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Combustion Science and Technology

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Combustion of Syngas in Internal Combustion Engines

Andr L. Boehman & Olivier Le Corre
a a b

Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa 16802, USA
b

Department of Energetics and Environmental Engineering Ecole des Mines de Nantes La F-44307, Nantes Cedex 3, France Available online: 09 May 2008

To cite this article: Andr L. Boehman & Olivier Le Corre (2008): Combustion of Syngas in Internal Combustion Engines, Combustion Science and Technology, 180:6, 1193-1206 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102200801963417

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Combust. Sci. and Tech., 180: 11931206, 2008 Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0010-2202 print/1563-521X online DOI: 10.1080/00102200801963417

COMBUSTION OF SYNGAS IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES L. Boehman1 and Olivier Le Corre2 Andre
1

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Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa 16802, USA 2 Department of Energetics and Environmental Engineering Ecole des Mines de Nantes La F-44307 Nantes Cedex 3 France
The combustion of synthesis gas will play an important role in advanced power systems based on the gasification of fuel feedstocks and combined cycle power production. While the most commonly discussed option is to burn syngas in gas turbine engines, another possibility is to burn the syngas in stationary reciprocating engines. Whether spark ignited or compression ignited, syngas could serve to power large bore stationary engines, such as those presently operated on natural gas. To date, however, there has been little published on the combustion of syngas in reciprocating engines. One area that has received attention is dual-fueled diesel combustion, using a combination of diesel pilot injection and syngas fumigation in the intake air. In this article, we survey some of the relevant published work on the use of synthesis gas in IC engines, highlighting recent work on dual-fuel (syngas 1 diesel) combustion. Keywords: Diesel; Dual-fuel; Internal combustion engine; Syngas

INTRODUCTION Advanced power systems that are projected to achieve high efficiency and low emissions, such as those envisioned in the Vision 21 (Rao et al., 2002) and FutureGen (U.S. DOE, 2003) programs of the U.S. Department of Energy, rely on synthesis gas as a key intermediate energy carrier. In such systems, coal or other fuels are converted to synthesis gas (composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) via gasification and=or partial oxidation. The targets outlined for Vision 21 powerplants are 75% thermal efficiency for natural gas fueled plants on a LHV basis and 60% for coal fueled plants on a HHV basis while producing electricity, without CO2 capture and sequestration or co-production of any transportation fuels. The goal for coal based plants producing H2 or transportation fuels only is a minimum fuel utilization efficiency of 75% on a LHV basis (Rao et al., 2002). Analyses of system configurations and efficiency limitations have suggested that the only means to achieve such efficiency targets requires gas turbines integrated with solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) in hybrid power systems.
L. Boehman, The Pennsylvania State University, 405 Academic Address correspondence to Andre Activities Bldg., University Park, PA 16802, E-mail: boehman@ems.psu.edu

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Because of their role in distributed energy (DE) production and their combination of high efficiency and low cost, advanced reciprocating engines are another potential means of converting synthesis gas into power. Mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide have high anti-knock behavior and therefore could serve as spark ignition (SI) fuels and as HCCI fuels (Shudo and Takahashi, 2004; Shudo, 2006). However, addition of hydrogen to carbon monoxide or to methane tends to increase combustion temperatures and increases NO emissions under stoichiometric SI combustion (Li and Karim, 2005). So, such mixtures may be more appropriate in lean burn applications where combustion temperatures are moderated by excess air. Such mixtures could also serve in dual-fuel engines that operate under compression ignition using a pilot injection of diesel fuel. Although there is little published work on the use of synthesis gas as a fuel for internal combustion engines, there has been a substantial effort by Le Corre and co-workers on the use of various gaseous fuels, including synthesis gas, in dual-fuel compression ignition engines. This work is one example of the large body of activity on pilot-ignited dual-fuel diesel engines that operate on a combination of diesel fuel and natural gas. Other engine studies related to synthesis gas include work by Karim and co-workers (Karim and Moore, 1990; Karim and Wierzba, 1992) and McMillian and Lawson (2006), who examined the possibility of synthesis gas production via a natural-gas fueled partial oxidation engine. In the work by McMillian and Lawson, a spark ignited engine was operated at equivalence ratios from 1.3 to 1.6 and was shown to yield H2 concentrations as high as 11 vol.% in a spark ignition mode. They estimated that hydrogen concentrations as high as 20 vol.% could be achievable by operating in a homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) operating mode. Since there has been little reported work on the operation of internal combustion engines on synthesis gas, the rest of this paper will focus on the dual-fuel application of synthesis gas as an IC engine fuel. Dual-fuel engines have been employed in a wide range of applications to utilize gaseous fuels. They are most commonly modified diesel engines and can achieve very low emission levels, particularly smoke and particulate. Benefits with the dual-fuel conversion include smoother and quieter operation, significantly longer engine life between overhauls, fuel savings and enhanced safety. The gaseous fuel, which is called the primary fuel, provides most of the energy input. This is inducted along with air and compressed. At full load around 80% of the total energy could be contributed by the primary fuel. The pilot fuel is usually diesel, and in fact, is used to ignite the gaseous fuel-air charge. The injection of the pilot fuel takes place near TDC (Top Dead Center) like in the diesel engine. The pilot fuel self-ignites and forms multiple ignition centers from which primary fuel combustion is initiated (Poonia et al., 1998, Liu and Karim, 1997). Finally, the gaseous fuel and the pilot fuel burn together in the combustion chamber. The combustion process in a dualfuel engine tends to display a combination of features of both diesel and spark ignition engines. For compression ignition (CI) engines, the ignition of the primary fuel (i.e., which is typically the gaseous fuel in dual-fuel CI combustion) is activated by the in-cylinder conditions. Some fuels do not have good enough ignition quality to enable ignition. Therefore, two fuels must be used as shown in Figure 1. First a pilot fuel, which could be for example diesel fuel, is injected, resulting in ignition and a rise

