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FOLIO FIZIK

NAMA KELAS

: ABU BIN ALI : 505

NO. MAKTAB: 12345

1. How to produce isotope?

There are two basic methods to produce isotopes which is separation and synthesis. Some isotopes occur in nature. If radioactive, these usually are radioisotopes with very long half-lives. Uranium 235, for example, makes up about 0.7 percent of the naturally occurring uranium on

the earth.[89] The challenge is to separate this very small amount from the much larger bulk of other forms of uranium. The difficulty is that all these forms of uranium, because they all have the same number of electrons, will have identical chemical behavior: they will bind in identical fashion to other atoms. Chemical separation, developing a chemical reaction that will bind only uranium atoms, will separate out uranium atoms, but not distinguish among different isotopes of uranium. The only difference among the uranium isotopes is their atomic weight. A method had to be developed that would sort atoms according to weight. One initial proposal was to use a centrifuge. The basic idea is simple: spin the uranium atoms as if they were on a very fast merry-go-round. The heavier ones will drift toward the outside faster and can be drawn off. In practice the technique was an enormous challenge: the goal was to draw off that very small portion of uranium atoms that were lighter than their brethren. The difficulties were so enormous the plan was abandoned in 1942.[90] Instead, the technique of gaseous diffusion was developed. Again, the basic idea was very simple: the rate at which gas passed (diffused) through a filter depended on the weight of the gas molecules: lighter molecules diffused more quickly. Gas molecules that contained U-235 would diffuse slightly faster than gas molecules containing the more common but also heavier U-238. This method also presented formidable technical challenges, but was eventually implemented in the gigantic gas diffusion plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In this process, the

uranium was chemically combined with fluorine to form a hexafluoride gas prior to separation by diffusion. This is not a practical method for extracting radioisotopes for scientific and medical use. It was extremely expensive and could only supply naturally occurring isotopes. A more efficient approach is to artificially manufacture radioisotopes. This can be done by firing high-speed particles into the nucleus of an atom. When struck, the nucleus may absorb the particle or become unstable and emit a particle. In either case, the number of particles in the nucleus would be altered, creating an isotope. One source of high-speed particles could be a cyclotron. A cyclotron accelerates particles around a circular race track with periodic pushes of an electric field. The particles gather speed with each push, just as a child swings higher with each push on a swing. When traveling fast enough, the particles are directed off the race track and into the target. A cyclotron works only with charged particles, however. Another source of bullets are the neutrons already shooting about inside a nuclear reactor. The neutrons normally strike the nuclei of the fuel, making them unstable and causing the nuclei to split (fission) into two large fragments and two to three "free" neutrons. These free neutrons in turn make additional nuclei unstable, causing further fission. The result is a chain reaction. Too many neutrons can lead to an uncontrolled chain reaction, releasing too much heat and perhaps causing a "meltdown." Therefore, "surplus" neutrons are usually absorbed by "control rods." However, these

surplus neutrons can also be absorbed by targets of carefully selected material placed in the reactor. In this way the surplus neutrons are used to create radioactive isotopes of the materials placed in the targets. With practice, scientists using both cyclotrons and reactors have learned the proper mix of target atoms and shooting particles to "cook up" a wide variety of useful radioisotopes.

2. What is the uses of radioisotopes in industry, medical and agriculture? INDUSTRY The applications of radioisotopes in industry are numerous. Many types of thickness gauges exploit the fact that gamma rays are attenuated when they pass through material. By measuring the

number of gamma rays, the thickness can be determined. This process is used in common industrial applications such as: the automobile industryto test steel quality in the manufacture of cars and to obtain the proper thickness of tin and aluminum the aircraft industryto check for flaws in jet engines constructionto gauge the density of road surfaces and subsurfaces pipeline companiesto test the strength of welds oil, gas, and mining companiesto map the contours of test wells and mine bores, and cable manufacturersto check ski lift cables for cracks. The isotope 241Am is used in many smoke detectors for homes and businesses (as mentioned previously), in thickness gauges designed to measure and control metal foil thickness during manufacturing processes, to measure levels of toxic lead in dried paint samples, and to help determine where oil wells should be drilled. The isotope 252Cf (a neutron emitter) is used for neutron activation analysis, to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the moisture content of soil and other materials, in bore hole logging in geology, and in human cervixcancer therapy. In addition, there are manifold uses in agriculture. In plant research, radiation is used to develop new plant types to speed up

