Pressure Gauges

Types of Pressure Measurements

-Absolute Pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum.
For example atmospheric pressure

-Differential Pressure is the difference in pressure between

two points of measurements.

-Gauge Pressure is measured relative to ambient pressure.

For example blood pressure

INDEX
1. General Methods for Measuring Pressure 2. Direct-reading Meters U-tube manometers, Bourdon gauges, Diaphragm gauges 3. Indirect-reading Meters Thermocouple gauges, hot and Cold cathode gauges 4. Election of pressure meters 5. Pressure meters for Partial Pressures

1. General methods for measuring pressure

GAUGES/SENSORS
DIRECT-READING Measure pressure by calculating the force exerted on the surface It does not depend on gas composition Measuring range: from 10-4 Pa up INDIRECT-READING Measure a pressure dependent property of the gas It depends on gas composition (i.e. ionization gauges) Measuring range: from 103 Pa down Measure of the particle density (PV=NkT n P, if T is constant) several gauges are needed

To measure in a wide pressure range

2. Direct-reading gauges
2.1. U-tube manometers
U-tube manometer p1 p2 = g(h1 h2) Hg, different oils
U-tube manometer

McLeod gauge (McLeod 1874) more sophisticated hydrostatic gauge: Sample of gas is compressed (typically 1000:1) pressure is easily measured P1V1= P2V2 Primary standard gauge in the 10-3 102 Pa range

2.2. Bourdon gauges (Eugene Bourdon 1849)

Metallic tube with oval cross-section, which is turned in a known way. changes in the pressure within the tube the curvature of the tube changes pointer rotates (magnified by gears and levers)

C-type

1) Connection to chamber 2) Needle 3) Bourdon cable 4) Mechanical linkage

2.3. Piezoelectric sensors

pressure differences cause a force in the piezoelectric crystal proportional to its voltage response Provides an output only when the input is changing

2.4. Diaphragm gauges

Chamber divided in two by a thin metal diaphragm. The volume of one side of the diaphragm is sealed, while the other is attached to the system. A variation in pressure on one side relative to the other the diaphragm flexes This movement can be sensed: Mechanical: operated by a system of gears and levers to transmit the
deflection of a solid wall to a pointer

optical electrical: resistive (strain gauge), inductive, capacitive sensor - from 10-3 Pa up

2.4.1. Capacitance manometers

deflection of the diaphragm change in capacitance C = r0 A/d singled-sided/differential gauge pressure range 10-4 106 Pa, depends on the meter large dynamical range, typically 104 105 overall system accuracy deteriorates at the lowest pressures

small diaphragm deflection, 10-11 m temperature change large source of error sensor with temperature stabilization

NULL DETECTOR OR DIRECT-READING GAUGE

Capacitance manometer to be used in corrosive environments

3. Indirect-reading gauges
Calculate pressure by measuring a pressure dependent parameter

3.1. Thermal Conductivity Gauges

measure the rate of heat transfer between a heated filament and its surroundings (gauges wall) BASIS OF OPERATION: electric current heats the metallic wire heat flow to the surroundings the temperature of the filament depends on the rate of heat loss heat loss is proportional to pressure measure of filaments temperature change pressure measurement of filaments temperature : - measurement of filaments resistance change Pirani gauge - thermocouple thermocouple gauge

3.1.1. Heat transfer regimes in a thermal conductivity gauge

viscous flow (Kn < 0,01)
heat flow independent of pressure (small convection dependence)

molecular viscous flow (0,01 < Kn < 10)

heat flow linearly proportional to pressure thermal conductivity gauges work in this region

strong molecular flow (Kn > 10)

heat flow by radiation and conduction through the wire

3.1.2. Pirani Gauges

measure the heated filaments resistance (R T) widely used gauge pressure range: 10-2 105 Pa the heated wire forms one arm of a Wheatstone bridge 2 methods: (1) constant voltage/current method (2) constant temperature method

-sensitivity diminishes as temperature increases (high pressures)

- constant sensitivity - not easy operation method

3.1.2. Pirani Gauges

heat conductivity varies considerably among gases calibration of the gauge depends on the gas nature most gauges are calibrated for air + a chart is needed for other gases

3.1.3. Thermocouple Gauges

a constant current heats the filament and a thermocouple measures its temperature a low R microammeter connected to the thermocouple indicates the pressure calibration depends on the gas like in the Pirani gauge a chart is needed for other gases

3.2. Ionization Gauges

Gas molecules are ionized by electron impact and the ion-current, which is proportional to the gas pressure, is measured Particle density (n) gauge: ionized positive ions number n and n P only if the temperature is constant Indicated pressure depends on the ionization cross section of the gas Most important gauge to measure low pressures; pressure range: 10-11 10-3 Pa i+= Si- P; 0.05/Pa<S<0.15/Pa

Ion gauges are calibrated for nitrogen the reading changes depending on the gas: P(x) = P(measured)/(relative sensitivity of gas x)

