The Investigation and Repair of Historic Concrete

An approach to repair
Concrete repair is today a major industry. It is also a specialist activity. However, the issues surrounding the conservation of our historic concrete structures are only just beginning to be addressed. Unlike some traditional materials, concrete and other modern materials do not yet have well developed, universally implemented conservation methodologies for their investigation, repair or long-term maintenance. In addition, when new repair methods are being developed, conservation needs are rarely considered.

Understanding significance
Understanding the significance of a building is fundamental to the development of an appropriate conservation policy. This will provide vital information upon which decisions can be made that affect the buildings performance or appearance. For instance, if the surface finish is an important architectural characteristic of the building and contributes directly to its aesthetic significance, then a repair method should be selected that preserves the surface finish. On the other hand, if the aesthetic value is in the form, and the surface has been considered as a sacrificial material, then the overall architectural composition may override the importance of retaining the original surface material. Of course, efforts should be made to prevent the removal or damage of significant fabric. However, any decision to alter the fabric will need to achieve a balance between the preservation of the essential or significant character of a building as a whole, and the conservation of individual components or materials.

Similarly, many architects unversed in concrete deterioration go directly to the manufacturers of concrete repair products for advice, rather than to an independent engineer. Repairs may be based on a cursory investigation often a free quotation and with little information supplied as to the nature or even the extent of the repair work proposed. Unfortunately, this often results in an inadequate analysis of the problem that does not identify the cause or the extent of the deterioration and may not have considered the overall structural stability or strength of the building. Apart from the dangers of not considering the structural adequacy of the building, such proposals tend to address the symptom rather than the cause, and there is often little modification to the proprietary system to cope with the specific conditions. In addition, the qualities or character of the building in terms of its design or heritage significance may not have been fully understood. The repair option is unlikely to have been selected with this in mind. This can often lead to inadequate repairs that may be detrimental to the architectural or historic significance of the building. For any building, adequate physical investigation will always include visual and non-destructive inspection and in some cases destructive investigations may be required. An assessment of damage against repair options, available resources and life-span requirements will influence the repair programme.

Understanding the problems

Concrete buildings (like any other building type) require appropriate assessment, investigation, testing and repair policies. Concrete is a structural material and therefore structural appraisal will be required where signs of deterioration are evident or where a change of building use is proposed, particularly where this involves increase or redistribution of loading. It is generally acknowledged that the architect is nowadays a co-ordinator of specialists, and it is frequently necessary to seek specialist advice for certain aspects of a project, be it new build or conservation. Reinforced concrete has been the realm of specialist contractors ever since it began to be used regularly at the end of the nineteenth century. In the same way that the first specialist contractors of reinforced concrete were licensed to use the various patented systems, specialist contractors today hold licenses for the various methods of concrete repair, such as desalination, realkalisation or cathodic protection. Even traditional patch repair methods virtually always use proprietary products, bought off the shelf with various standard-use requirements forming part of a warrantied system. This is a result of the licensing of alternative repair methods, and the introduction of proprietary repair mixes in the early 1980s. Emphasis on the contractor/specialist has resulted in a tendency for concrete repair to be approached via the contractor, who is likely to recommend a repair based on the company s own licensed system.

Life cycle
Best conservation practice aims to achieve the longest life expectancy that is practical and economic. As with other more traditional construction forms, this does not necessarily mean that a one-off repair is essential or the best approach. A longer-term managed programme of repairs and maintenance may be better suited to the problems at hand and the finances of the building owner.

Other issues
Besides the technical, commercial, and conservation aspects already discussed, the social or occupational conditions should be considered. Buildings may be in occupation before, during and after repairs. This introduces other potential problems: disruption to the tenants, noise and dust pollution. These must be addressed when the repair and maintenance strategy is being formulated. Relocating or temporarily re-housing occupants is not always practical. Suffice to say that the particular social situation may influence the selection of the most appropriate repair technique.

