CHINESEJOURNALOFMECHANICALENGINEERING

Vol.24,aNo. *,a2011
DOI:10.3901/CJME.2011.**.***,availableonlineatwww.cjmenet.comwww.cjmenet.com.cn

LoadBearingCapacityandSafetyAnalysisforStrainhardeningAustenitic StainlessSteelPressureVessels
1, * 2 CHENGang and DENGYangchun

1ChinaSpecialEquipment SafetySupervisionAdministration,GeneralAdministrationofQualitySupervision andInspectionandQuarantineofthePeoplesRepublicofChina, Beijing 100088,China 2Hubei Provincial SpecialEquipmentSafetyInspectionandResearchInstitute, Wuhan430077, China
Received January31, 2010revised November17,2010 accepted November,2010published electronically November, 2010

Abstract:Byincreasing theyieldstrengthsof austeniticstainlesssteelsforpressurevesselswithstrainhardeningtechniques,theelastic loadbearingcapacityofausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevesselscanbesignificantlyimproved.Twokindsofstrainhardeningmethods areoftenusedforausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevessels:Avesta modelforambienttemperatureapplicationsandArdeform modelfor cryogenictemperatureapplications.Bothmethodsareobtainedfromconventionaldesignrulesbasedonthelinearelastictheory,and onlyconsiderthehardeningeffectfrommaterials.Consequentlythislimitstheapplicationsofstrainhardeningtechniquesforaustenitic stainless steelpressure vessels because of safety concerns. Thispaperinvestigates the effect of strain hardening on theload bearing capacityofausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevesselsunderlargedeformation,basedontheelasticplastictheory.Firstly,tounderstand theeffectofstrainhardeningonmaterialbehavior,theplasticinstabilityloadsofaroundtensilebarspecimenarederivedundertwo differentloadingpathsandvalidatedbyexperiments.Secondly,toinvestigatetheeffectofstrainhardeningonpressurevesselsstrength, theplasticinstabilitypressureunderstrainhardeningisderivedandfurthervalidatedbyfiniteelementsimulations.Further,thesafety marginofpressurevesselsafterstrainhardeningisanalyzedbycomparingthesafetyfactorvaluescalculatedfromburstingtests,finite elementanalyses,andstandards.Theresearchingresultsshowthattheloadbearingcapacityofpressurevesselsatambienttemperature isindependentoftheloadinghistorywhentheeffectsofbothmaterialstrainhardeningandstructuraldeformationareconsidered. Finite elementsimulationsandburstingtestsresultsshowthattheminimumsafetyfactorofausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevesselswith5% strainhardening isclosetotherecommendedvalueforcommonpressurevesselsspecifiedintheEuropeanpressurevesselstandard. The proposed studyalsoshowsthatin the strain hardening design of austenitic stainlesssteel pressure vessels, the calculation for plastic instability pressure could use theoretical formula or finite element analyses based on geometrical dimensions and material property parametersbeforestrainhardening,buta5%strainshouldbeemployedasadesignlimit.Theproposedresearchcanbeusedforthe strainhardeningdesignofausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevessels safely. Keywords: pressurevessel,austeniticstainlesssteel,strainhardening,loadbearingcapacity,safetymargin

necessary theoretical guide, so the safety concerndirectly [2] affectsitswidespreaduse . As shown in Fig. 1, when the stress reaches sk which Sincethefirstpressurevesselstandardwasestablishedin exceeds the yield strength s0.2, the specimen is unloaded. 1914,thesmalldeformationassumptionhasalwaysbeena Whilethe specimen isreloaded, before the stress is lower precondition for pressure vessel design.The elasticplastic than sk, the material is in the elastic state, and sk is stress analysis method, with the large deformation as a equivalent to a new yield strength of the material. precondition,wasfirstintroducedintheVolume Part2 Obviously, sk >s0.2. of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code [1] that was The capacity of strain hardening for austenitic stainless promulgatedin2007,anditarousedabroadattentioninthe steels is very high. According to this characteristic, the pressure vessel area. In fact, the strain hardening elastic load bearing capacity of austenitic stainless steel technology forausteniticstainlesssteelpressurevesselsisa pressure vessels can be increased by hydraulically typical engineering application of large deformation with processing thepressurevesselsuntil theplasticdeformation over 60 years. However, because the technology is fully is started, and then the pressure vessels may be operated established on the basis of experience, and lacks of under a design pressure with no new plastic deformation appears. This is the strain hardening technology for * Correspondingauthor.Email:chen_gang@sac.gov.cn ThisprojectissupportedbyNationalKeyTechnologyR&DProgram austeniticstainlesssteelpressurevessels.

