1

REFERENCES

1- Fluid Mechanics, Victor L. Streeter and E. Benjamin Wylie, McGraw
Hill book Company.
2- Mechanics of Fluids, Irving H. Shames, McGraw Hill book Company.
3- Fluid Mechanics, F. M. White, McGraw Hill book Company.
4- Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, A. T. McDonald, and R. W. Fox,
John Wiley & Sons book Company.
5- Elementary Fluid Mechanics, John K. Vennard & Robert L. Street,
John Wiley & Sons book Company.


FLUID MECHANICS

Is a branch of applied mechanics which deals with fluids.


Statics
MECHANICS
Dynamics

FLUID MECHANICS Statics + Dynamicsof Fluids (Liquids and Gases)

Fluids are classified into liquids and gases.
The difference between the two is that

LIQUIDS OCCUPY A DEFINITE VOLUME, whereas GASES EXPAND
TO FILL THE ENTIRE VOLUME OF THE CONTAINER IN WHICH
THEY ARE PLACED.

FLUID

is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no
matter how small that shear stress may be.









F U
Fixed Plate
y
2
When a force F is applied to the upper plate, it exerts a shear stress F/A on the
substance at the interface of the plate and the substance.

If the force F causes the upper plate to move with a steady(nonzero) velocity,
no matter how small the magnitude of F , one conclude that the substance
between the two plates is a fluid.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND DEFORMATION

ity Vis of Law Newtons
dy
dv
dy
dv
cos '

is called viscosity , absolute or dynamic viscosity.

is defined as the proportionality factor between

dy
dv
and


dy dv /

Considering two different fluids such as water and tar

Applying the same for both fluids results in less deformation (dv/dy) for
the tar. Hence,

of the tar is greater than that of the water. So, the viscosity
can also be expressed as the fluid characteristic that represent the resistance
of the fluid against the shear stress.

VISCOSITY IS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE

The magnitude of

depends on:

1- Cohesive force between molecules.
2- Momentum interchange between colliding molecules.

The cohesive force is dominant for Liquids, So, as the temperature of a
liquid is raised, the cohesive force between molecules decreases. This results
in a decrease in viscosity.

The momentum interchange is dominant for gases. So, as the temperature
of the gas is raised, providing for greater momentum interchange, the viscosity
of the gas increases.
3
RHEOLOGICAL DIAGRAM


Thin Liquids and Gases tend to be Newtonian Fluids.


UNITS OF VISCOSITY


s Pa
m
s N
m
s m
m N
dy dv
.
.
/
/
/
2
2

In English units

2
.
ft
s lb



Kinematic Viscosity

Units
s
m
m kg
m
s
s
m
kg
m kg
m s N
2
3
2 2
3
2
/
.
/
/ .

dy
dv

Newtonian Fluids
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Thixotropic Substance
Ideal Plastic
4
In English units
s
ft
2


P.1.3 A Newtonian liquid flows down an inclined plane in a thin sheet of
thickness t: The upper surface is in contact with air, which offers almost no
resistance to the flow. Using Newtons law of viscosity, decide what the value
of dy du / , y measured normal to the inclined plane, must be at the upper
surface. Would a linear variation
Of u with y be expected?


Hence, a linear variation of u with y would not be expected.

1.5 A Newtonian fluid is in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric
sleeve. When a force of 500 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft , the
sleeve attains a speed of 1 m/s. If a 1500 N force is applied, what speed will
the sleeve attain? The temperature of the sleeve remains constant.

Newtonian Fluid

0
0 0
0


dy
du
dy
du

0
dy
du

5


s m V N F
s m V N F
/ ? 1500
/ 1 500
2 2
1 1





dy
dV
1
1

Since the clearance thickness is very small, the velocity distribution can be
assumed linear.


s m V
V V
V
F
F
V
V
A F
A F
V
V
t
V
t
V
t
V
dy
dV
/ 3
1
1500
500
/
/
2
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1

1.16 A flywheel weighing 600 N has a radius of gyration of 300 mm. When it
is rotating 600 rpm, its speed reduces 1 rpm/s owing to fluid viscosity between
sleeve and shaft. The sleeve length is 50 mm; shaft diameter is 20 mm; and
radial clearance is 0.05 mm. Determine the fluid viscosity.

W = 600 N
R = 300 mm=0.3 m
y
Concentric Sleeve
Shaft
6
?
/
60
2 1
/ 1
/ 2 . 0
60
01 . 0 2 600
600
2

s rad s rpm
s m rpm V

The system is rotating with 600 rpm. When the power is disconnected, the
velocity of the rotating system will be reduced by 1 rpm/s owing to fluid
viscosity. In other words the frictional shear force between the rotating shaft
and the fluid results in a torque equals to Fr

2
2
mR r A
t
V
mR Fr
I T

,
_

Where t = clearance thickness between shaft and sleeve,
A = Shaft-Fluid interface surface area.

s Pa. 46 . 1
60
2
3 . 0
806 . 9
600
) 10 10 ( ) 10 50 ( ) 10 20 (
10 05 . 0
2 . 0
2 3 3 3
3

