
t

=
Your calculator contains all six inverse trig functions.
However it is occasionally still useful to know the following:
1 1
1
sec cos x
x
| |
=
|
\ .
1 1
cot tan
2
x x
t

=
1 1
1
csc sin x
x
| |
=
|
\ .
t
Consider where a>0 and a1 ( )
x
f x a =
This is a one-to-one function, therefore it has an inverse.
The inverse is called the logarithmic function with base a.
Example:
4
16 2 =
2
4 log 16 =
The most commonly used bases for logs are 10:
10
log log x x =
and e: log ln
e
x x =
ln y x = is called the natural logarithm function.
Logarithmic Functions
x a y x
y
a
= = log
Properties of Logarithms
log
a
x
a x =
log
x
a
a x =
( ) 0 , 1 , 0 a a x > = >
Since logs and exponentiation are inverse functions, they
un-doeach other.
Product rule:
log log log
a a a
xy x y = +
Quotient rule: log log log
a a a
x
x y
y
=
Power rule:
log log
y
a a
x y x =
Change of base formula:
ln
log
ln
a
x
x
a
=
-1
0
1
2
3
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
x
Look at the graph of
x
y e =
The slope at x=0
appears to be 1.
If we assume this to
be true, then:
0 0
0
lim 1
h
h
e e
h
+
=
definition of derivative
Now we attempt to find a general formula for the
derivative of using the definition.
x
y e =
( )
0
lim
x h x
x
h
d e e
e
dx h
+
=
0
lim
x h x
h
e e e
h

=
0
1
lim
h
x
h
e
e
h
| |
=
|
\ .
0
1
lim
h
x
h
e
e
h
| |
=
|
\ .
1
x
e =
x
e =
This is the slope at x=0,
which we have assumed to
be 1.
7
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
=
x
e
is its own derivative!
If we incorporate the chain rule:
u u
d du
e e
dx dx
=
We can now use this formula to find the derivative of
x
a

( )
x
d
a
dx
( )
ln
x
a
d
e
dx
( and are inverse functions.)
x
e lnx
( )
ln x a
d
e
dx
( )
ln
ln
x a
d
e x a
dx
(chain rule)
( is a constant.) lna
( )
x
d
a
dx
( )
ln
x
a
d
e
dx
( )
ln x a
d
e
dx
( )
ln
ln
x a
d
e x a
dx
ln
ln
x a
e a
ln
x
a a
Incorporating the chain rule:
( )
ln
u u
d du
a a a
dx dx
=

So far today we have:
u u
d du
e e
dx dx
= ( )
ln
u u
d du
a a a
dx dx
=
Now it is relatively easy to find the derivative of . lnx
ln y x =
y
e x =
( ) ( )
y
d d
e x
dx dx
=
1
y
dy
e
dx
=
1
y
dy
dx e
=
1
ln
d
x
dx x
=
1
ln
d du
u
dx u dx
=
8
To find the derivative of a common log function, you
could just use the change of base rule for logs:
log
d
x
dx
ln
ln10
d x
dx
=
1
ln
ln10
d
x
dx
=
1 1
ln10 x
=
The formula for the derivative of a log of any base
other than eis:
1
log
ln
a
d du
u
dx u a dx
=
u u
d du
e e
dx dx
= ( )
ln
u u
d du
a a a
dx dx
=
1
log
ln
a
d du
u
dx u a dx
=
t
1
ln
d du
u
dx u dx
=
Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential functions
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x x x x
a
e e
dx
d
a a a
dx
d
x
x
dx
d
a x
x
dx
d
= =
= =
ln
1
ln
ln
1
log
cos
Find the dervivative of .
x
y x =
Logarithmic Differentiation
The calculation of derivatives of complicated
functions involving products, quotients, or
powers can often be simplified by taking
logarithms.
Step 1: Take natural logarithms of both sides of
an equation y = f (x) and use the properties of
logarithms to simplify.
Step 2: Differentiate implicitly with respect to x
Step 3: Solve the resulting equation for y'

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(c) Dr. Hai J in, 2009-2011. All rights reserved.

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 12

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 21

To find the derivative of the

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 26

Derivative Formula for Inverses:

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 29

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 39

Calculus B, Dr. Hai J in | 41

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