1 Introduction

of China under the 11th Fiveyear (Grant No. 2006BAK02B02), and ChinaSpecialEquipmentScience&TechnologyCooperationPlatform

2 YCHEN Gang,etal:LoadBearingCapacityandSafetyAnalysisforStrainhardeningAusteniticStainlessSteelPressureVessels

gotten a higher value for saving material. As the price of austenitic stainless steels is expensive, it is valuable to applythestrainhardeningtechnology inthepressurevessel [14] design . However, it is too simple that the existing technical standardsforpressurevesselsofstrainhardeningarebased upon the conventional design of linear elasticity theory, since only the material strain hardening properties are considered,withoutanyinformationaboutthedeformation of pressure vessels. Meanwhile, significant plastic deformation can be found in the pressure vessels of strain hardening, and are completely unable to meet the Fig.1. Stressstraincurveofuniaxialtensiletest prerequisite of the small deformation for the traditional ofametalmaterial pressurevesseldesign. Therefore,inordertocorrectlyanalyzethesafetyofthe Two modes of strain hardening technology for austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel with strain austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels are commonly hardening, the load bearing capacity of pressure vessels used:(1) strain hardening under ambient temperature mustbereasonably analyzed. Avesta mode, (2) strain hardening under cryogenic In this paper, the load bearing capacity of pressure [3] temperature Ardeform mode . Under cryogenic vessels under monotonic loading is reviewed firstly. temperature conditions in liquefied nitrogen, the Secondly to understand the effect of strain hardening on ArdePortland Company [4] of the United States material behavior, the plastic instability loads of a round hydraulically treated the austenitic stainless steel pressure tensile bar specimen are derived under two different vessels with 1.5 times of the design pressure, and it is loadingpathsandvalidatedbyexperiments.Thentheload commonly known as Ardeform model, mainly used in bearingcapacityofpressurevesselsunderstrainhardening [5] [6] [7] aerospace field. ALPER , HENDERSON , ARTHUR , areanalyzed by theoretical derivation, experiment studies, and otherresearchers studiedthe damage caused bystrain and FEM calculations followed with comparison and hardening for the austenitic stainless steels at low analysis for safety margins in the pressure vessel design. [8] [9] temperature, whereas DOGAN and JULIO studied the Finally,two conclusionsare given. corrosionresistanceandfatigue propertiesofmaterialswith the strain hardened at lowtemperature. Under ambient 2 LoadBearingCapacityofPressureVessels temperature conditions, the Swedish company Avesta under Monotonic Loading [10] Sheffield hydraulically treated the austenitic stainless [15] steelpressurevesselswith1.5timesofthedesignpressure, CHEN, et al , firstly derived the pressurestrain commonly known as the Avesta mode, mainly for civil relationship for thinwalled cylindrical and spherical applications. This mode has been incorporated into the vessels under internal pressure respectively, basing on the European Union standard EN13458 for lowtemperature plasticitytheory andusingMisesyieldcriteriontoconsider [11] pressurevessels .Themediumsmainly usedareliquefied thestrainhardeningpropertyofmaterialsandthestructural nitrogen, liquefied oxygen or liquefied hydrogen. deformation, ,shownasfollows: [10] [12] [13] JONSON , HESSLING , BRAUTIGAM , and other researchers studied the material properties of austenitic 2 t p= g in gs g exp(- 3e ), (1) stainless steel pressure vessels with strain hardening at 3 rin ambient temperature. In this paper, the strain hardening technology atambient temperature is theoreticallystudied. 3 t p= 2 in gs g exp - e (2) At present, the strength design of pressure vessels is , 2 rin calculated according to the original dimension of pressure vesselsbefore thestrainhardening and sk obtainedafterthe strain hardening as the yield strength of the material, and wherepisthepressuretin andrin aretheoriginalthickness this calculation method is commonly used in the strain and the radius of the cylindrical or spherical thinwalled hardening technology for the austenitic stainless steel vessels, respectively s and e are the equivalent stress pressure vessels. Thus, for the two vessels with the same andequivalentstrainofthinwalledcylindricalorspherical materials, structural shapes, geometric size and wall vessels. The statusofplasticinstability is thickness, while the pressure vessel design is conducted according to the strain hardening technology or the conventionallinearelasticitytheoryrespectively,thedesign pressureobtainedfromthestrainhardeningtechnologyhas
d p = 0. de