,
_

50 mm
20 mm V=600rpm
0.05 mm
shaft
flywheel
sleeve
7
EXAMPLE


-An oil of viscosity between the conical body and the container fills the
clearance. Find the torque required to be applied on the conical body to
produce an angular velocity w




Owing to the fact that the velocity at the surface of the conical body varies
with radius of the cone at that point, the torque should be obtained by
integration.



w

w
H
Conical Body
Container
Oil Film of
thickness h
8

sin 2
tan
sin 2 4 sin
2
sin
2
4 4 4
0
4
0
3
h
H w
h
R w x
h
w
dx x
h
w
T
R
R

1
]
1

w
H
Conical Body
Container
Oil Film of
thickness t
dx
dy
ds

sin
sin
dx
ds
ds
dx

sin
2
sin
2
2
) (
dx
xds
h
wx
x
dx
xds
h
V
x
xds
dy
dV
x
dA x xdF T
x dF dT
A
A
A
A A

sin 2
4
1
2 1
t
R w
T
T T T

+

























H
R
w
H =4

R = 2

t = 0.01

2
5
.
10 5 . 4
ft
s lb

Find the torque T
required to rotate the
conical body with
angular velocity w
r
rdr dA 2
10
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY K

For most purposes a liquid may be considered as incompressible, but for
situations involving either sudden or great changes in pressure, its
compressibility becomes important.



/ d
dP
K

The compressibility of a liquid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity
K. An increase of the pressure dP results in a liquid volume decrease of d .
The ratio

/ d
dP
will be equal to K of that liquid.

Example

In order to show the low compressibility of water lets consider the application
of 0.1 MPa (about one atmosphere) to a cubic meter of water:

3
10 2 . 2
10 ) (
9999545 . 0 1
9
5
)
m e e KLn P P
d
K dP
K
P P
o
o
o
P
P
o o

,
_

SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension of a liquid is due to the forces of attraction between like
molecules called COHESION and those between unlike molecules called
ADHESION.

In the interior of a liquid, the cohesive forces acting on a molecule are
balanced out, since the molecule is surrounded by like molecules.

Near a free surface however, since the cohesive force between liquid
molecules is greater than that between air molecule and liquid molecules,
there is a resultant force on a liquid molecule acting toward the interior of the
liquid. This force is balanced out with the surface tension force formed in the
membrane type surface. The surface tension force is proportional to the
product of a surface tension coefficient and the length of the free surface.

To illustrate, consider the equilibrium of a water droplet shown in cross-
section in the figure:
11








BUBLE




JET





P
o
P
i
Interface

of
water and air
R
P P
R R P P
o i
o i

2
2 ) (
2



R
P P
L RL P P
o i
o i

2 2 ) (

12







BULB


JET
R
P P
o i





BUBLE
R
P P
o i
2




BULB
R
P P
o i
4














P
o
P
i
Two Interfaces

of
liquid and gas
R
P P
R R P P
o i
o i

4
2 2 ) (
2



13







CAPILARITY

When a liquid is in contact with a solid surface, adhesion forces between solid
and liquid in addition to cohesive forces within the liquid should be taken into
consideration.



Water meniscus
Glass tube
Liquid
R
h
h R R

cos 2
cos 2
2

Adhesive Forces > Cohesive Forces
14


























Cohesive Forces > Adhesive Forces Adhesive Forces > Cohesive Forces
15
CHAPTER 2 FLUID STATICS


STRESS AT A POINT





The stress is the ratio of two vectors. So it is neither vector nor scalar.

k F j F i F F
k A j A i A A
z y x
z y x
+ +
+ +





x
z
xz
x
y
xy
x
x
xx
A
F
A
F
A
F

C
A
F
To obtain the stress at
point C, let F be the
force vector acting on
the surface element A .
Then


A
F
C at Stress
A

lim
0

A
y
z
xy

z
A
x
x
A

y
A
xz

xx

16
1
1
1
]
1

zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
ij
po a at Stress



int

The stress is a second degree tensor, since it has two indices.

Number of Components = 3
degree
= 3
2
= 9

Vector Tensor of first degree Number of Components = 3
1
=3
Scalar Tensor of zero degree Number of Components = 3
0
=1

In Fluid Statics there exists only pressure(Normal Stress) and there are
no shere stresses. Hence,

1
1
1
]
1

z
y
x
ij
P
P
P
po a at Stress
0 0
0 0
0 0
int

PRESSURE AT A POINT

At a point, a fluid at rest has the same pressure in all directions. To
demonstrate this, a tetra-hydral element is considered in a fluid at rest as
shown in the figure:



















x
x
A

y
A
z
A
x x
A P
y
z
z z
A P
y y
A P
A P
17
Direction cosines of PdA are l, m, n, respectively.

0
x
F

0 0
x x x x x
A P A P Al P A P

P
x
=P

0
z
F

0 0
z z z z z
A P A P An P A P

P
z
=P

0
y
F

zero approaches y
y
P P
y A
A P A P
y A
Am P A P
y
y
y y y
y
y y
0
3
0
3
0
3

P
y
=P

P
x =
P
y
=P
z
=P

BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID STATICS

PRESSURE VARIATION IN A STATIC FLUID


The forces acting on element of fluid at rest consist of surface forces and body
forces.