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Assessment and investigation

Signs of deterioration indicate the reinforced concrete structure may be at risk, and a structural assessment will be required to determine its safety, stability and strength. A suitably qualified professional engineer should carry out structural appraisal. The structural assessment will highlight any problems and requirements for structural works that will need to be incorporated in the overall repair programme. To determine the most appropriate repair treatment, the causes of the problems must be identified. The methodology is the same as that for the investigation of any other heritage building and includes the usual stages described below.

Selection of the appropriate specialist consultant

The services of an experienced structural engineer will be required, and in some cases a concrete or corrosion specialist may also be necessary. Both should be independent so that there is no conflict of interest between the aims of conservation and the choice of the best repair method for the project.

Gathering historical information

It is important to determine changes to the concrete, its environment, and its function through its history and also to establish as far as possible the future function, known environmental conditions, and the available maintenance resources. Most importantly, changes in chloride levels, levels of carbonation, and chemical and physical characteristics are useful in understanding patterns of deterioration. General historical information about the building is always essential for understanding how and why a material has been used, and also for assessing the significance of the building. Information gleaned from structures of similar age and condition and in comparable environments can be extremely useful. Contemporary publications can also increase understanding about design and construction practices generally.

Australia Square was designed by Harry Seidler, and its 50-storey tower was completed in 1967. It was the first fully structural lightweight concrete building in Australia and at the time of construction was the tallest lightweight concrete structure in the world. Seidler conferred with famous Italian structural engineer, Pier Luigi Nervi, on the concrete design of the circular tower. Photograph by NSW Heritage Office

Diagnostic investigation
In order to determine the cause of the problem and the nature of the concrete s resistance to deterioration, it will be necessary to carry out non-destructive, and sometimes destructive, testing in conjunction with the physical examination. It is also important to identify through investigation areas of latent damage, which can be far more extensive than the visible damage. The types of tests that will probably be required are described below. AS1012-92 Methods of Testing Concrete is the appropriate Australian Standard for such tests. Chloride-ion concentration levels and profiling is measured by dissolving dust samples or crushed core samples in acid and then determining the concentration using standard wet chemical methods. Profiling is achieved by taking samples at different depths (usually every 25mm), and this data is related to the location of the reinforcement. This provides information on the extent and risk of corrosion due to the presence of chlorides. Depth of cover to steel reinforcement and location of reinforcement is carried out using calibrated cover meters or radar. These non-destructive methods provide an indication of the depth of cover, and its location, which can be compared against the depth of carbonation and used to help estimate the potential latent damage. Cover meters are difficult to use and require an experienced operator and interpreter.

Physical inspection and examination

A thorough physical investigation will be required to identify and diagnose problems and to quantify and specify the repair works. Mapping defects such as cover concrete, spalling, delamination, cracking, depth of friable surface layers, and other defects will offer information about the nature and extent of the problem. An experienced consultant can determine much from the patterns of patent damage, such as reinforcement corrosion, alkali-aggregate reaction and structural damage. Such a survey will also assist in estimating the costs of rehabilitation.

Examination of concrete slab edge from the wall cavity using a fibreoptic borescope. Photograph by Kevin Hunt

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Depth of carbonation this is a simple on-site chemical test, where the concrete is broken out in representative areas and sprayed with a solution of phenolphthalein in alcohol and water. It can also be carried out in the laboratory using split core samples. Areas of concrete that have not carbonated turn the solution pink, whilst carbonated areas do not change the solution. The average depth of the cover to reinforcement is then compared to the depth of the carbonation. However, this important test requires the skills of an experienced consultant to carry out and interpret the results. Petrographic, chemical and X-ray diffraction examination of core or spalled samples for visual inspection and determination of mix design (types of aggregates, cement content), freeze/thaw, alkali-silica reaction, sulphate attack, and other damage. The number and location of core samples required is structure specific. Tests and sampling should be implemented in a manner that causes least disruption to the fabric. Taking destructive samples should be agreed with the architect and may need statutory approval. There are a number of other useful diagnostics that may form part of an investigative package including corrosion risk surveys (using half cell, linear polarisation and resistivity testing), permeability (measuring diffusion rate) impact, ultrasonic, radar and radiography (to detect laminations and other defects, steel condition and location).