the process of developing superior agricultural products. Insect control is another important application; pest populations are drastically reduced and, in some cases, eliminated by exposing male insects to sterilizing doses of radiation. Fertilizer consumption has been reduced through research with radioactive tracers. Radiation pellets are used in grain elevators to kill insects and rodents. Irradiation prolongs the shelf-life of foods by destroying bacteria, viruses, and molds. The useful application of radioisotopes extends to the arts and humanities. Neutron activation analysis is extremely useful in identifying the chemical elements present in coins, pottery, and other artifacts from the past. A tiny unnoticeable fleck of paint from an art treasure or a microscopic grain of pottery suffices to reveal its chemical makeup. Thus the works of famous painters can be "fingerprinted" so as to detect the work of forgers. Neutron scattering has proved to be a valuable tool for studying the molecular structure and motion of molecules of interest to manufacturing and life processes. Accelerators and reactors produce low-speed neutrons with wavelength appropriate to "see" structures of the size of magnetic microstructures and DNA molecules. Neutrons can penetrate deeply into bulk materials and use their magnetic moment or strong interaction forces to preferentially scatter from magnetic domains or hydrogen atoms in long chain nucleosomes. Neutrons are also used in materials surface and interface studies taking advantage of their reflectivity properties.

MEDICAL Cyclotron Radioisotopes Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13, Oxygen-15, Fluorine-18: These are positron emitters used in PET for studying brain physiology and pathology, in particular for localising epileptic focus, and in dementia, psychiatry and neuropharmacology studies. They also have a significant role in cardiology. F-18 in FDG (fluorodeoxyglucose) has become very important in detection of cancers and the monitoring of progress in their treatment, using PET. Cobalt-57 (272 d): Used as a marker to estimate organ size and for invitro diagnostic kits. Copper-64 (13 h): Used to study genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism, such as Wilson's and Menke's diseases, and for PET imaging of tumours, and therapy. Copper-67 (2.6 d): Beta emitter, used in therapy. Fluorine-18 as FLT (fluorothymidine), F-miso (fluoromisonidazole), 18Fcholine: tracer. Gallium-67 (78 h): Used for tumour imaging and localisation of inflammatory lesions (infections). Gallium-68 (68 min): Positron emitter used in PET and PET-CT units. Derived from germanium-68 in a generator. Germanium-68 (271 d): Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce Ga-68.

Indium-111 (2.8 d): Used for specialist diagnostic studies, eg brain studies, infection and colon transit studies. Iodine-123 (13 h): Increasingly used for diagnosis of thyroid function, it is a gamma emitter without the beta radiation of I-131. Iodine-124: tracer. Krypton-81m (13 sec) from Rubidium-81 (4.6 h): Kr-81m gas can yield functional images of pulmonary ventilation, e.g. in asthmatic patients, and for the early diagnosis of lung diseases and function. Rubidium-82 (1.26 min): Convenient PET agent in myocardial perfusion imaging. Strontium-82 (25 d): Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce Rb82. Thallium-201 (73 h): Used for diagnosis of coronary artery disease other heart conditions such as heart muscle death and for location of lowgrade lymphomas.

Reactor Radioisotopes (half-life indicated) Bismuth-213 (46 min): Used for targeted alpha therapy (TAT), especially cancers, as it has a high energy (8.4 MeV). Chromium-51 (28 d): Used to label red blood cells and quantify gastrointestinal protein loss.

