Chemistry 1: Chapters 1-10 Final Exam Review Topics Chap 1: Chemistry: An Introduction Chemistry - study of the stucture and

properties or function of matter. Matter anything that has mass & volume. Mass the amount of matter in an object. Weight force of gravity against an object. Hypothesis - proposed explanation for why something happens Theory - possible explanation why something happens based on experimentation Law - explanation of what happens Chap 2: Data Analysis (Measurements & Calculations) SI Units: mass - gram (g) length - meter (m) volume liter (L) SI Prefixes written before the unit, indicate the quantity of that unit: kilo hecto deka unit deci centi milli SI Conversions: Move decimal to the left or to the right the number of places equal to the direction and number of prefix changes needed. Examples below: 1 kg = 1000 g = 1000 000 mg 1 mL = .001 L = .000 001 kL Significant Digits round off answers to calculations to the least number of sig figs. Accuracy how close to the true value. Precision how close values are to each other. Kelvin & Celcius Temperature Scales: K = C + 273 or C = K - 273 Zero Kelvin is the lowest temperature that exists, where all molecular motion ceases. Density (D) = mass (m) / volume (v) common units: g/mL or g/cm3 Be able to calculate density, volume, or mass for a cubic solid or for a liquid. Chap 3: Matter: Properties & Changes Matter - anything that has mass and takes up space. States of Matter: Solid definite volume & shape, particles vibrate around a fixed point. Liquid definite volume, no definite shape, particles slip past one another. Gas no definite shape nor volume, particles have free random motion. Physical Change change of state, size or shape. Chemical Change a change where a new substance is formed. Physical Property the physical characteristics of the substance (ex. color, size, shape) Chemical Property the ability of a substance to react or not with another substance. Law of Conservation of Mass: mass of reactants = mass products in a chemical reaction Methods Used to Separate Mixtures: Distillation separates based on boiling point, used for solution mixtures. Filtration separates based on particle size, used for solid with liquid mixtures. Chromatography separates based on particle mass, used for solutions. Element one kind of atom. Compound a combination of two or more atoms/elements. Chap 4: Structure of the Atom (Elements, Atoms, & Ions) Democritus matter is composed of empty space and atoms. Aristotle and other Greeks matter is composed of earth, air, fire and water. Daltons Atomic Theory: 1) Elements are made of atoms. 2) All atoms of an element are identical.

3) Atoms of an element are different from those of any other element. 4) Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds. A given compound always has the same relative number and type of atoms. JJ Thomson - used the cathode ray tube (CRT) and discovered the electron in atoms. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) - (Plum Pudding Model of Atom) - negative electrons are spread throughout a spherical cloud of positive charge. Rutherford (Rutherford or Solar System Model of Atom) nucleus in center of atom contains positive charged protons. Electrons are outside nucleus in orbits (energy levels). Gold Foil Experiment positive particles were shot at gold foil and most went straight through but some were deflected to the side or straight back. Thus the atom has all the mass in the positively charged nucleus. Most of atom is empty space. Discovery of the proton. Chadwick - discovered the neutron using Rutherfords experiment. Millikan - Oil Drop Experiment, determined the amount of negative charge on electron. Einstein - Photoelectric effect, showed that the electron behaved as a particle & wave. Atom is composed of: + protons & neutral neutrons (in nucleus), - electrons (outside). Isotope - atoms of an element that have the same number of protons & electrons but a different number of neutrons. Be able to determine the number of protons, electrons, & electrons in isotopes. Atomic number = #protons or #electrons Atomic Mass = #protons + #neutrons Size of atom vs. nucleus analogy: (nucleus-baseball, atom-baseball field) Types of radioactive decay and penetrating force: alpha particles (He42, heavy helium nucleus) dont penetrate well beta particles (e-, electron) penetrate skin gamma radiation (high energy rays) penetrate easily Nuclear fission splitting of nucleus Nuclear fusion nuclei combine together Energy released is much larger for nuclear fission & fusion reactions than in typical chemical reactions of breaking chemical bonds composed of electrons. Transuranium elements are man-made. Many natural isotopes are radioactive such as C14. Chap 5: Electrons in Atoms (Modern Atomic Theory) Colors of the longest & shortest wavelength of visible light? Violet, Red Spectral colors of elements(via heating or electricity)are how identified elements in stars. Visible colors = electron transition energy level changes from excited to ground state. Bohr model - energy changes produce colors, and are how energy levels were quantized. Quantum Mechanical model electron location is defined by probability. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle cant know e- location & momentum at same time. Four quantum numbers: n energy level, describes electron cloud size l sublevel, describes electron cloud shape m describes cloud orientation in space s spin Aufbau Principle electrons fill lowest energy levels and orbitals first in an atom. Paulis Exclusion Principle only two electrons may be in an orbital, with opposite spins. Periodic Table & Electron Configurations: Groups 1A-2A - electrons filling the s sublevel Groups 3A-8A - electrons filling the p sublevel