The concrete to the main arches of the Johnston s Creek aqueduct was repaired using a dry shotcrete process, which is a spray applied method. Photograph by Lianne Hall

Current repair methods and preventative treatments

Patch repair Patch repair is the earliest form of concrete repair and, apart from the introduction of technically advanced materials and improved application methods, is still the same process. Patch repair is the most common method and is required wherever there is patent damage and thus is likely to be required as part of most repair programmes. Before patching, the building must be adequately supported as the structural capacity may be temporarily reduced during repair. Patch repair is carried out by mechanically breaking out the damaged, cracked, spalled, carbonated or chloride-contaminated concrete to fully expose the steel reinforcement. The steel must be thoroughly cleaned to the requisite Australian

Interpretation of results
The skill and knowledge of an experienced specialist in specifying, supervising and interpreting these results is paramount.

Repair and rehabilitation

The repair techniques currently available for concrete range from do nothing through to rebuild , with a number of measures in between. It is unlikely that either of the above extremes is ever appropriate for a heritage building unless the damage is either very minor, or severe enough to jeopardise public safety. In most cases a repair method, or combination of repair and rehabilitation methods somewhere in between, will be the most appropriate.

Repair
As with any conservation project, there will be a number of different repair options available, each with advantages and disadvantages. The choice will be determined by: the results of the investigation works the severity of the deterioration the risk of future deterioration required service life the practicality of applying the repair option aesthetics suitability for a heritage building cost. Most repair proposals for reinforced concrete structures include treatments that arrest or reduce future deterioration, and many products and systems are marketed as a package. When selecting the repair technique and any preventative treatments the following should all be considered: significance of the building, technical defects, required performance and any special environmental and social concerns.
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In this repair the patch repairs were carefully matched by sight to the existing concrete using a latex mould to replicate the board-marked finish. Photograph by Susan Macdonald

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Standard and is then usually coated with a proprietary bar primer to protect the reinforcement steel. Severely corroded reinforcement (where there is a loss of 10% or more of the section) may require replacement by splicing in new sections if the loss of section is excessive. Replacement of reinforcement should be done with the same material to avoid bimetallic corrosion. Therefore the replacement for plain steel with galvanised steel should be avoided. The broken-out concrete is reinstated using either: a site-batched cementitious repair mortar, usually polymer modified to help reduce permeability, shrinkage and adhesion; a pre-bagged cementitious repair mix. As the general principle in the repair of heritage buildings is to replace like materials with like materials, cementitious-based mixes should be used in preference to epoxy-based repair materials. Large surface area repair work may utilise spray-applied concrete. In some cases, the affected component may be shuttered and the low shrinkage repair concrete can be poured, pumped, or grouted in. Patch repairs should be cut out and reinstated as discreetly as possible, taking care to observe joints, board marks or other distinguishing design markings. The concrete is cut out to form right-angled or slightly re-entrant edges, avoiding feather edges. For deeper patches stainless steel pins should be considered to assist in securing the new patch repair. Repair mixes In the majority of cases today, patch repairs are carried out with pre-bagged repair mortars. Whilst these products have the advantages of providing a quality controlled, ready-made product, they will be unlikely to match the existing concrete of exposed concrete buildings and will result in unsightly patches that will inevitably reinforce the argument for an opaque coating. It is possible for manufacturers to produce pre-bagged, colour-matched mortars for a particular site. It is usually the case that more than one colour will be required as the original mix may have varied around the building. However, it is possible that the new colours will weather over time differently to the parent concrete, particularly if different aggregates and cements are used. Site-batched mortars and concretes were the norm until the 1980s. They are cheaper than pre-bagged mixes and provide the opportunity to match the existing concrete colour. However site-mixed mortars necessitate careful site supervision of the mixing process to ensure consistency and quality control. Information about the original aggregates and cement type may be available. It is often possible to consult the original documentation of old buildings or, for buildings of more recent origin, the architect themselves. Although there is sometimes a difference between the original specification and what actually happened on site, original documents are invaluable for providing a guide to the materials, and thus can help in developing an appropriate repair mortar. They provide insight to the architect s intentions regarding the concrete, the methods used on site, and the reasons for the selection of the building material. It can be difficult to achieve a perfect match between the original concrete and the repair mortars, which tend to be modified with additives to improve performance (enhancing durability and reducing shrinkage and