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Figure 1 Conceptual diagram of dual fuel CI engine (from Garnier et al., 2005). Reprinted with permission from SAE 2005-01-1731 # 2005 SAE International

of the temperature in the combustion chamber. Then, the second fuel, which could be for example syngas, is injected and ignites as the pilot fuel temperature increases. In dual-fuel engines, the energy released by combustion comes about partly from the combustion of gaseous alternative fuel, while the diesel fuel continues to provide, through timed cylinder injection, the remaining part of the energy released. Ideally, in relation to the gaseous alternative supplied to the engine, there is a need to determine the optimum diesel fuel quantity at a particular engine operating condition, so as to provide the best performance over the desired load range. The main aim is to minimize the use of diesel fuel due to environmental considerations and maximize its substitution by alternative fuels throughout the load and speed range. The dual-fuel engine is an ideal multi-fuel engine that can operate effectively on a wide range of fuels with the flexibility of operating as a conventional diesel engine. The typical combustion process in a dual-fuel engine consists of four stages, an ignition delay period, premixed combustion of the pilot fuel, premixed combustion of the gaseous fuel and diffusion combustion of the gaseous fuel together with the combustion of the remaining pilot fuel, as shown in Figure 2. Of interest is the determination of the ignition delay, which is the time delay between injection of the pilot fuel and the initiation of chemical heat release, and correlation of the ignition delay for various fuel combinations. During this ignition delay period, complex chemical reactions take place. Ignition delay can be correlated by using an Arrhenius equation (see Hardenberg and Hase, 1979), which has been modified by Prakash et al. (1999) for biogas-diesel systems. This relation takes into account several effects, such as oxygen concentration and variations of polytropic coefficient. Bilcan et al. (2001) have proposed an expression of the polytropic coefficient for different gaseous fuels and which has been validated for a syngas-diesel engine by Garnier et al. (2005). The ignition delay for the

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Figure 2 Characteristic stages of the rate of heat release for combustion in a dual fuel engine (from Garnier et al., 2005). Reprinted with permission from SAE 2005-01-1731 # 2005 SAE International

pilot ignition of various gaseous fuels has also been measured by Kavtaradze et al. (2005) who compared ignition delays for diesel fuel, natural gas and mixtures referred to as synthesis gas (70%N2 30%CH4 and 60%H2 20%CH4 20%N2). While these synthesis gas mixtures are substantially different from the synthesis gas expected within a Vision 21 power plant, the results are nonetheless instructive. Kavtaradze et al. found that for pilot ignition of various gaseous fuels, including the use of exhaust gas recirculation, the formula in Eq. (1) was effective for correlating ignition delay.   E =R si cKp1:3 exp T 1