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Derivation of Eqs. (1)(2), the plastic instability theoretical analysis, experimental studies, and finite [17] criterionsforcylindricalandsphericalthinwalledpressure element calculations were consistent. MELLOR and vesselsunderinternal pressuresarerespectively: other researchers obtained the similar conclusions as Eqs. (3)(5) by other methods. For the material [18] ds 1 withs = Ae n relationship, SVENSSON also obtained = s , (3) the similar conclusions as Eqs. (8)(9) by other method. d e 1 / 3 Based on the material true stresstrue strain relationship, theVolume Part2ofASMEBoilerandPressureVessel ds 1 [1] = s . (4) Code in 2007 , for the first time, specified the finite de 2 /3 elementanalysismethodunderlargedeformationcondition tocalculatetheloadbearingcapacityofpressurevessels. Similarly, the plastic instability criterion for tensile test Thus,underthe conditionofmonotonicloading,the load withround barspecimenis bearing capacity of pressure vessels may be more reasonably calculated by the above mentioned theoretical d s = s . (5) analysisorafiniteelementanalysis. de Eqs. (1)(5) can beapplied inall pressure vessel steels. Whenthetruestresstruestrainrelationshipofthematerial is known, according to Mises yield criterion, the plastic instability pressures for thinwalled cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels can be obtained by substituting thematerialrelationshipintotheabove equations,andthis pressure isthemaximumcapacity ofloadbearing. For example, the true stresstrue strain relationship of Swifttypematerial is

3 Load BearingCapacityof Strain HardeningPressure Vessels

In elasticity, since there is a simple linear relationship between stress and strain, superposition principle can be applied.Therefore,thepathofdeformationcanbeignored. However, in plasticity, due to the nonlinear nature of the stressstrainrelationshipandtheexistenceofthedifference between loading and unloading, a different deformation path may result in a different deformation. If the material hardening effect and the geometry changes caused by n s = A( B +e ) , (6) structural deformation are ignored, the load bearing capacity orthe ultimateloadlimitofthestructure mightnot where A, B, n are coefficients, and B is related to the be related with the loading history. While taking into originalplastic deformation of the material, i.e.,relatedto account the material strain hardening effect and the structural deformation,noreportis available for whether theoriginalstrainhardening. The plastic instability load of tensile test for round bar the loading path affects the load bearing capacity of the structure. specimensis 3.1 Theoreticalbasis The austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel with strain hardening has significant plastic deformation. So, while where Fplin is the plastic instability load of tensile test for studying the load bearing capacity, the loading condition roundbarspecimen,andSin istheareaoftheoriginalcross can be treated as loading twice. According to the actual sectionoftheround barspecimen. situation of the plastic deformation of austenitic stainless The plastic instability pressures for thinwalled steel pressure vessels undertaking the strain hardening at cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels are expressed ambient temperature under static condition, two loading respectivelyasfollows: paths shallbeconsidered: (1) Loadingat one timetothe plastic instability, that is, n t 2 n in monotonicloadingcondition. pplin = g Ag gexp( 3 B - n ), (8) rin 3 3 (2) Load twice, i.e., step 1: loading till the plastic deformation generated, then unloading step 2: reloading n toplasticinstability. 2 t 2n 3 pplin = in g A g exp B - n , (9) g For the material with true stresstrue strain relationship rin 2 3 of s = A( B +e ) n, round bar specimen has plastic deformation with tensile stretching, and unloading before wherepplin isthe plasticinstabilitypressureof thinwalled reaching theplastic instability, now the specimen contains cylindricalorsphericalpressurevessel. prestrainthenthespecimenisstretchedagaintofracture. [16] DENG studied the load bearing capacity of pressure During the plastic deformation, the appearance of the vessels. And his research shows that the results from materialtruestresstruestraincurvedoesnotchange except
Fplin = SinAn n exp( B -n),

(7)

4 YCHEN Gang,etal:LoadBearingCapacityandSafetyAnalysisforStrainhardeningAusteniticStainlessSteelPressureVessels

theaxisoriginchanges.AsshowninFig.2,afteraplastic deformation and an unloading, the new material constitutive relationship with retensile stretching can be expressedas

c C = e c = 2e 2 = -ln

S c , S in

Sc = Sin exp(-C ),

(11)

s = A( B + C +e ) n,
where C isthe strainvalueofprestrainhardening.