subsequent cracking). Patches which appear a close match when dry, can appear as blemishes on the building when wet from rain. In time, the new concrete will weather and blend in more closely with the existing concrete. Regard for cutting out to obvious joint lines (such as those provided by board-marked concrete) and mimicking the existing surface texture will assist in replicating the original finish. Traditional stone-repair methods can provide a precedent for sensitive concrete repair. Trial patches are essential when attempting to replicate an existing surface finish. Sample patches should be viewed wet and dry and should represent the different textures and colour ranges found around the structure. Coatings Protective coatings for concrete have been in use in one form or another virtually since concrete first came into use. However, it is only in the last 15 years that coatings have become an important part of the repair and maintenance industry. For exposed concrete the proposal to coat a building has obvious implications and constitutes a major change in appearance. In addition, the application of a coating on any building introduces a maintenance commitment and requires full access to the building each time it is renewed. A repair programme that relies on the coating for its performance will be reliant on the effective life of the coating: adequate provision for future maintenance and repairs must be considered.

The Grace Building in York Street is Sydney s finest example of the skyscraper gothic style. It was constructed between 1928-30 by Morrow and Gordon and is considered technically significant because of the unusual reinforced concrete slab and beam construction and the glazed terracotta cladding. It is listed on the State Heritage Register. Photography by NSW Heritage Office

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There are a number of different types of coatings and impregnations for concrete, including water repellents, paints and surface sealers, that are adequately described elsewhere (see Further Information). The decision to apply a coating needs to be carefully balanced against cost, long-term performance, future funds for maintenance, aesthetics, technical performance and environmental conditions. There are instances where coating a building may be inappropriate and ineffective against the specific deterioration phenomena, and there may be other methods of repair and preventative treatment, such as cathodic protection, that are more suitable. There are still some uncertainties about the effectiveness of coatings in providing long-term protection to chloride-contaminated concrete that cannot be properly treated. Despite the application of the coating, there may be enough residual moisture and chlorides in the concrete to maintain corrosion activity, or new activity may be initiated due to changes in oxygen and moisture levels. New corrosion can also be set up adjacent to patched concrete where there is chloride contamination. Cathodic protection Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) is an electrochemical-repair and prevention technique and the only method that halts corrosion of the reinforcement steel. It is the subject of numerous texts (see Further Information) and is now a well-understood and welldocumented repair technique for carbonated and, more commonly, for chloride-contaminated concrete. Similar in approach to realkalisation and desalination (described below), it passes sufficient, continuous current between the steel reinforcement and a permanent anode (fixed onto the surface in the form of a coating or mesh and gunnite application, or into the concrete) of sufficient strength to stop the anodic reaction. As corrosion cannot occur unless the anodic and cathodic reaction both operate, corrosion is halted.

Expert advice is required to design, install and monitor a cathodic-protection system. Because of the potential different levels of corrosion activity in different parts of a building, considerable skill is required to design a system that ensures comprehensive protection is achieved where required. This means regular monitoring and adjustment of the system may be necessary. A system can be designed to make it possible to introduce ICCP with minimal intervention to the fabric, although areas of visible damage will require patch repairs. However, there is limited experience with this method in Australia. Realkalisation Realkalisation is a comparatively recent technique and one that has not been widely used in Australia. There is as yet insufficient data to prove its performance in the long term. It is an electrochemical process that uses a DC current passing between the reinforcement steel and a temporary anode (usually placed on the surface of the component in question). The DC current produces hydroxyl ions at the steel reinforcement that replaces the alkalinity of the concrete formerly lost through carbonation. The reintroduction of the hydroxyls around the steel enables the re-formation of the protective, passive layer around the steel. It is appropriate for concrete where carbonation is the cause of the deterioration.