where c is an empirically determined constant with units of time (s), K is an empirically determined parameter equal to 0:9z0:09 where z is the percentage of exhaust recirculation, p is the cylinder pressure at the time of fuel injection (bar), E is the activation energy (J=mol) and R is the ideal gas constant (J=mol-K). In comparing their correlation of the ignition for different gaseous fuels and for various levels of exhaust gas recirculation, they observed that the impact of hydrogen on pilot-ignited diesel combustion is to shorten both the ignition delay and the duration of combustion. A review of the state of art in correlating ignition delay shows that two methods exist. The first one is based on the Livengood and Wu (1955) integral. The second one is based on an Arrhenius equation. Livengood and Wu Integral Approach Hountalas and Papagiannakis (2000) have studied the ignition delay with: I Z
0 t

p k

1 a d s exp E T

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The ignition delay s is obtained when the integral is equal to one. Depending upon the fuels, the parameters are fitted to obtain good agreement with experiments. Arrhenius Equation Approach Ignition delay ID models dedicated to diesel or dual-fuel are based on Arrhenius equation [c.f., Aligrot et al. (1997), Assanis et al. (1999), Heywood (1988), Liu and Karim (1995), or Ramos (1989)]. ID A pk exp  Ea RT  3

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where ID is the ignition delay (ms), p and T the pressure (bar) and the temperature (K) averaged over ignition processes. Ea is the activation energy (J=mole), R the universal gas constant (J=mole=K), A and k are kinetic parameters. Hiroyasu (1985) used the traditional Arrhenius equation to correlate ignition delay as follows:   Ea k n ID A p GFAR exp 4 RT where GFAR is the global fuel air ratio. Mansour et al. incorporated the engine speed N and the inlet temperature Tin : ID A N
a b k Tin p

Ea exp RT

 5

The Prakash model (Prakash et al., 1999) was formulated to integrate the engine speed (by piston speed), an activation energy depending on cetane number, the oxygen concentration, and the thermodynamic conditions (pressure an temperature) at TDC (top dead center). Garnier et al. (2005) found that the Prakash model, shown in the following formula and which is substantially more complex that that used by Kavtaradze et al. (2005) in Eq. (1), provided an effective correlation: 0:63 ID ACf Ok c exp EA D Q 6

Thus, effective correlation of the ignition delay in dual-fuel combustion can be achieved and the impact of using synthesis gas instead of, for instance natural gas, as the gaseous fuel in a dual-fuel engine should serve to shorten the ignition delay and shorten the duration of combustion. In the rest of this paper, we survey some of the experimental observations of Garnier et al. (2005) and others to provide an indication of the unique impact of syngas on dual-fuel diesel combustion. EXPERIMENTAL A single cylinder, direct injection, air-cooled stationary diesel engine was adapted to work in dual-fuel mode, using syngas as the primary fuel. The main engine specifications are presented in Table 1. Atmospheric temperature during

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A. L. BOEHMAN AND O. LECORRE Table 1 Technical specifications of the dual fuel engine Engine Number of cylinder Diesel nominal power [W] Engine speed [RPM] Bore x Stroke [mm] Connecting rod length [mm] Compression ratio Injection timing Valve timing [CA] Lister-Petter diesel engine 1 2800 1,500 95.3 88.9 165.3 18 Fixed, 20CA BTDC Inlet open: 36 BTDC inlet close: 69 ABDC exhaust open: 76 BBDC exhaust close: 32 BTDC

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the experiments varied from 20C up to 27C. Additionally, the atmospheric pressure changed from 1002 mbar to 1023 mbar and the relative humidity from 47% to 69%. The engine is connected to an electrical dynamometer. To provide the gaseous fuel, a mixing system was composed of nine pure gases provided by bottles (methane, ethane, propane, butane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide). The syngas used in this work is composed of H2 (10%), CH4 (4%), CO2 (12%), CO (25%) and N2 (49%). The thermodynamic conditions due to the autoignition and combustion of the pilot fuel (diesel) allow this low energy content gas (LHV $ 4.7 MJ=kg) to be ignited along the front flame. Consequently, the pilot fuel has been kept above a minimum value of 5% to allow ignition. The system for the acquisition of in-cylinder pressure was composed of: . Piezo electric cylinder pressure sensor AVL QH32D, gain 25.28pC=bar, range 0200 bar . Charge amplifier AVL 3066A0 . Shaft position encoder AVL 364C . Piezo resistive pressure sensor fixed inside the inlet manifold with its amplifier range 02.5 bar The experimental curves of the rate of heat release (ROHR), which are obtained from pressure versus crank angle data (with a resolution of 0.1 CA) averaged over 100 cycles, are derived from a thermodynamic model. The so-called one zone model [see Heywood (1988) or Thyagarajan and Babu (1985)] describes the behavior of a quasi-perfect gas, with a homogeneous temperature and pressure within the combustion chamber. These curves are used to determine the energy conversion rates during different phases of the combustion process by application to the experimental data. Additionally, NOX and CO2 emissions were measured using an infrared COSMA CRISTAL 500 analyzer. Averaged values were calculated on periods of 100 to 300 seconds. The amount of gas injected at constant load is defined as the substitution rate of diesel fuel expressed by (Prakash et al., 1999): ds ddiesel ddual fuel ddiesel 7