(10)

=A(B+ )n

where C is the value of prestrain, i.e., the equivalent strainec . Hence, after the strain hardening, the material true stresstruestrainrelationshipoftheroundbarbecomes Eq. (10). Substituting Bby B+C,andsubstitutingSin by Sc,then fromEq.(7),wecancalculatetheloadbearingcapacityof roundbarspecimens as
c Fplin = S cAn n exp(( B + C ) -n ),

B 0
(a) Originalmaterialmodel

where Fplin c is the load bearing capacity of round bar specimenswhiletheprestrainis C. Substitute Eq.(11)into the aboveequation,thenwehave
c Fplin = Fplin = S in An n exp( B -n ).

n =A(B+C+ )

Obviously, the load bearing capacities of round tensile barsunderthe2sortsofloadingpathsarethesame. 3.1.2 Loadbearingcapacityofcylindricalandspherical vesselsunderinternalpressure [15] For the thinwalled cylindrical vessels, CHEN, et al , derived

e =

2 3

e1.

(b)Materialmodelafterstrainhardening

Fig.2. Stressstrainrelationshipofaustenitic stainlesssteelunderuniaxialtensiletest

The equivalent strain C of the thinwalled cylindrical vesselswithprestrainhardeningis

2 c C = e c = e1 , 3.1.1 Loadbearing capacityofroundbartensile 3 specimen The original crosssectionalarea of round bar specimen r c for tensile test is Sin. While unloading after the wheree1 =ln c . rin crosssectional area of the round bar specimen reaches Sc Theradius ischangedto rc,i.e., withtensilestretching,the materialprestrainwillbe
c e 2 = ln

1 S c , 2 S in

3 rc = rin g exp C . 2

(12)

c where e2 represents the 2nd principal strain when the crosssectionalareaoftheroundbarspecimenis Sc. Fortheroundbarspecimenfortensiletesting,CHEN,et [15] al , derived

Similarly,thewallthicknessis changedto tc,i.e., 3 tc = tin g exp C . 2

(13)

e =2e 2,
then

c where e1 isthe1stprinciplestrain, e 1 ,rc,andtc arethe1st principlestrain,theradius,andthewallthicknesswhilethe prestrainis C,respectively. Then the material parameters is changed to Eq. (10).

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RegardingB+CasamaterialparametertoreplaceB,tc for tin, and rc for rin, from Eq. (8), the plastic instability pressure of the thinwalled cylindrical vessels after the prestrainhardeningis
c pplin =

t 2 n c g A g exp( 3( B + C ) - n ), rc 3 3
n

carbon steel and the duplex stainless steel specimens. This conclusion is consistent with theoretical analysis of the round bar tensile specimens for two kinds of loading paths. It should be noted that this experiment does not relatetothematerialtruestresstruestrainrelationship,and theselectedmaterialsare representative.
600

c where p plin is the plastic instability pressure of the thinwalled cylindrical vessels after the prestrain hardening. TakingEqs.(12) and (13)into the aboveequation,then

500

400

300

Experimentalpoints Fittingline

c plin

t 2 n = pplin = in A exp( 3B - n ). rin 3 3

n

200

100

Obviously, the plastic instability pressures of the thinwalledcylindricalvesselsunderthe2sortsofloading pathsarethesame. With the same theory, it can be proved that the plastic instability pressures of the thinwalled spherical vessels underthe2sortsofloadingpathsarethesame.

0 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

C
Fig.3. Tensilebearingcapacityforthematerial 16MnR, beforeandafterstrainhardening