At the time of its opening in 1964, the Gladesville Bridge was the longest single-span concrete arch bridge in the world. The design and construction of the bridge pictured here at the opening were of great international interest. World renown engineer, M.E.L. Freyssinet was associated both in design and on-site supervision. Photograph by Paul Percival, courtesy of the Australian Photographic Agency, State Library of NSW

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The radical Williamson House in Mosman (nicknamed the Igloo House) was designed in the 1950s by Harry Seidler. It had a light concrete body set on circular concrete columns on a waterfront cliff and unusual twin-arched garages with thin-shelled concrete construction. It was the first Australian house to use flat-slab construction, with special reinforced concrete developed by Sydney engineer Peter Miller that did away with extensive masonry foundations. The house is listed on the State Heritage Register. Photograph by Max Dupain

This process is patented and thus in the hands of specially licensed contractors. Realkalisation typically takes about one week to perform. It is theoretically nondestructive and reduces patch repair to those areas of visible damage. Electrochemical chloride removal or extraction Electrochemical chloride removal or extraction, also known as desalination is another electrochemical technique that has only recently been introduced into Australia. As with realkalisation, a DC current is passed between the steel reinforcement and a temporary surface anode, and is used to remove harmful salts such as chlorides from the concrete. Negatively charged ions are repelled from the negatively charged steel. With sufficient pore water always present in the concrete, the chloride ions are forced from the steel reinforcement outwards towards the temporary anode where, over some five to six weeks, they are collected in the electrolyte and removed along with the temporary anode. The advantage of this method in conservation terms is the minimal disruption to the surface of the concrete. However, like realkalisation, desalination is licensed to specialist contractors and there is little long-term data available to determine the life cycle of the treatment or any potential side effects. There is some concern about the long-term effects of these electrochemical techniques, given the lack of data about their long-term performance and potential side effects. Their use should therefore be approached with caution for heritage buildings.

Corrosion Inhibitors Although known for many years, corrosion inhibitors are only now beginning to be actively marketed as a preventative treatment in a concrete repair program. They delay or reduce the rate of corrosion by forming a passive film on the steel. They can be either applied to the surface of the concrete (migratory inhibitors), incorporated in a repair mix, applied to the steel during repair or introduced in pellet form in holes in the concrete (vapour phase inhibitors). It is claimed that they are able to function in heavily chloridecontaminated concretes (up to 2% chloride by mass of cement). Corrosion inhibitors are attractive from a conservation point of view as they are almost invisible on application, although their long-term visual effect is unknown. Their effectiveness in preventing corrosion of steel reinforcement depends on correct diagnosis of the electrochemical corrosion problem. However, the migratory ability of some application systems is not well proven in the long term, with little data and no case histories to indicate their long-term effectiveness and effects on the concrete. Conclusion The above list of techniques is not exhaustive and it is more than likely that a repair strategy will involve a combination of methods. However, when selecting repair techniques, aspects must be considered other than just the technical. The more recent methods do not have long-term data to prove their ongoing performance or long-term effects and should be carefully considered before being used on heritage buildings.