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where ds is the defined diesel substitution, ddiesel is the quantity of diesel injected in diesel mode and ddual-fuel is the quantity of diesel injected in dual-fuel mode. Since this definition for the diesel substitution is based solely on the amounts of diesel fuel used with and without substitution, it represents both the mass and the energy fraction of the substitution on a percentage basis. The mass flow rates of air, diesel and syngas were measured as well as the exhaust gas temperature. Substitutions between 10% and 70% were measured, but the main interest of this engine remains for substitutions beyond 30% or 40%. Besides, diesel substitution has to be significant in order to bring out the several advantages of dual-fuel technology. Additional experimental details and description of the analysis methodology are available elsewhere (Garnier et al., 2005).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ignition delay (ID) is an essential parameter to determine for all diesel fuels and has a significant impact on combustion, energy conversion efficiency and pollutant formation. As mentioned in the introduction, the determination of ignition delay for a dual-fuel engine takes on the additional complication that the vaporizing pilot fuel spray is injected not solely into air but into an air-fuel mixture. Thus, correlation of the ignition delay for dual-fuel engines requires consideration of the impact of the gaseous fuel on the stoichiometry in the cylinder. As mentioned in the introduction, Garnier et al. (2005) found that the Prakash model, shown in Eq. (6), provided an effective correlation: 0:63 ID ACf Ok c exp EA D Q 6

where A is as defined in Eq. (8) with units of (m=s) and Mps is the average piston speed (m=s), A 0:36 0:22Mps the activation energy (J=mol) is linked to the Cetane number of the diesel fuel, EA 618840 CN 25 9 8

and Oc represents the oxygen concentration in the gas, whereby the airfuel ratio is introduced. Oc Ocharge Oair 10

In-cylinder conditions are set by Eqs. (10) and (11). D 1 1 RTinj 17190 21:2 Pinj 12:4 11

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In Eqs. (11) and (12), D has units of (mol=J), Q is dimensionless, and Tinj and Pinj are the temperature (K) and pressure (bar) in the cylinder when diesel sprays is injected (introduced by Bilcan et al., 2001). In Eqn. (9) ndf and nair are the polytropic coefficients of the compression phase, in dual-fuel mode and diesel mode, respectively. fp is the gaseous concentration in the combustion chamber. ndf nair afp 13

d cdual fuel dfp

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The unknown parameters needed to determine the ID are Cf, k and a. The coefficient a is obtained using experimental data of gaseous concentration fp , and theoretical values of calorific capacities of air and gas. The slope of the curve ndf f fp at different loads leads to values of a. The average value gives a 0.26 and is compared with other gaseous fuels defined by Bilcan et al. (1991) in Table 2. The optimal pair of factors Cf 1:784; k 0:542 is found by minimizing the difference between experiment and theory, using the least square method for ln(ID) curves. Experimental data of ID are then compared to predicted data (Figs. 3 and 4). The ignition delay is well predicted from diesel substitutions above 30%: the uncertainty does not exceed 0.5CA. Dual-fuel engines typically operate at diesel substitutions above 50%. The overall process of dual-fuel combustion can be described by a superposition of multiple Wiebes functions, as shown by Liu and Karim (1997) who superposed two functions to characterize the premixed and the diffusion combustion processes. Bilcan et al. (2001) have developed a procedure using 3 Wiebes laws, one for each combustion stage. These 3 laws describe the ROHR for biogas (from landfill)-diesel fuel engines (Fig. 2). In order to determine the onset of the diffusion combustion phase, the predicted curve of the premixed pilot fuel combustion is subtracted from the experimental curve of ROHR. The end of the diffusion combustion is considered to occur when the burned fraction is 99.9%. Figure 5 illustrates an effective decomposition of the phases of the combustion process. As shown in Figure 6a, the peak value of the ROHR during the premixed combustion of the pilot fuel is not significantly affected by the variation of the diesel substitution, until a certain limit is reached. This limit, at 4550% substitution, is represented by the quantity of diesel that can be burned during the premixed phase. If the total quantity of diesel introduced inside the cylinder during the ignition delay