Surface forces are the forces that act on the element surfaces and body forces
act on the particles of the body.

Gravity force is the only body force.



18












a m F
v
v

(1)
k F j F i F F
z y x
v v v v

+ +
dxdydz
x
P
F
dydz dx
x
P
P Pdydz F
x
x

) (

Similarly:

dxdydz dydzdx
y
P
F
y

dzdxdy
z
P
F
y

Substituting in (1) results in:

) ( Equation Euler a j P
a j k
z
P
j
y
P
i
x
P
a dxdydz k dzdxdy
z
P
j dxdydz dydzdx
y
P
i dxdydz
x
P
v
v v
v
v v v v
v
v v v

,
_

,
_

This equation is valid for invicid fluids in motion, or fluids so moving that the
shear stress is everywhere zero. This equation will be used in the end of this
chapter for a fluid which is in container moving with acceleration.

For fluid statics 0 a
v

Hence, j P
v v
0

,
_

j k
z
P
j
y
P
i
x
P
v v v v
0
Pdydz
dydz dx
x
P
P ) (

+
dx
dz
dy
x
y
z
19
0 , , 0

z
P
y
P
x
P

0 0

z
P
and
x
P
states that two points at the same elevation in the same
continuous mass of fluid at rest have the same pressure.

Using Differential Calculus:

dy dP
dz
z
P
dy
y
P
dx
x
P
dP

The last equation holds for both compressible and incompressible fluids.
Integrating this equation yields:








P is the absolute pressure and h represents the gage pressure.

Absolute pressure is expressed as a difference between its value and a
complete vacuum.

Gage pressure is the difference between its absolute value and the local
atmospheric pressure.
C y P +


h Depth of point from
fluid free surface
y Choosing origin for the
coordinates is arbitrary. For
simplicity, the origin has been
chosen at the free surface.

y=0 , P = P
atm
C= P
atm

y=-h
. atm
P h P +

20

EXAMPLE

Find the pressure at depth 6 m of water. Then calculate the absolute pressure.
The barometer reads 760 mmHg. S
Hg
= 13.57





. 24 . 159967 101131 58826
. 24 . 101131 76 . 0 806 . 9 1000 57 . 13
) .( 58826 6 806 . 9 1000
.
.
Pa P p P
Pa h g P
gage Pa h p
atm
Hg Hg atm
+ +

h=760mm
vacuum
21

PRESSURE VARIATION IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

When the fluid is a perfect gas at rest at constant temperature (isothermal
conditions), the following can be introduced:

RT P
P
P P
P
RT P
o o
o
o
o o

(1)

gdy dy dP (2)

Substituting for from Eq.(1) in Eq.(2) results in:

dy
P
g
P
dP
Pgdy
P
dP
y
y o
o
P
P o
o
o o





[ ] [ ]
y
y
o
o
P
P
o o
y
P
g
LnP


) (
) (
o
o
o
y y
P
g
o
o
o
o
o
e P P
y y
P
g
P
P
Ln

,
_

The atmosphere frequently is assumed to have a constant temperature gradient
expressed by:

y T T
o
+

For standard atmosphere, m C
o
/ 00651 . 0

) ( y T R P
o
+



EXAMPLE

Assuming isothermal conditions to prevail in the atmosphere, compute the
pressure and density at 2000 m elevation if
3 5
/ 24 . 1 . 10 m kg Pa P
o o
at sea
level.
P,y
P
o
,y
o
datum
22

.) .( 4 . 78 . 78412 10
) 2000 (
10
806 . 9 24 . 1
5
) (
5
abs Pa Pa e P
e P P
o
o
o
o
y y
P
g
o

3
5
/ 972 . 0 78412
10
24 . 1
m kg P
P
o
o




EXAMPLE

Find the gage pressure at depth 1500 m of an ocean, assume:

a) Incompressible fluid,
3
/ 10050 m N
b) Compressible fluid, . 10 07 . 2
9
Pa K




























23
EXAMPLE

Cross sections at A and B are equal to 0.004 m
2
and 0.4 m
2
respectively.
W
B
=40 kN., S = 0.75, Find F. Neglect cylinder A weight


A general procedure should be followed in working all manometers
problems (U type problems):

1- Start at one end and write the pressure there in an appropriate unit.
2- Add to this the change in pressure from one meniscus to the next (plus
if the next meniscus is lower, minus if higher).
3- Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the expression to the
pressure at that point.