3.2 Experimentalverificationbytheroundbartensile tests 800 Onekindofcarbonsteel16MnRandonekindofduplex 700 stainless steel 00Cr18Ni5Mo3Si2 were selected for the 600 experiments. The material chemical compositions are showninTable1.Foreachkindofmaterial,912standard 500 Experimentalpoints f10 round bar specimens were prepared, 3 of them, were 400 Fittingline directly tensed to fracture for testing the material tensile 300 properties, i.e., loading at one time till fracture. The rest specimens of carbon steels were divided into 2 groups, 200 whereas therest specimens ofduplex stainless steels were 100 divided into 3 groups, each group had 23 specimens. Wheneachgroupspecimenswereloadedtothesameload 0 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 valueatwhichthe specimens were produced plastic strain C C,thenunloadedto 0, andthenloaded to fracture, thatis, the twice loading till fracture. Among the twice loading Fig.4. Tensilebearingcapacityforthematerial process, the unloading process was controlled with 00Cr18Ni5Mo3Si2,beforeandafterstrainhardening computer program by load value, i.e., the load values before unloading were the same for each group. The experiments were performed at the MTS800 tensile test machine with displacement control,and theloading speed 3.3 Verificationbyfiniteelementanalysis Theaustenitic stainless steel 1Cr18Ni9used inpressure was1mm/min. vessels was selected for finite element analysis. The commercial software,i.e., Ansys9.0, wasusedforthe finite Table 1. Materialsforexperiments element analysis. The material properties were set to be Massfractionofchemicalcompositionw/ % homogenousandisotropichardeningwithVonMisesyield Material C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo criterion.Boththeexperimentaltruestresstruestraincurve 16MnR 0.170 1.52 0.35 0.006 and the fitting curve were used in the simulation. The 00Cr18Ni5Mo3Si2 0.029 1.13 1.65 5.18 18.530 2.7 meshingwasaccomplishedbytheelementofPlane82with about 1 mm side length, and the FEA model was axial Fig.3andFig.4illustrate theexperimentalresults.The symmetry.Thearclengthmethodwasusedin whichlarge resultsshowthattheloadbearingcapacity doesnotchange deformation was considered to calculate the maximum while the degree of strain hardening varies for both the

6 YCHEN Gang,etal:LoadBearingCapacityandSafetyAnalysisforStrainhardeningAusteniticStainlessSteelPressureVessels

pressure as the plastic instability pressure of a pressure vessel. For the cylindrical pressure vessels, the diameter andthewallthicknessof the shellsare325 mmand7.2 mm, respectively, and the head is a spherical shape with thickness of 7.2 mm. The shell lengths for the calculated vessels are 1 400 mm, 800 mm, 400 mm, 200 mm, respectively.For theothertwosphericalvessels,diameters and wall thickness are f325 mm7.2 mm and f325 mm14mm,respectively.Twopathsofloadingwereused inthesimulation.(1)Thefirstpathistheonesteploading, to calculate the plastic instability pressure of pressure vessels(2)Thesecondpathisthebysteploading,thatis, loadingthe pressurevesseluntil themaximumplasticstrain reaching 10%, unloading to 0 MPa, then reloading the pressure vessel to the plastic instability to calculate the plastic instability pressureofcylindrical vessel. Results of finiteelementanalysisshowthat,forevery pressurevessel, the pressures of plastic instability are the same while varying the loadingpaths. The same material and simulation method with above, andtheelementofSolid186wereusedinthefiniteelement analysistocalculatethetensileplasticinstabilityofaplate centeredby aholeunderuniaxialtensilestretch.Oneofthe plates is 100 mm in length, 50 mm in width, 10 mm in thickness, and 20 mm for the center hole radius and the dimensionofanotherplate is200mminlength,100mmin width,10mmin thickness,and10mmforthecenterhole radius. Uniform tensions were performed along thelength direction. Two sorts of loading methods were used, the sameastheloadingpathsfortheabovecylindricalvessels. Results from finite element analysis show that, for every structure in the two loading paths, the plastic instability forceisthe same.

original size and original material parameters prior to the strainhardening.