Table 2 Compared values of a for different fuels Gaseous fuel Biogas (63% CH4, 37% CO2) NG (100% CH4) LPG (30% C3H8, 70% C4H10) a [-] 0.19 0.18 0.31

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Figure 3 Predicted and experimental ignition delay at 40% load.

becomes smaller than this limit, the maximum value of ROHR for the premixed combustion of the pilot fuel decreases. As seen in Figure 6b, the ROHR during the second phase of the combustion process becomes significant only after the limit in diesel substitution, around 4550%. For lower levels of diesel substitution (below roughly 20%), since the fuel to air ratio in the gaseous mixture is quite small, the second premixed peak (for the syngas) is almost imperceptible and as a consequence the energy released in the second phase of the combustion process is modest. Emissions of NOx show an expected trend of increasing with diesel substitution, since the increasing H2 content as a percentage of total fuel energy leads to an increase in adiabatic flame temperature, as shown in Figure 7. This is one reason why the use of H2 fumigation in dual-fuel combustion may also require the use of exhaust gas recirculation to prevent excessive NOx emissions. As mentioned already, there has been little consideration in the literature of the combustion of syngas in reciprocating engines, but there has been a significant amount of work on the fumigation of the intake air of diesel engines with hydrogen alone. At low concentrations of hydrogen in the intake air (less than 20% diesel substitution), one might consider

Figure 4 Predicted and experimental ignition delay at 50% load.

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Figure 5 Effective decomposition of the rate of heat release for the different phases of combustion.

this hydrogen assisted diesel combustion, while at higher levels of diesel substitution (greater than 20%), the process is the same dual-fuel combustion process considered here. In the case of hydrogen-assisted combustion in CI engines, Varde and Frame (1983) reported some of the earliest work. They observed that at low levels of hydrogen addition (e.g., 510% of the total energy injected as hydrogen in the intake air) there were reductions in smoke emissions at part load. At higher loads and higher levels of hydrogen addition, NOx emissions increased. Senthil Kumar et al. (2003) examined hydrogen assisted combustion of a vegetable oil fuel from the jatropha plant and showed mild efficiency improvements and reduced smoke at 57% hydrogen mass to diesel mass ratio. They observed a NOx increase, however, when substituting hydrogen for the jatropha oil. Lu et al. (2004) examined the impact of hydrogen addition to DI diesel

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Figure 6 Heat released for each part of the combustion process.

combustion through the use of a rapid compression machine with optical access. They observed increased OH radical intensity during the premixed ignition process and reduced soot intensity in the spray flame with hydrogen addition from 510% of the total energy. At higher levels of hydrogen addition, soot intensity increased. Tomita et al. (2001) showed that at fairly high diesel substitution levels, moderate load, and advanced diesel pilot injection timing, both smoke and NOx could be

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Figure 7 Emissions of NOx as a function of load and diesel substitution.

brought to very low levels with hydrogen addition (for pilot injections before 40BTDC). They suggest that a well mixed diesel fuel=hydrogen mixture provides a mild and distributed combustion throughout the cylinder, which represents a premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) mode of combustion. One would expect that these trends in performance of dual-fuel diesel combustion with hydrogen will be indicative of the performance with syngas, since hydrogen will likely dominate the ignition characteristics of the gaseous fuel and carbon monoxide will contribute to thermal energy release as combustion proceeds to completion, just as it does in the late stages of combustion in premixed flames. Therefore, the observations by Garnier et al. (2005) for dual-fuel combustion with syngas and those of various authors for dual-fuel combustion with hydrogen together provide an indication of how IC engines could perform with the use of syngas for stationary power generation.

CONCLUSIONS The aim of this article is to survey the published work on the combustion of syngas in reciprocating engines, and focus on the dual-fuel combustion of syngas in compression ignition engines. From the experimental work and the literature reviewed here, the following conclusions can be drawn.

. Syngas addition (i.e., substitution of syngas for diesel fuel) tends to shorten the ignition delay and shorten the duration of combustion in dual-fuel operation . Syngas addition tends to increase NOx emissions, presumably from the increase of adiabatic flame temperature due to the hydrogen in the syngas . Based upon observations of hydrogen assisted CI combustion, modest amounts of syngas addition in combination with advanced injection timing of the diesel pilot can lead to effective low temperature PCCI combustion, yielding both reduced PM and reduced NOx.

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