F
5 m
B
N F
F
Area
W
h
Area
F
B
B
f
A
253
4 . 0
40000
5 9806 75 . 0
004 . 0

+
+

A
24
EXAMPLE











































A
h1=0.6m
h2=0.9 m
water
Mercury
S
Hg
=13.57

Find the pressure at A

. 113877
0 9 . 0 9806 57 . 13 6 . 0 9806
0 2 1
Pa P
P
h h P
A
A
Hg w A

+
+

25

EXAMPLE

. 37 . 24672
2 . 0 9806 12 . 0 9806 57 . 13 1 . 0 9806 8 . 0 075 . 0 9806 57 . 13 25 . 0 9806
6 5 4 2 1
Pa P P
P P
P d d d d d P
B A
B A
B w Hg oil Hg w A

+
+ +




ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment #2 2.15, 2.16, 2.21
Assignment #3 2.28, 2.32, 2.35, 2.55, 2.63
Assignment #4 2.69, 2.78, 2.82, 2.85, 2.90
Assignment #5 2.91, 2.123, 2.133









A
B
water
Mercury
Oil
water
Mercury
d1
d2
d3
d4
d5
d6 S
Hg
=13.57
S
oil
= 0.8
d1 = 0.25 m
d2 = 0.075 m
d3 = 0.1 m
d4 = 0.1 m
d5 = 0.12 m
d6 = 0.2 m
P
A
P
B
= ?
26
FORCES ON PLANE AREAS

HORIZONTAL SURFACES




To find the line of action of the resultant:

area the of centroid the of x X
A
xdA
X
x PdA PAX x dF X F
G
A
P
A
P
A
P

) ( ) (


Similarly:

area the of centroid the of z Z
A
zdA
Z
z PdA PAZ z dF Z F
G
A
P
A
P
A
P

) ( ) (


Hence, for a horizontal area subjected to static fluid pressure, the resultant
passes through the centroid of the area.




z
z
F =PA

z
P
x
P
A P dA P PdA F
PdA dF
A A

x
dF
x
y
27
INCLINED SURFACES








In the figure a plane surface is indicated by trace AB. It is inclined
o
from
the horizontal plane. The intersection of the plane of the area and the free
surface is taken as the x-axis. y-axis is taken in the plane of the inclined area
with origin O, as shown in the free surface.

The xy plane portrays the arbitrary inclined area.

The magnitude, direction, and line of action of the resultant force due to the
liquid, acting on one side of the area, are sought.







y
x
y
y
x
h
h
x
y

O
O
G
x
G
y
28
For an element with area dA

dA y hdA PdA dF sin

All force components (dFs) are parallel. Therefore, the resultant force will be
equal to the algebraic summation of these components, i. e., the resultant F
equals to the integral of dF:

A P F
A h A y ydA dA y dF F
G
G
A A A

sin sin sin


In other words, the magnitude of force exerted on one side of a plane area
submerged in a liquid is the product of the area and the pressure at its centroid.

As all force elements are normal to the surface, the line of action of the
resultant also is normal to the surface.

Any surface may be rotated about any axis through its centroid without
changing the magnitude of the resultant if the total area remains submerged in
the static liquid.

CENTER OF PRESSURE

The line of action of the resultant force has its piercing point in the surface at
a point called the pressure center, with coordinates (x
P,
y
P
). Unlike that of the
horizontal surface, the center of pressure of an inclined surface is not at the
centroid.

To find the pressure center, the moments of the resultant F y F x
P P
, are equated
to the moments of the distributed forces about the y and x axes, respectively;
thus:

29
A y
x I
y y
A y
y x I
x x
y
A y
x I
A y
A y x I
A y
I
x
A y
dA y
y
x
A y
y x I
A y
A y x y x I
A y
I
x
A y
dA y x
x
dA y y A y y yPdA F y
dA y x A y x xPdA F x
G P
G P
G
G x
P
A
P
G
G G
xy
P
A
P
A
G P
A
P
A
G P
A
P
+
+
+
+

+
+

2
2
.
.
sin sin
sin sin




When either of the centroidal axes, x x or y y is an axis of symmetry for
the surface, y x I vanishes and the pressure center lies on x x . Since y x I may
be either positive or negative, the pressure center may lie on either side of the
line x x .

ty eccentrici
A y
x I
y y
A y
x I
y y
G P G P
+

P
y is always below the centroid of the surface.

30



EXAMPLE

The triangular gate CDE in the figure is hinged along CD and is opened by a
normal force P applied at E. It holds oil, relative density 0.8, above it and is
open to the atmosphere on its lower side. Neglecting the weight of the gate,
find a) the magnitude of force exerted on the gate.
b) the location of pressure center.


31



N
A h A P F
G
8 . 47068
)
2
2 3
( 30 sin 4 9806 8 . 0

m x x
G P
667 . 0 3 / 2

m
A y
x I
y y
G P
09375 . 4
) 2 / 2 3 ( 4
12
5 . 1
2 2
4
3

,
_

+ +













D
G
O
D

y
y
C
O
TOP VIEW
x
C
3 m
2m
Center of Pressure
30
o

E
SIDE VIEW
x
2.5m
32
EXAMPLE

Considering 3ft length of the tank perpendicular to the paper, Calculate the
water force and the location of this force on the wall AD.











A
D
30
o
Water
6ft
6ft
33

AD edge the from ft x
lb
A h A P F
P
G
5 . 1
8424
) 6 3 ( )
2
30 sin 6
6 ( 4 . 62

+

ft
A y
x I
y y
G
G P
2 . 15
) 6 3 )( 3
30 sin
6
(
12
6
3
3
30 sin
6
3

,
_

+ + +

















A
B
C
D
O
y
30
o

x
y
Water
6ft
6ft
3ft
x
34

THE PRESSURE PRISM





olume V ism d F Force Resultant
d
PdA dF

Pr

yd
y
xd
x
P P


This indicates that the resultant passes through the centroid of the pressure
prism volume.