4 Safety MarginAnalysis

With strain hardening technology, the material yield strength is increased. Therefore, while the design calculation for pressure vessels is based on the conventional designbyrules method, the design pressure of pressure vessels is raised. In the above section, it is proved that the plastic instability pressure of the pressure vessels is a constant value while the dimensions and the materialsarethesame,whichmeansthatthesafetymargin of austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels with strain hardeningarelowered.Whilethepressurevesseldesignis conducted according to conventional methods of linear elasticity, since the allowable stresses for austenitic stainless steels are very low, the safety margins for austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels are quite large, and the design is quite conservative. Once adopting the strain hardening technique, the safety margins of stainless steel pressure vessels are appropriately reduced, and is engineering acceptable while the safety margin of the stainless steel pressure vessels is not less than that of the carbon steel pressure vessels. Thus, the key whether the strain hardening technology of austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels can be widely applied depends on the appropriately controlling of the plastic strain during performingstrainhardening. [19] CHEN,etal , carriedout2burstingtestsforcylindrical pressure vessels, 1Cr18Ni9 austenitic stainless steel, with dimensions of f219 mm8 mm1 400 mm which are numberedasE1andE2inTable2.Finiteelementanalyses were carried out for 4 cylindrical pressure vessels with dimension of f200 mm6mm1 400mm,numbered C1 3.4 Loadbearingcapacityofstrainhardening toC4,andfor4sphericalpressurevessels withdimension pressurevessels Through the theoretical analysis for plastic instability of f200 mm6 mm, numbered G1 to G4. The material loads of round tensile bars, long cylindrical and spherical parametersforFEMsimulationarelistedinTable2,where pressure vessels subjected to internal pressure, su is ultimate strength, s10% is 10% proof strength, s5% experimental verifications for the load bearing capacity of is 5% proofstrength, s1% is 1% proofstrength. round tensile bars, and the finite element calculations for Table 2. Materialpropertiesofthepressurevessels the load bearing capacity of the cylindrical and spherical forfiniteelementanalysis pressure vessels and the plain plate with a centered hole, Specimen Materialcurve Stress s / MPa the results show that all the above mentioned various No. function su s10% s5% s1% structures have the same load bearing capacity under the 0.494 C1, G1 s = 1 330 e 938.9 426.3 302.8 136.7 twokindsofloadingpaths. C2, G2, E1 s =1 343e 0.364 9 929.8 579.8 450.2 250.2 The above argument still can not explain whether the C3, G3, E2 s =1 261e 0.309 9 877.2 617.9 498.4 302.7 loadbearingcapacityfor allthestructureandallmaterials C4, G4 s =1 304e 0.350 7 903.1 581.6 456.1 259.4 arerelatedtotheloadingpaths,butitcanbeclarifiedthat, under the ambient temperature and static situation, while the strain hardening effect and structural dimensional 4.1 Safetymarginsofpressurevesselsundervarious strainconditions changesduetothe deformationareallconsidered,thestatic The plastic instability pressure of pressure vessels and pressure bearing capacity is independent with the loading the pressure corresponding to the different strains during history. Therefore, the plastic instability pressure of the loading process can be calculated. Then, the safety pressure vessel can be obtained with either the theoretical factor of pressure vessels at different prestrain conditions formulamethodorthefiniteelementanalysis,byusingthe

CHINESEJOURNALOFMECHANICALENGINEERING
is
n e = p plin pe , p D e =2[s ]e t in , rin

(16)

(14) then, the safety factor of the pressure vessels under the designconditionis
n D = p plin pDe ,

where ne is the safety factor of the pressure vessel at various prestrain level, pplin is the plastic instability pressure of the pressure vessels, and pe is the pressure corresponding to different strain values during theloading process. Table3andTable4showtheresultsfromfiniteelement analysis for the cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels. Table 5 lists the experimental results for the cylindrical vessels.
Table 3. FEAresultsandthesafetyfactors forthecylindricalshells
No. C1 C2 C3 C4 pplin 14.96 18.08 18.57 17.95 Pressure p/ MPa pe=10% pe=5% 12.13 9.68 16.65 14.06 17.69 15.58 16.66 14.25 pe=1% 7.44 8.77 9.64 8.91 Safetyfactor ne=10% ne=5% ne=1% 1.233 1.546 2.011 1.086 1.286 2.062 1.050 1.192 1.926 1.077 1.260 2.015

(17)

where pDe and nD are design pressure and safety factor of pressure vessels for different strains, and [s]e is the allowablestress. Combining with Tables 35 and Eqs. (15)(17), according to EN13458 specifications, selecting 1.4301 as thematerial,wecangetthesafetyfactorofpressurevessel underthe designconditionsshowninTable6.
Table 6. Safetyfactorsofthepressurevesselsobtained underthedesigncondition
No. C1 C2 C3 C4 G1 G2 G3 G4 E1 E2 Pressure p/ MPa pplin pDe=10% pDe=5% pDe=1% 14.96 18.08 8.07 6.12 4.52 18.57 17.95 27.74 32.94 16.14 12.24 9.04 33.57 32.63 42.81 19.95 15.12 11.18 44.71 Safetyfactor ne=10% ne=5% ne=1% 1.854 2.445 3.308 2.241 2.955 3.998 2.301 3.035 4.106 2.224 2.933 3.969 1.719 2.267 3.067 2.041 2.692 3.642 2.080 2.744 3.712 2.022 2.667 3.608 2.146 2.831 3.830 2.242 2.956 4.000