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Maintenance
Until the 1970s when the relevant concrete codes of practice began to acknowledge issues of durability and long-term performance, reinforced concrete was believed to be a maintenance-free building material. It is now broadly acknowledged that this is not the case. Apart from all the usual maintenance issues such as drainage and roofing, reinforced concrete requires longterm care to counter potentially harmful environmental conditions and to cope with any material problems. As the rate of deterioration is time dependent it may differ across the structure. At the time of inspection not all the defects may be evident. Ongoing maintenance is therefore needed for periodic examination and testing to determine whether further repairs are necessary. Regular condition surveys of reinforced concrete buildings should be carried out, including cover, carbonation and chloride content measurements (if the building is likely to be at risk from chlorides). Inspections should be made in order to identify any latent damage or druminess. Maintenance is an important part of the repair strategy and necessitates a continued and long-term commitment to care for the building. Preventative maintenance measures may involve changes to the building s appearance and may require statutory approval. The decision to introduce preventative measures, such as coatings, will also introduce new materials that will require maintenance themselves. Any decision should be carefully assessed in the manner discussed for repair. Regular maintenance checks of concrete should include inspection of the repairs to ensure that they are fulfilling their function. Repair materials have their own maintenance cycles that need to be respected. A maintenance program should include upkeep of repairs to ensure their continued effectiveness, as well as that of the original fabric. As with any building type, anticipatory maintenance inspections will prevent problems developing and enable regular upkeep works to be planned. Reacting to problems after they have occurred results in a larger repair programme and unexpected costs.

Balancing technical performance, life-cycle costs and conservation

There will inevitably be some trade-off between the various technically correct repairs and conservation which seeks to minimise the impact of the repair on the building. Each particular case must be individually considered. To assess the financial implications of the different repair options, it is important to assess the life-cycle cost. The capital cost of a repair plan may represent anything from less than 10% to 100% of the actual repair. It may be better to introduce a significant maintenance strategy to upgrade the building regularly. Or it may be better to spend more on the capital cost of the initial repair and reduce the expense of ongoing maintenance, for instance, when scaffold or access to high rise buildings is involved. It is not possible for this Information Sheet to identify the most appropriate approach for repairing every building, but it is important to highlight the necessity of evaluating life-cycle costs of the repair instead of simply calculating the capital cost, which is unfortunately the usual practice. It is important when selecting suitable repair and maintenance options to examine the various repair options against their expected service life, the impact on the building, life cycle costs and future resources. The aim of the repair should be to retain or reveal the significance of the building. Decisions should be based upon a thorough understanding of the building, its problems and the level of resources available to maintain the selected repair method in the future.

The tower to produce ice for the concrete mixers on the construction site of Warragamba Dam was one of the first structures to use prestressed concrete, which was used as a replacement for structural steel when it became scarce after WWII. This photograph of the central mix plant and the ice plant was taken in 1955. The plant has now been demolished. Image W550628-8, RSP3, courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation and Sydney Catchment Authority Historical Research and Archives Facility

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Further information
Broomfield, J.P. 1997, Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Understanding, Investigation and Repair , E & FN Spon, London. Bronson, S., and Jester, T. (eds.) 1997, Special Issue: Mending the Modern, APT Bulletin 28:4 , Association for Preservation Technology, Washington, D.C. Cowan, H. 1998, From Wattle and Daub to Concrete and Steel: the Engineering Heritage of Australias Buildings , Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. De Jonge, W., Doolaar, A. 1997, The Fair Face of Concrete: Conservation and Repair of Exposed Concrete , Preservation Dossier No. 2, DOCOMOMO International Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Heiman, J. L. 1985, The Durability of Cast-in-situ Reinforced Concrete , National Building Technology Centre, Department of Housing and Construction, Chatswood, NSW. Lewis, M. 1988, 200 Years of Concrete in Australia , Concrete Institute of Australia, Sydney. Macdonald, S. 2003, Building Pathology: Concrete , Blackwell Science, Oxford. Slaton, D. and Foulks, G. (eds.) 2000, Preserving the Recent Past 2 , Historic Preservation Education Foundation, Washington D.C. Slaton, D. and Shiffer, R.A. (eds.) 1995, Preserving the Recent Past , Historic Preservation Education Foundation, Washington D.C. Standards Australia 1994, Concrete Structures Commentary AS 3600 Supp 1 1994 . Standards Australia 1996, Concrete Structures Commentary AS 3600 Supp 1 1994/ AMDT 1 1996 , Standards Australia, Sydney. Standards Australia 1996, Guide to Concrete Repair and Protection HB 84:1996 , Standards Australia, Sydney. Standards Australia 2001, Concrete Structures AS 3600 2001 , Standards Australia International, Sydney. Standards Australia 2002, Concrete Structures AS 3600 2001/Amdt 1 2002 , Standards Australia International, Sydney. Standards Australia 1992-2000, Methods of Testing Concrete AS 1012 , Standards Australia International, Sydney. Standards Australia, Standards of New Zealand, ACRA & CSIRO 1996, Guide to Concrete Repair and Protection , Sydney. Warren Centre for Advanced Engineering Studies 1989, Economic Recycling and Conservation of Structures, University of Sydney.