P=h

35

EXAMPLE




lb
ft ft
ft ft
P P
F
8424
3 6
2
) 30 sin 6 6 ( 4 . 62 6 4 . 62
3 6
2
2 1

+ +

+



The influence point of the resultant pressure force is the centroid of the
pressure prism volume.

ft
P P
P P
y
ft x
8 . 2
6 9
6 2 9
3
6
2
3
6
5 . 1
1 2
1 2

,
_

+
+

,
_

+
+

B
C
D
O
y
30
o
x
y
Water
6ft
6ft
3ft
x
1 1
h p
2 2
h p
36
EXAMPLE


The width of the bate AB (Normal to the gate is 2 m). The gate weight is 15
kN. The gate is hinged at B. Find h so that the gate will start to open.

Integration Method

dl y y dA P P dA P dA P dF 2 ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 2 1

y
1
and y
2
are the depths of the element at left and right of the gate,
respectively.








o
1.5 m
2 m
W
A
B
Water
Water
1.5 m
h
37


2
5 . 1
0
2
5 . 2
) 5 . 1 ( 2
2
) 5 . 1 ( 2
) 5 . 1 ( 2 ) ( ) (
) 5 . 1 ( 2 ) ( 2 2 ) (
2
5 . 2
0
2
5 . 2
0
2 1 2 1

,
_

1
]
1

W h
l
h M
dl l h l dF M l dF dM
dl h y y dl y y dF

m h
h
683 . 1
2
5 . 1
15 0
2
5 . 2
) 5 . 1 ( 806 . 9 2
2

,
_

Second Method

122575 ) 2 5 . 2 ( ) 1 5 . 1 (
) 1 ( 49030 ) 2 5 . 2 ( ) 1 (
2 2 2
1 1 1
+
+ +

A P F
h h A P F
G
G

) 2 5 . 2 )( 25 . 1 25 . 1 (
52 . 0
25 . 1 25 . 1
) 2 5 . 2 (
2
5 . 2
4
5
12 / 5 . 2 2
2
5 . 2
4
5
3
1
1
1 1
+
+ +

,
_

+
,
_

+ +
h
h
h
h
A y
x I
y y
G
G P
) 2 5 . 2 )( 25 . 1 25 . 1 (
52 . 0
+ h
is e
1


16667 . 0 125 . 3
) 2 5 . 2 (
2
5 . 2
5 . 1
4
5
12 / 5 . 2 2
2
5 . 2
5 . 1
4
5
3
2
2
2 2
+

,
_

+
,
_

+ +
A y
x I
y y
G
G P

o
1.5 m
2 m
W
A
B
Water
Water
1.5 m
h
P
1

P
2

y
1

y
2

l
y
38
0.16667 is e
2


Hence,
) 2 5 . 2 )( 25 . 1 25 . 1 (
52 . 0
2
5 . 2
2
5 . 2
1 1
+

h
e l


m l 08333 . 1 16667 . 0
2
5 . 2
2

0
2
5 . 1
0
2 2 1 1
l F W l F M
B

m h
h h
h
h
683 . 1
3 2
05 . 5 3 4 05 . 2 05 . 2
0 05 . 5 05 . 2 3
0 0833 . 1 122575
2
5 . 1
15000
) 2 5 . 2 )( 25 . 1 25 . 1 (
52 . 0
2
5 . 2
) 1 ( 49030
2
2

+ t

,
_

+
+



It has to remember that this example can also be solved as a curved
surface.























39

CURVED SURFACES

When the elemental forces PdA vary in direction, as in the case of a curved
surface, they must be added as vector quantities; i.e., their components in three
mutually perpendicular directions are added as scalors, and then three
components are added victorially.






x x x
PdA PdA dF
PdA dF

cos


P is the pressure on dA

x
A
x Gx x x x x
A P F equal are dA and dA on P PdA F ,


Similarly, it can be proved that:

z Gz z
A P F


But,

z
x
y
PdA
dA
y
dA
x
dA
z
h

Gx
Gz
40

y Gy y
A
y y y
A P F
equal not are dA and dA on P essures PdA F
y

Pr ,




y y
A
y
A
y y
d hA PdA F

d is the volume of the small prism of height h and base dA
y
or the volume
of liquid vertically above the areaelement.


Hence,

d F
y


The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface is equal to
the weight of liquid vertically above the curved surface and extending up
to the free surface.

The horizontal component of pressure force exerted on a projection of the
curved surface. The vertical plane of projection is normal to the direction
of the component.



EXAMPLE

The equation of an ellipsoid of revolution submerged in water is
1
9 4 4
2 2 2
+ +
z y x
. The center of the body is located 2m below the free surface.
Find the horizontal force components acting on the curved surface that is
located in the first octant. Consider the x-z plane to be horizontal and y to be
positive upward.
41




N
A P F
x Gx x
53200
)
4
2 3
)(
3
2 4
2 (

N
A P F
z Gz z
35400
)
4
2
)(
3
2 4
2 (
2

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

8
3 2 2
3
4
2
4
3 2
9806
8
3
4
4

abc
b
c a
F
y


The influence line of F
y
passes through the centroid of the volume .