B Groups - electrons filling the d sublevel Lanthanides & Actinides electrons filling the f sublevel Period # - indicates the energy level Photon a quantity (packet) of electromagnetic radiation. Orbital the space occupied by 1-2 electrons. Chap 6: The Periodic Table and Periodic Law Periodic Table: Group 1A - Alkali Metals Group 2A - Alkaline Earth Metals Group B Elements - Transition Metals Group 7A - Halogens Group 8A - Noble Gases Lanthanides (top row of transuranium elements) Actinides (bottom row of transuranium elements) Transuranium elements are made in nuclear accelerators and identified in the lab. Metals - shiny, conduct heat & electricity, left side of periodic table. Nonmetals dull, non-conductors, right side of periodic table. Metalloids or Semimetals - have properties of metals & nonmetals, found between them. Diatomic Elements - H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2. No On 7A Allotropes - different forms of the same element. Ex. carbon forms diamond & graphite Cation - atoms that have lost electrons (positive charged). Anions - atoms that have gained electrons (negatively charged). Oxidation State - the apparent charge on an atom, the charge on atoms as ions. Group 1A (+1), Group 2A (+2), Group 3A (+3), Group 5A (-3), Group 6A (-2), Group 7A (-1). Ionization energy the energy required to remove the outermost electron on an atom. Electronegativity the attraction for electrons by an atom through a bond. Fluorine has the highest and Francium has the lowest electronegativity. Valence electrons electrons in the outermost (valence) energy level. Metals are on the left side and nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table. Atom size decreases from left to right and increases down a group. Ionization energy & electronegativity increases from left to right and decreases down a group. Chap 8: Ionic Compounds & Bonding Chemical Bond the force that holds two atoms together. Ionic bond metal-nonmetal bond, transfer of electrons, metal cation & nonmetal anion. To write a formula: Reduce the ratio between charges on the cation & anion. Cross down the charge numbers (not the signs) as subscripts. Acids substances that have H as the cation. Determine the number of atoms of an element in the formula of a compound by looking at the subscript to the right of the element. Ex. Ca3(PO4) 2 has 3-Ca, 2-P, 8-O Metallic bond attraction by metallic cations by the delocalized electrons in the metal. Chap 9: Covalent Bonding Covalent bond nonmetal-nonmetal bond between atoms of the same element or between two elements with exactly the same electronegativity. Atoms equally share electrons. Single bonds (sigma bonds), double & triple (pi bonds). Bond strength increases and bond length decreases going from single to double to triple.

Dipole a polar bond, electrons are shifted closer to the more electronegative element in the bond between the atoms thus causing partial negative and positive ends. Polar Covalent bonds nonmetal-nonmetal bond between two different nonmetals with different electronegativities. Unequal sharing of electrons. Dipole Moment a polar molecule, when the dipoles (polar bonds) in a molecule add to give an overall polarity. Are lone pairs on central atom or outer atoms different. Draw Lewis structures for compounds: 1. Determine the total valence electrons in the molecule. 2. Determine the central atom and connect all the atoms with bonds. 3. Fulfill the Duet Rule for hydrogen, and the Octet Rule for all other elements. 4. Check the total electrons in the Lewis structure. It should agree with step 1. Draw Lewis structures for: Ionic Compounds, Resonance Structures, & Ions also. Chap 10: Chemical Reactions Evidence for a Chemical Reaction: Color change, Gas production, Precipitate produced, Heat absorbed or released. Chemical reaction is when chemical change occurs. Chemical Equation describes a chemical reaction. Reactants (starting substances) on the left and Products (ending substances) are on the right side of the equation. Law of Conservation of Matter & Energy the total sum of mass and energy in the universe is constant. Balancing an equation upholds this law by making the mass of the reactants and products to be equal (no mass is gained or lost). Balance Chemical Equation - count the number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation. Put numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to make the number of atoms of each element equal. Coefficient represents how many of each substance is present. Three types of chemical reactions: 1. Acid-Base (acid has H as cation, base has OH as anion) double replacement reaction. 2. Precipitation - ppt product (double displacement reaction, 2 compounds -> 2 compds) 3. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) transfer of electrons, 4 types: a. Single replacement element + compound -> element + compound b. Synthesis one product c. Decomposition one reactant d. Combustion oxygen is a reactant, oxide products Salt ionic compound that is not an acid or a base Acid - has hydrogen (H) as the cation. Base has hydroxide (OH) as the anion. Spectator ion ions that are present as reactants and products, do not change in the rxn Precipitate the product in a precipitation reaction that is insoluble, (does not dissolve) Solubility rules determine when a substance is soluble and would be written thus as ions. Substances that are not soluble would not ionize in solution and would be written unchanged or in compound form. Strong Acids acids that ionize completely, (ex. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3) Strong Bases bases that ionize completely, (ex. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2) Predict Products of Double Displacement Reactions: Cations trade places, then write the product formula by crossing down the ion charges to make neutral compounds. Oxidation the loss of electrons, Reduction the gain of electrons Ex. 2Na + Cl2 -> 2Na Cl Na loses 1 electron per atom(2 atoms) = loss 2e0 0 +1 1 Cl gains 1 electron per atom (2 atoms) = gain 2e-