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Glossary
Alkali aggregate reaction (abbreviated as AAR) Reaction between the aggregates and the alkaline cement paste, leading to the development of expansive crystalline gel which is sufficiently strong to cause cracking of the aggregate and of the concrete matrix. Sometimes also called alkali silica reaction, (ASR). Anode The positive pole of an electric circuit. In a cathodic protection system, a sacrificial material introduced to act as the site of corrosion to inhibit corrosion of the structure itself. Binder The materials that comprise the cementing agents in concrete, mortars and renders. Cement is mixed with water and added to aggregates (the filler q.v. ) to make concrete. Historically, natural cements such as the volcanic ash (known as pozzolan), or lime or gypsum products, were used as binders. For concrete made during the last century, Portland cement ( q.v. ) has been almost universally the binder, although other artificial cements are increasingly being used that employ recycled industrial waste material such as ground granulated blast furnace slag. Carbonation Loss of alkalinity in the concrete as a result of calcium hydroxide depletion (brought about by the presence of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which with moisture forms carbonic acid). The reaction of calcium hydroxide with the acid results in the formation of calcium carbonate, neutralising the alkalis in the pores and resulting in the loss of the passivating oxide layer around the embedded steel in the carbonated zone. The carbonation front is the interface between the uncarbonated (virgin) concrete and the carbonated concrete, as carbonation progresses inwards towards the steel. Carbonation is progressive but occurs at a reducing rate with time. It progresses faster in zones of local defects, such as cracking and poor compaction, than in the general body of (competent) concrete. Cathode The negative pole of an electric circuit. In a cathodic protection system, the metal protected against corrosion due to the presence of a sacrificial anode. Cement The binding material that is one the components of concrete. Most commonly it is Portland cement (q.v.) . Chlorides As these occur in calcium chloride (used as a cement-setting accelerator in the past) and sodium chloride (in sea-water, wind-blown sea spray, and road de-icing salt), they combine with water to form an aggressive agent leading to accelerated corrosion of reinforcement. Corrosion Rusting or formation of iron oxides and other compounds by electrolytic action when steel is exposed to water and oxygen. Aggravated by other aggressive agents such as acids or chlorides (q.v.) . Rust occupies a larger volume than the original iron, and consequently can cause cracking and spalling (q.v.) in the surrounding concrete. Cover The concrete between the reinforcement and the adjacent face of the element. It provides protection of the steel from corrosion (q.v.) . The required thickness of cover and the quality of concrete mix used are influenced by the severity of exposure, and must be correctly chosen to ensure durability (q.v.) . Creep The long-term shortening or deflection of the concrete as the strain increases under sustained stress, which usually has to be allowed for in the structural design of the reinforced concrete. Delamination Separation of layers of concrete from the main body of the material. Filler The aggregates which mixed with the binder (q.v.) and water result in concrete. Typically categorized as coarse aggregate (crushed stone, gravel, etc.) and fine aggregate (commonly sand). Galvanic action Occurs when two dissimilar metals are placed together in solution. The most active metal will become an anode and corrode as a current passes between them. This action is used to stop corrosion by galvanising (coating steel with zinc) and in galvanic cathodic protection. Impressed current cathodic protection A method of cathodic protection that uses a power supply and an inert (or controlled consumption) anode to protect a metallic object or element by making it the cathode. In-situ concrete Concrete cast in its intended location, cf. precast concrete (q.v.) . Latent damage Non-visible damage that is impairing, or will impair, the functionality of the structure and will eventually require some form of remedial action. Mass concrete A term generally synonymous with unreinforced concrete (q.v.) but also applied to massive concrete elements and structures such as gravity dams, which may well have some reinforcement. Oxidation The process of removing electrons from an atom or ion. The process: Fe Fe 2+ + 2e Fe 2+ Fe 3+ + e is the oxidation of iron to its ferrous (Fe 2 ) and ferric (Fe 3+ ) oxidation state. Oxidation is done by an oxidizing agent, of which oxygen is only one of many. Passivation The process by which steel in concrete is protected from corrosion by the formation of a passive layer due to the highly alkaline environment created by the pore water. The passive layer is a thin, dense layer of iron oxides and hydroxides with some mineral content, that is initially formed as bare steel is exposed to oxygen and water, but then protects the steel from further corrosion as it is too dense to allow the water and oxygen to reach the steel and continue the oxidation process. Patent damage Visible damage in reinforced concrete decay. Damage can include cracking, spalling etc. pH Logarithmic scale for expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a solution based on the concentration of hydrogen ions; a neutral solution has a pH of 7, whilst a pH below 7 indicates an acid solution and a pH above 7 indicates an alkaline solution. Concrete has a pH of 12 to 13. Steel corrodes at pH 10 to 11.