2m
2m
3m
G
z
G
x
F
z
F
x
42

Liquid pressure force when the liquid is below the curved surface



is the volume above the curved surface and extending up to the free surface
or the extension of it.

Unlike the previous case
y
F direction is upward and the influence line passes
through the centroid of .






EXAMPLE

A cylindrical barrier holds water as shown. The contact between cylinder and
wall is smooth. Considering a 1m length of cylinder, determine a) its gravity
force and b) the force exerted against the wall.


PdA

dA
x

Extension of free
surface
h

d F
hdA PdA F
PdA dF
A P F
PdA F
PdA dF
PdA dF
y
y y y
y y
x Gx x
A
x x
x
x
cos

43

a)
In equilibrium:

0
y
F


AB
y
BCD
y
BCD
y
AB
y
F F W
F W F

+ 0

) 4 ( 1
4
2
2

,
_

r
r F
AB
y


A
B
C
D
r=2m
44

) 8 2 (
1 2
2
2
2
+

,
_

+ r
r
F
BCD
y

N W
5
10 32 . 1 ) 4 3 ( ) 4 ( ) 8 2 ( + +

b)










1m
2m
N A P F
G h
19600 2 2 1
G

45
TENSILE STRESS IN A PIPE AND SPHERICAL SHELL
A circular pipe under the action of an internal pressure is in tension around
periphery.

A section of pipe of unit length is considered. If one-half of the ring is taken as
a free body,

The horizontal component of force acts through the pressure center of the
projected area and is 1 dD P , in which P is the pressure at the center
line.

T PdD F
x
2 0

2
2
Pd
e e Pd


EXAMPLE

A 100 mm-ID steel pipe has a 6 mm wall thickness. For an allowable tensile
stress of 70 MPa., what is the maximum pressure?

Pa P
P Pd
e
6
6
10 2 . 4
10 70 2
1 . 0
006 . 0
2

46
For a spherical shell
It can be noted that spherical shells with half thickness compared to
cylindrical shells can tolerate the same internal pressure.

4
4
2
Pd
e
de
d
P
T PA

47

EXAMPLE

Calculate the force F required to hold the gate in a closed position







d
r
cos r
sin r
F
PdA

dM r F
essure inside of M r F Pr

) 1 ( sin 3 . 1
sin

r rd P r F
r PdA r F

o

) 2 ( 5295.24cos - 17650.8
0 6 . 0 9806 3 9806 2 . 1 cos 6 . 0 9806 9 . 0
0 3 6 . 0 6 . 0 cos

+ +
+ + +
P
P
R r P
w w w oil

F
S=3.0
o

48
Substituting for P from Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) yields:
[ ]
[ ] [ ] { }
N F
F
d F
d d F
d d r F
d r r F
r rd r F
604 . 2294
2 / 2 cos 62 . 2647 cos0 /2 cos - 17650.8 6 . 0 3 . 1
2 sin 62 . 2647 cos - 17650.8 6 . 0 3 . 1
cos sin 2
2
5295.24
- sin 17650.8 6 . 0 3 . 1
sin 5295.24cos - sin 17650.8 3 . 1
sin ) 5295.24cos - 17650.8 ( 3 . 1
sin 3 . 1 ) 5295.24cos - 17650.8 (
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2

'

'

'

BUOYANT FORCE

The resultant force exerted on a body by a static fluid in which it is submerged
or floating is called the buoyant force. The buoyant force always acts
vertically upward. There can be no horizontal component of the resultant
because the projection of the submerged body or submerged portion of the
floating body on a vertical plane is always zero.

The buoyant force on a submerged body is the difference between the vertical
component of pressure force on its underside and the vertical component of
pressure force on the upperside.





49

) (
1 2
1 2
) 1 ( ) 2 ( V V B
F F F


is the volume of fluid displaced and is the unit gravity force of fluid.

Buoyant force
B
F = Weight of Displaced Fluid



The same relationship holds for floating bodies.

The buoyant force acts through the centroid of the displaced volume of
fluid.

The centroid of the displaced volume of fluid is called the center of
buoyancy.


EXAMPLE

A piece of ore having gravity force 1.1 N when submerged in water. What is
the volume in cubic centimeters and what is its relative density?

50
75 . 3
9806
0000408 . 0 / 5 . 1 /
8 . 40 0000408 . 0
9806 4 . 0
4 . 0 1 . 1 5 . 1
3 3

w
w
B
W
S
cm m
F

Buoyant force of a body submerged between two fluids



2 2 1 1
+
B
F


The center of buoyancy is located at the centroid of the displaced
combined fluid.








2

51
STABILITY OF SUBMERGED AND FLOATING BODIES



A body has stable equilibrium when a small disturbance results in forces
tending to return it to its initial position.

A body has unstable equilibrium when a small disturbance results in forces
tending to increase displacement from its initial position.

A body has neutral equilibrium when a small disturbance results in no
forces.

For floating bodies

Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium
52

A light piece of wood with a metal mass at its bottom is stable because a small
disturbance (rotation) results in a couple that tends to return it to its initial
position.



