Sampling

Sampling is a part of our day-to-day life which

we use inadvertently

 The purpose of sampling is to gather

maximum information about the population
under consideration at minimum cost, time
and human power.

 This is best achieved when the sample

posses all the characteristics of the
population
Objectives

i. To make an inference about an unknown

parameter of a population from a sample drawn
from it.

ii. To test a hypothesis relating to a population

parameter.
Importance of Sampling
 A house wife takes one or two grains of rice from
the cooking pan and decides whether the rice is
cooked or not.

If the house wife takes the entire rice to test, from

the cooking pan then there will be no rice to eat.

 A quality controller tests few items and decide

whether the lot is in accordance with the desired
specifications or not.

If he tests all the items produced in the lot then

there will not be any items remained in the lot to
reach the customer.
Importance of Sampling

 A pathologist takes a few drops of blood and

tests for any change in the content.

If he squeeze the entire blood from the body

then ultimately the patient will die, and there
will be no scope for further treatment.
All these situations emphasize the importance of
sampling and reveals that the sampling is
inevitable, and gives satisfactory results when:

 the population is infinite

 survey area is wide

 the results are required in a short time

 scared resources in respect of money and

skilled personnel
Advantages of Sampling over
Complete Enumeration (Census)
 Less time
 Reduced cost
 Greater accuracy
 Greater scope.
Sampling is inevitable when:

 Population is too large

 Testing is destructive
 Population is hypothetical
Limitations of Sampling

Sampling gives best results only if:

 The sampling units are drawn in a

scientific manner

 Appropriate sampling technique is used,

and;

 The sample size is adequate

Sampling – Basic Concepts
Population (Universe):
An aggregate of objects, animate or inanimate under study in
any statistical investigation.
Sample
A part or portion or segment or subset or subgroup of
population (larger group)
Random Sample
A sample in which each and every unit of the population has
the same probability or chance of being included in the
sample.
Sampling
The process of learning about the population on the basis of
a sample drawn from it.
Sampling – Basic Concepts (contd.)

Parameters
Population constants such as µ,σ,ρ etc.
Statistics
Measures such as x, s, r etc. based on sample
observations.
Sampling Distribution
The distribution of a statistic such as x or σ for different
samples.
Standard Error
The standard deviation of a sampling distribution.
Theoretical Basis of Sampling
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity

A moderately large number of items chosen at random

from a population are almost sure on the average to
possess the characteristics of the larger group.

(ii) Law of Inertia of Large Numbers

Larger the size of the sample, more accurate the

results are likely to be.
Essentials of Sampling

 Representativeness - Random Method of

Selection

 Adequacy - Size of the Sample should

be adequate

 Independence - Independent selection of

units

 Homogeneity - No basic difference in the

nature of the units of the
universe and the sample
Types of Sampling

 Subjective or Non-probability Sampling

 Probability or Random Sampling

 Mixed Sampling
Subjective or Non-Probability Sampling

If the sample is selected with definite

purpose in view and the choice of the sampling
units depends entirely on the discretion and choice
of the investigator, then the sampling is called a
subjective or non-probability sampling. For
example, Purposive sampling or quota
sampling, Judgment sampling and
Convenience sampling, and snowball
sampling.
Probability or Random Sampling
Probability sampling is the scientific method of selecting
samples according to some laws of chance in which each
and every unit of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. This kind methods may also be called as
Random sampling methods. For example, Simple
Random Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Systematic
Sampling, Multi-Stage Sampling and Cluster
Sampling.
Mixed Sampling
If the samples are selected partly according to some
laws of chance and partly according to a fixed sampling
rule then it is termed as Mixed sampling.
Simple Random Sampling

• This method is purely based on probability and

also known as Probability Sampling.

• The Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is the

process of selection of a sample in such a manner
that each and every unit of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being included in
the sample.
Methods
1. Lottery Method
2. Table of Random Numbers
i. Tippett’s (1927) random number tables (41600 digits
grouped into 10400 sets of 4 digited numbers).
ii. Fisher and Yates (1938) table of random numbers
(15000 digits arranged into 1500 sets of 10 digited
numbers).
iii. Kendall and B.B.Smith (1939) table of random numbers
(10,00,000 digits grouped into 2,00,000 sets of 5 digited
numbers).
iv. C.R.Rao, Mitra and Matthai (1966) table of random
numbers (20,000 digits grouped into 5000 sets of 4
digited random numbers).
3. Use of Computer
Simple Random Sampling
Advantages

 It is quite simple in its sample

selection

 It is said to be more representative

because each unit has an equal
chance of being selected.

 It is free from bias and prejudices.

 Simple Random Sampling
Disadvantages

 The investigator has no control over

the selection of the units for
investigation.

 Selection according to strictly

random basis is difficult.

 It is unsuitable for heterogeneous

groups.
Stratified Random Sampling

 In Stratified Random Sampling Method, the

universe or the entire population is divided into a
number of groups or strata.

 Stratification variables include age, income group,

residential area etc.

 Selection of units are done from each stratum,

proportionately or disproportionately.
Stratified Random Sampling Method
Importance of Strata
In Stratified Random Sampling, the selection of the
sample items depends upon the process of
stratification. The following precautions are required.
 Each stratum in the universe should be much
enough in size.
 A perfect homogeneity in different units of stratum
is required.
 Different variables involved in the study problem
should not be considered.
 There should be well defined and clear-cut
stratification.
Stratified Random Sampling Method
Advantages

 It is easy to achieve representative character.