Table 4. FEAresultsandthesafetyfactors forthesphericalshells

No. G1 G2 G3 G4 pplin 27.74 32.94 33.57 32.63 Pressure p/ MPa pe=10% pe=5% 21.42 16.94 29.26 24.51 31.20 27.04 29.37 24.84 pe=1% 12.78 15.10 16.56 15.33 Safety factor ne=10% ne=5% ne=1% 1.295 1.637 2.17 1.126 1.344 2.182 1.076 1.242 2.027 1.111 1.314 2.129

FromTable6,itisclearlythat(1)atthestrainhardening degree of 10%, the actualminimum safetyfactor is 1.719 (2) at the strain hardening degree of 5%, the actual Pressure p/ MPa Safety factor No. pplin pe=10% pe=5% pe=1% ne=10% ne=5% ne=1% minimumsafetyfactor is2.267(3)atthestrainhardening E1 42.81 25.14 33.30 38.47 1.113 1.286 1.703 degreeof1%,theactualminimumsafety factoris 3.067. E2 44.71 26.31 34.49 39.81 1.123 1.296 1.699 The safety factor of 2.4 is adopted by the EU standard [20] for pressure vessels EN13445 which is identified with 4.2 Safetyfactorofpressurevesselsunderthedesign the United States and many other countries, and at this condition point,theactualminimumsafety factorforpressurevessels [21] Currently, the standardEN13458 Appendix C about the is 2.26 . When the strain is 5% during the strain [11] strain hardening for pressure vessels is almost hardening process, the actual minimum safety factor is recognized worldwide. The design safety factor of 2.267whichisequivalenttothatspecifiedintheEN13445, EN13458 is 1.5, in which the material with steel number and is also equivalent to the commonly used safety factor 1.4301 is similar to the Chinese material designated for thecarbon steel pressure vessels, thereforeithas great 1Cr18Ni9.Accordingto thisstandard,theallowable stress value. However, whether the value of strain during the of the material 1.4301 is [s]e=10%=273 MPa, [s]e=5%=207 strainhardeningprocesscanbefurtherincreasedstilllacks MPa, [s]e=1%=153MPa. ofsupportingexperimentaldata. Thedesignpressureofthecylindricalvesselis Thedesign with strainhardening for austenitic stainless t in steel pressure vessels restricts the strain quantity of p , (15) D e =[s ]e rin pressure vessels, and limits the allowable stress of the material.Theactualmaximumstrainofpressurevesselsis thedesignpressureofthesphericalvesselis lessthanthetheoreticalcontrolledvaluebecauseof(1)the actual yield strength of the material higher than the specified value in the material standards (2) the actual thicknessdeviationand marginavailable afterrounding(3)
Table 5. Safetyfactorsforcylindricalvesselsburstingtests

8 YCHEN Gang,etal:LoadBearingCapacityandSafetyAnalysisforStrainhardeningAusteniticStainlessSteelPressureVessels

the reinforcement of theheads and nozzles. As the actual strain was small, the actual safety margin of the pressure vesselwasmuchgreater.

5 Conclusions
(1) With considering the effect of material strain hardening and the structural deformation, at ambient temperature, the static load bearing capacity of pressure vesselshasnothingtodowiththeloadinghistory.Thus,the original dimensionandoriginalmaterialparameterspriorto strain hardening can be used to calculate the plastic instability pressure either by the theoretical formula or a finiteelementanalysis. (2)Itisgreatervaluablethatthestrainhardeningdesign for austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels is carried out according to EN13458 standards with strain 5% for strain hardening (The strain value specified in the EN13458 is 10%). These pressure vessels may be used in the design condition with the actual minimum safety factor of 2.267. This safety factor is equivalent to the actual minimum safety factor in EN13445 for pressure vessels. When satisfying the service environmental conditions, the restrictive condition of strain hardening design for austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel is suggested to be strain5%. References
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Biographicalnotes
CHEN Gang, born in 1958, PhD, is a professor in East China University of Science and Technology, China. His research interestsinclude ultimateloadbearingcapacityofstructures. Email: chen_gang@sac.gov.cn DENG Yangchun, born in 1967, PhD, is a senior engineer in Hubei Provincial Special Equipment Safety Inspection and Research Institute, China. His research interests include strain hardening technology ofpressurevessels. Email:deng_ych@126.com