The metal mass is at the top. A small disturbance results in a couple that tend
increase displacement (angular displacement) from its initial position.






B
G
G

B




B
B
G G
53
FLOATING PRISMATIC OBJECTS

If G is below B, stable equilibrium will govern.

If B is below G, two conditions may occur:

- The metacenter M lies above G. This results in stable equilibrium.

The intersection of the buoyant force vector and the centerline is called
metacenter



- The matacenter M lies below G. This results in unstable equilibrium







B

G
G
B
M
Metacenter
54

Summary

G is below B Stable Equilibrium

G is above B -Metacenter is above G Stable Equilibrium
-Metacenter is below G Unstable Equilibrium
- Metacenter is on G Neutral Equilibrium






RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM

When a fluid is being accelerated so that no layer moves relative to an
adjacent one, i.e., when the fluid moves as if it were a solid, no shear stresses
occur and variation in pressure can be determined by writing the equation of
motion for an appropriate free body.




B

G
G
B
M
55

UNIFORM LINEAR ACCELERATION

By selecting a Cartesian coordinate system with y vertical and x such that the
acceleration vector a is in the xy plane, the z axis is normal to a and there is
no acceleration component in that direction:

a j P
v
v v


The pressure gradient P
v
is then the vector sum of a
v
and j
v
as shown
below:



Since P
v
is in the direction of maximum change in P (the gradient), at right
angles to P
v
there is no change in pressure.

Surfaces of constant pressure, including the free surface must therefore be
normal to P
v
.

) ( ,
) (
y y x
y x
y x
a g a
y
P
a
x
P
j a i a j
y
P
i
x
P
j a i a j j
y
P
i
x
P
+

,
_

,
_

v v v v
v v v v v


dy a g dx a
dy
y
P
dx
x
P
dP
y x
) ( +

Integrating for an incompressible fluid, yields:

56
) 1 ( ) ( C y a g x a P
y x
+ +

Equation of free surface can be obtained by setting P=0:

Surface Free of Slope
a g
a
dx
dy
C y a g x a
y
x
y x
+

+ + ) ( 0


In Eq.(1) C can be determined by choosing the origin of coordinates at the
intersection of the vertical line passing through the point we want to obtain its
pressure and free surface (surface of zero pressure):

h a g P
C P y x
y
) (
0 0 , 0 , 0
+

h

O
x
y
57
EXAMPLE

The tank in the figure is filled with oil, relative density 0.8, and accelerated as
shown. There is a small opening in the tank at A. Determine the pressure at B
and C ; and the acceleration
x
a required to make the pressure at B zero.


5 . 0 tan
5 . 0
0 806 . 9
903 . 4
tan


+

y
x
a g
a
dx
dy


. 18 . 11 . 11179
425 . 1 ) 0 806 . 9 ( 1000 8 . 0 ) (
425 . 1 2 / 15 . 0 2 . 1 15 . 0
. 35 . 2 . 44 . 2353
3 . 0 806 . 9 1000 8 . ) (
3 . 0 9 . 0 2 . 1
9 . 0 8 . 1 5 . 0
'
kPa Pa P
h a g P
m h
kPa Pa P
o gh h a g P
m h
m AA
C
C y C
C
B
B B y B
B

+ +
+ +

+

For zero pressure at B 667 . 0
8 . 1
2 . 1
tan
/


2
'
/ 537 . 6
0 806 . 9
667 . 0 tan
s m a
a
a g
a
dx
dy
x
x
y
x

+

Zero pressure surface
h
B


A

58
EXAMPLE

A closed box with horizontal base 6 6 units and a height of 2 units is half
filled with liquid. It is given a constant linear acceleration
4 / , 2 / g a g a
y x
. Find the pressure at A.




3
2
tan
3
2
4 /
2 /
tan

g g
g
a g
a
y
x


Fluid Volume = 6 ) 2 6 (
2
1
6 2
2
) 3 (

+ + x x

g
g
g h a g P
x
A y A

4
9
) 5 . 1
3
2
2 ( )
4
( ) (
5 . 1
+ +



















g/2
A
x
x
3
59
UNIFORM ROTATION ABOUT A VERTICAL AXIS

Rotation of a fluid, moving as a solid, about an axis is called forced-vortex
motion Every particle of fluid has the same angular velocity. This motion is to
be distinguished from free vortex, motion, in which each particle moves in a
circular path with a speed varying inversely as the distance from the center.

A liquid in a container, when rotated about a vertical axis at a constant angular
velocity, moves like a solid after some time interval. No shear stress exist in
the liquid, and the only acceleration that occurs is directed radially inward
toward the axis of rotation.