Cobalt-60 (5.27 yr): Formerly used for external beam radiotherapy, now used more for sterilising Dysprosium-165 (2 h): Used as an aggregated hydroxide for synovectomy treatment of arthritis. Erbium-169 (9.4 d): Use for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints. Holmium-166 (26 h): Being developed for diagnosis and treatment of liver tumours. Iodine-125 (60 d): Used in cancer brachytherapy (prostate and brain), also diagnostically to evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys and to diagnose deep vein thrombosis in the leg. It is also widely used in radioimmuno-assays to show the presence of hormones in tiny quantities. Iodine-131 (8 d)*: Widely used in treating thyroid cancer and in imaging the thyroid; also in diagnosis of abnormal liver function, renal (kidney) blood flow and urinary tract obstruction. A strong gamma emitter, but used for beta therapy. Iridium-192 (74 d): Supplied in wire form for use as an internal radiotherapy source for cancer treatment (used then removed). Beta emitter. Iron-59 (46 d): Used in studies of iron metabolism in the spleen. Lead-212 (10.6 h): Used in TAT for cancers, with decay products Bi-212, Po-212, Tl-208. Lutetium-177 (6.7 d): Lu-177 is increasingly important as it emits just enough gamma for imaging while the beta radiation does the therapy

on small (eg endocrine) tumours. Its half-life is long enough to allow sophisticated preparation for use. It is usually produced by neutron activation of natural or enriched lutetium-176 targets. Molybdenum-99 (66 h)*: Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce technetium-99m. Palladium-103 (17 d): Used to make brachytherapy permanent implant seeds for early stage prostate cancer. Phosphorus-32 (14 d): Used in the treatment of polycythemia vera (excess red blood cells). Beta emitter. Potassium-42 (12 h): Used for the determination of exchangeable potassium in coronary blood flow. Rhenium-186 (3.8 d): Used for pain relief in bone cancer. Beta emitter with weak gamma for imaging. Rhenium-188 (17 h): Used to beta irradiate coronary arteries from an angioplasty balloon. Samarium-153 (47 h): Sm-153 is very effective in relieving the pain of secondary cancers lodged in the bone, sold as Quadramet. Also very effective for prostate and breast cancer. Beta emitter. Selenium-75 (120 d): Used in the form of seleno-methionine to study the production of digestive enzymes. Sodium-24 (15 h): For studies of electrolytes within the body. Strontium-89 (50 d)*: Very effective in reducing the pain of prostate and bone cancer. Beta emitter.

Technetium-99m (6 h): Used in to image the skeleton and heart muscle in particular, but also for brain, thyroid, lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver, spleen, kidney (structure and filtration rate), gall bladder, bone marrow, salivary and lacrimal glands, heart blood pool, infection and numerous specialised medical studies. Produced from Mo-99 in a generator. Xenon-133 (5 d)*: Used for pulmonary (lung) ventilation studies. Ytterbium-169 (32 d): Used for cerebrospinal fluid studies in the brain. Ytterbium-177 (1.9 h): Progenitor of Lu-177. Yttrium-90 (64 h)*: Used for cancer brachytherapy and as silicate colloid for the relieving the pain of arthritis in larger synovial joints. Pure beta emitter and of growing significance in therapy. Radioisotopes of caesium, gold and ruthenium are also used in brachytherapy.

3. How to dispose radioisotopes?

All waste contaminated with radioisotopes must be disposed of as radioactive waste. In particular, solid waste should be packed in clear plastic bags. It should not contain pourable liquids or animal carcasses. Needles, pipettes and other sharp objects should be placed in a puncture-proof sharps container, to protect the waste handler and to prevent piercing the waste bag.

Radioactive waste with short half-lives may be stored and some liquid waste can be diluted until their activities drop below acceptable levels, and then disposed as normal waste. A very low levels of radioactive isotopes may be discharged into the sewer system.

Separate single monthly discharge limits are established for solid waste disposed as normal waste and liquid waste discharged into the sewer system to cover all operations for the entire campus. The exact quantities vary as a function of the specific isotopes involved. Before any such discharge of radioactive isotopes, the user must seek the permission of the RPO by providing the estimated quantity to be discharged per month. Records of all subsequent discharges must them be kept by the user.

Materials with non-dischargable levels of radioisotopes should be segregated according to isotope and form, and tagged with a Radioactive-waste label. Some may need to be stored on campus while others may need to be disposed by returning to the manufacturer or to the Radiation Board for long term storage at designated locations.

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