3.2.1. Hot Cathode Gauge

BASIS OF OPERATION : emission of thermal electrons from a hot cathode electron acceleration ionization ion collection and current measurement 1) Triode gauge the first ion gauge pressure range: 10-6 10-1 Pa problem: no lower readings due to x-rays generated photocurrent

Triode gauge 1) Cathode (filament), potential over ground +20->+50 V and current 10 -5 ->10 -2 A. 2) Anode (grid), potential over ground +150V 3) Ion collector, grounded (or biased 30V respect to the filament) 4) Cover 5) Path of emitted electrons

X-ray influence
electrons striking the anode (grid) generate x-rays (bremsstrhlung) x-rays produce photoelectrons in the collector photocurrent to the anode measured current grows too large pressure reading due to the photocurrent, there is a minimum reading value, even though the actual pressure is lower

BAG-gauge improvement over Triode-gauge

2) Bayard-Alpert Gauge (BAG) They overcome the x-rays problem by replacing the large area collector with a fine wire 10-8 10-9 Pa Most popular design for measurements of high vacuum pressures 0.05/Pa<Sensitivity<0.15/Pa At high pressures the sensitivity diminishes (space charge effect) 3) Schulz-Phelps Gauge Close spacing between electrodes one ionization per electron Large collector surface complete ions collection Ion generation is reduced respect to BAG because the chance for an ionizing collision is proportional to the path length Smaller sensitivity, about 4x10-3/Pa Used at higher pressures: 10-4 100 Pa

VC = - 30 V VG = + 150 V VF = 0 V

3.2.2. Cold Cathode Gauge

1) Penning gauge Electrical + magnetic field electrons travel long distances in spiral paths before colliding the anode ionization probability increases Higher ionization efficiency than the hot cathode gauge The great total current is the sum of the electron and positive ion currents The relation between anode-current i+ and pressure P is: i+ = k Pn, where k and n are gauge and gas dependent constants Pressure-range: 10-4 1 Pa Cold cathode gauges sensitivity varies with gas

Penning gauge diagram. 1. Anode, V=2-10kV 2. Cathode (grounded) 3. Permanent magnet (0.1-0.2 T) 4. Bleeder resistor

Electron path in a Penning gauge

2 - 10 kV

0 kV

1) Electrons leaving the anode 2) Electron going back and forth through the anode 3) Electron colliding a molecule and ionising it

4. Choosing the Gauge

range of pressure to be measured Usually more than one gauge is needed in a vacuum system interaction between the gauge and the vacuum chamber:
the gauge connected to the system must no vaporize any substance into the vacuum the gas in the vacuum chamber must not damage the gauge (i.e. contamination of the electrodes in capacitive gauges)

Pressure ranges for various gauges

5. Gauges for Partial Pressures

Measurement to obtain the composition of the gas mixture: the partial pressures of the gas Residual gas analyzers (RGA) and mass spectrometers are used METHOD: (1) gas ionization (2) ions directed to the mass separator (3) detection of the separated particles

SYSTEM FOR PARTIAL PRESSURE ANALYSIS

5.1. Ionization sources

The only technique applicable to the production of positive ions in commercial RGAs is electron impact ionization Ion production of each species n and n P (partial pressure) if the temperature is constant (below 10-3 Pa due to space charge effects) Ionization cross section it is generally greatest for most gases between 50 150 eV generally the ion sources work at 70 V

IONIZATION CROSS-SECTION

Ions per cm under a pressure of 1 mbar for different electron energies

IONIZATION CROSS-SECTION IS GENERALLY GREATEST FOR MOST GASES IN THE 50-to-150 eV RANGE

5.2. Mass Separation

5.2.1. Magnetic sector analyzer
Ion acceleration through a potential Va directed into a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the ion motion ions escape the magnetic field through an exit slit The exit slit selects the ions having appropriate beam radius: F = q vB = qvB = man = mv2/r beam radius: r = v/B * m/q = 1/B * (2mVa/q)1/2 the ions separate depending on their mass/charge ratio Discrimination of (m/q) values: 1) changing Va 2) changing B

MAGNETIC SECTOR MASS SEPARATOR r= 1 B

2mVa q

1/2

5.2.2. RF Quadrupole
Selected charge-to-mass ratio ions in a varying quadrupole field Four rods, which are connected to U + V cos(t) positive and negative voltage, form a band pass filter that allows ions of a particular mass range to go through Discrimination of (m/q) values: 1) changing the RF frequency, U and V constant 2) changing U and V, frequency constant

+ electrodes: U + Vcost - electrodes: -(U + Vcost)

5.3. Ion detection

-Low pressure

detector sensitive to small ion fluxes (10-6 A- 10-17 A)

-Measurement of ion flow: +Faraday-cup +Faraday-cup+ FET-amplifier (high pressures), current>10-12 A +Faraday-cup and electron multiplier or channeltron electron multiplier combination (low pressures)

Faraday-cup sensor 1) Positive ions 2) Electron damper 3) Faraday-cup 4) Electrometer

Electron multiplier

Channeltron

Example of the mass spectra of a gas

In the analysis it is important to take care of the different ionization cross-sections of the gases: each gas produces different peaks even though the partial pressure is the same