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Pore (water) Concrete contains microscopic pores. These contain alkaline oxides and hydroxides of sodium, potassium and calcium. Water will move in and out of the concrete saturating, part filling and drying out the pores according to the external environments. The alkaline pore water sustains the passive layer if not attacked by carbonation or chlorides. Portland cement Patented by Aspdin in 1824 and named after its resemblance to Portland stone. It is an artificial or manufactured material, although made from limestone or chalk, together with clay or shale. These contain alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide and magnesia, and are ground to a fine powder, burnt in a kiln and then reground to a very fine powder which sets hard when mixed with water. Post-tensioned concrete Prestressed concrete made by casting-in conduits or sheaths for prestressing steel that is tensioned and secured by anchorages once the concrete has cured. Profiling the conduits or sheaths produces a more efficient section, as noted below for pretensioned concrete. The conduits or sheaths are usually then grouted up to provide bond between steel and concrete, and to increase durability. Precast concrete Reinforced concrete cast in moulds as units or elements elsewhere than their final intended location, before being placed into position. Prestressed concrete Concrete that has had compressive stress applied to it by tensioned steel before it is put into service to carry loads. The prestressing steel may take the form of rods, wires, cables, or bars. Prestressing increases the strength of the element and can eliminate cracking in service. Pretensioned concrete Prestressed concrete made by tensioning the prestressing steel before the concrete is poured. This typically requires temporary anchorages to hold the ends of the steel, and stout moulds to resist the resulting compression forces exerted on them. Once the concrete has set, the anchorages are freed and the prestressing force is transferred as compression in the concrete. Pretensioning generally employs straight runs of steel, although sometimes it is profiled, following the pattern of the bending moment to give a more efficient use of the material. Reinforced concrete Concrete reinforced with metal rods, straps, wires or mesh that provides a composite material strong in tension and compression. The reinforcement is today most commonly mild or high-tensile steel but iron, annealed wire, and galvanised and stainless steel have all been used in various ways as reinforcement. In the future non-metallic, high-strength composites used as reinforcement may reduce or eliminate concerns over corrosion and durability. Repair action Taken to reinstate to an acceptable level the current functionality of a structure or its components that are either defective, degraded or damaged in some way.

Shrinkage Contraction of the cement paste as it hardens, due to loss of moisture and changes to the paste s internal structure. Some shrinkage is nonreversible due to these changes, while reversible shrinkage occurs as the concrete becomes wet in service and then dries again. Some materials that might otherwise find use as aggregates should be avoided if found to be shrinkable , as this property may damage the concrete in service. Spalling Detachment of lens-like pieces of surface concrete, usually due to reinforcement corrosion and the production of expansive rust products that put the concrete locally into tension, resulting in cracking and then spalling. Unreinforced concrete Concrete that does not contain reinforcement.

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