 The Investigator has greater control over the

selection of the samples.

 Replacement of unit is possible when a particular

unit is inaccessible for the study.
Stratified Random Sampling
Disadvantages
 If stratification is not done properly then bias may
creep in.

 It is very difficult to attain the proportion through

deliberated means. It is because of the unequal size
of the strata.

 If the stratums are not very clear-cut, it may be

difficult in placing cases under stratum.

 The sample becomes under-representative if

disproportionate weighing is done from the stratums.
Systematic Sampling

 In some instances, the most practical way of

sampling is to select every ‘i’th unit on a list of
sampling units.

 An element of randomness is introduced by using

random numbers to pickup the unit with which to
start.

 The remaining units of the sample are selected at

fixed intervals, which is known as the Sampling
Interval in the Systematic Sampling.
Systematic Sampling
Advantages

 The observations of the Systematic Sampling

spread more evenly over the entire population.

 This is easier and less costlier method of sampling

and can be used conveniently in the case of large
populations.
Disadvantages

 If there is a hidden periodicity in the population,

systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient
method of sampling.

 Sampling may not be reliable if all the elements are

not ordered in a manner representative of the total
population.
Cluster Sampling

 It is a type of sampling in which clusters of units are

selected in the sample method of elementary units.

 Cluster refers to the particular area and thus cluster

sample implies the Area Sample. Cluster sample is
basically particular geographical area.

 The sample units are clustered using the concept of

neighbourhood.
Cluster Sampling
Advantages
 Where the area of inquiry is wide, cluster sampling
method is widely used.

 The measurement of data can be accurate in

cluster sampling.

 It brings flexibility in sampling.

 In cluster sampling the fieldwork gets localized or

concentrated. As such field cost for collecting the
data is cheaper by comparison and further the
fieldwork period will also be lesser.
Cluster Sampling
Disadvantages

 It is less accurate than other methods.

 It is a very complex and complicated method.

 Estimates of parameters and their standard errors

are somewhat difficult when the clusters are of
unequal sizes.
Multi-Stage Sampling

 In this design various stages of selection is

involved. It is appropriate where the population is
scattered over a wider geographical area and no
sampling frame is available.

 It is useful when a sample is to be made within a

limited time and cost budget.
Advantages

 It requires less time, labour and money.

 More convenient, effective and flexible.

Disadvantages

 The procedure of estimating Standard Error is

complicated.

 It is difficult for a non-statistician to follow this

method.
Selection of Appropriate Method of Sampling

Factors influencing Selection of the Method of

Sampling

 Nature of the Problem

 Size of the Universe

 Size of the Sample

 Availability of Money and time

Sample Design

It is a plan for drawing a sample from a population. It

involves making decision on the following questions:

 What is the relevant population?

 What method of sampling technique shall we use?
 What sampling frame shall we use?
 What should be the size of the sample?
 How much will be the sample cost?
Size of the Sample

 The Sample size should neither be too small nor

too large. It should be optimum.

 Optimum size is that which fulfils the requirements

of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility.
Size of the Sample
 The following factors should be considered while
deciding the sample size.
1. The size of the Universe
2. The resources available
3. The degree of accuracy or precision desired
4. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the Universe
5. Nature of the Study
6. Methods of the Sampling adopted
7. Nature of the Respondents
Mathematical Formula for Determining the
Sampling Size

n= Sample Size

Z= Value at a specified level of confidence or

desired degree of precision

σ= Standard Deviation of the population

d = Difference between population mean and

sample mean or Standard Error of Mean
Example (Determining Sample Size)

Determine the sample Size if σ = 6, population mean =

25, sample mean = 23, and the desired degree of
precision is 99%.

n = (Zσ/ d)2
σ = 6, d = 25-23=2, Z = 2.576 (at 1% level of
significance)

Therefore, n = [(2.576 x 6)/2]2

= [7.728]2 = 59.72 ≈ 60 (approximately)

Sampling Error and Non-sampling Error
Sampling Error
The error arising due to drawing inferences about the population
on the basis of few observations (sample) is termed as Sampling
Error.

1. Biased Errors: Errors arise due to any biasedness in the

selection, estimation etc.

2. Unbiased Errors: Errors arise due to chance differences

between the members of the population included in the
sample and those not included.

How to Reduce it?: By increasing the Sample Size?

Non-Sampling Errors

Non-sampling errors arise from one or more of the

following factors:

1. Data specification being inadequate and

inconsistent with respect to the objectives of the
study.
2. Inappropriate statistical unit
3. Inaccurate or inappropriate method of data
collection
Non-Sampling Errors (contd.)

1. Lack of trained and experienced investigators

2. Lack of inspection and supervision

3. Due to non-response.

4. Data processing operations such as coding,

verification etc.

5. During presentation and printing of tabulated

results
How to Judge the Reliability of Samples

 More samples of the same size should be taken from

the same universe and their results be compared. If the
results are similar, the sample will be reliable.

 If the measurements of the universe are known, then

they should be compared with the measurements of
the samples. In case of similarity, the sample will be
reliable.

 Sub-sample should be taken from the sample and

studied. If the results of the sample and sub-sample
study show similarity, the sample will be reliable.