60

C
r
gy P
rdr gdy dr
r
P
dy
y
P
dP
+ +
+

2
2 2
2

Take the origin at the vertex of the paraboloid of revolution, then:

2
0 0 , 0 , 0
2 2
r
gy P
C P y r

+



The zero pressure surface can be obtained by setting P=0:

g
r
y
r
gy
o o
2 2
0
2 2 2 2

+

PdA
dA dr
r
P
P ) (

+
dr r
g
y
P
ma F
r
r
P
r dAdr dA dr
r
P
P PdA
ma F
y
y
r
r

2
2
) ( ) (

61







In forced vortex 2 , while in free vortex the vorticity is equal to zero.



o
y
1
y

h
gh P
y y g P
gy gy P
g
r
g gy P
r
gy P
o
o

+
+
+
+
) (
2
2
1
1
2 2
1
2 2

r
y
Volume of displaced fluid =Ah
=Volume of fluid in the
periphery of the paraboloid =
1/2 (Volume of the cylinder )
= 1/2 (AH)

2
H
h
h
H
62
EXAMPLE

A liquid, relative density 1.2, is rotated at 200 rpm about a vertical axis. At
one point in the fluid 1 m from the axis, the pressure is 70 kPa. What is the
pressure at a point B, which is 2m higher than A and is 1.5 m from the axis.





EXAMPLE

A straight tube 2m long, closed at the button and filled with water, is inclined
30
o
with the vertical and rotated about a vertical axis through its midpoint 6.73
rad/s. Draw the paraboloid of zero pressure, and determines the pressure at the
bottom and midpoint of the tube.










r
A
B
2m
1.5m
1m
m y m y
y
r
gy P
Pa P
B A
A
A
A A
A
42 . 18 2 42 . 16 42 . 16
2 / 1
60
2 200
1000 2 . 1
806 . 9 1000 2 . 1 70000
2
70000
2
2
2 2
+

,
_

+

+

. 44 . 375424
2 / 5 . 1
60
2 200
1000 2 . 1 42 . 18 806 . 9 1000 2 . 1
2
2
Pa P
P
B
B

,
_

+


y



63



? , ?
A B
P P


y
A
1 m
1 m
64
. 16980 30 cos 2 806 . 9 1000
. 2830
)] 577 . 0 30 cos 1 ( [ 806 . 9 1000
2
577 . 0
806 . 9 2
) 30 sin 1 ( 73 . 6
806 . 9 2
73 . 6
2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
Pa h g P
Pa
r
y g P
m
y
r
g
r
y
C C
B B
A

65
FLUID DYNAMICS

SYSTEM


A system refers to a definite fixed mass of material and distinguishes it from
all other matter, called its surroundins.
SYSTEMS

LAGRANGIAN APPROACH

The Lagrangian approach is used wherein the basic equations are derived for a
given mass.

In this approach we follow the given mass (system)

With a reference to Fig. 2 to obtain position, velocity, momentum, energy or
acceleration of the car, the Lagrangian approach in which the mass is followed
is used.

The relative position of various particles comprising the mass of a solid stays
in the same relative position during subsequent motion. Therefore, in order to
t
1
t
2
t
o
Solid Brick Fluid Flow in apipe
66
obtain position, velocity and acceleration of all particles or points of a solid it
is sufficient to determine these unknowns at one point such as the center of
gravity of the solid.

Solid Mechanics Lagrangian Approach System


Lets try the lagrangian approach in fluid mechanics:












Since the relative position of various particles comprising the mass of the
system does not stay in the same relative position during subsequent motion,
knowing the situation of one point will not help to determine other other
points situations. Unless, infinite number of equations for infinite number of
particles is used. This approach is not reasonable. Therefore, another approach
called Eulerian approach is adopted for most analyses in fluid dynamics.




CONTROL VOLUME


A fixed volume in space is called a control volume.

In the Eulerian approach a control volume is adopted, and equations are
described to express changes in mass, momentum, and energy as the fluid
passes through or by the fixed volume or point (very small control volume).
The boundary of a control volume is its control surface. The size and shape of
the control volume are entitrly arbitrary but frequently they are made to
coincide with the solid boundaries.


System System
67
To calculate the point by point variation of the fluid variable over the whole
domain, the field approach is used. This approach essentially allows the
domain to consist of a large number of control volumes or systems such that
when they shrink to zero a series of nonlinear partial differential equations
result. These equations are so difficult that a general solution for the three-
dimensional distribution of relevant variables for the type of complex
geometries encountered in practice has not yet been achieved, not even on the
most powerful parallel processing super computers.

THE GENERAL CONTROL VOLUME CONSERVATION EQUATION

Consider some general flow situation in which the velocity of a fluid is given
relative to an xyz coordinate system.


At time t consider a certain mass of fluid that is contained within a system,
having the dotted line boundaries indicated. Also consider a control volume,
fixed relative to the xyz axes, that exactly coincide with the system at time t.

At t+t the system has moved somewhat, since each mass particle moves at
the velocity associated with its location.

Let N be the total amount of some property (e.g., mass, energy, or
momentum) within the system at time t, and let be the amount of this
property, per unit unit mass, throughout the fluid.

The time rate of increase of N for the system is now formulated in terms of the
control volume:







68



t
N
t
N
t
N
t
N
t
N
t
N N
t
N N N N
t
N N
dt
dN
t t C
t
t t B
t
V C
t t C
t
t t B
t
t V C t t V C
t
t V C t t B C V C
t
t s t t s
t
system

,
_
+

+

+

+

+

+

+

) (
lim
) (
lim
) (
lim
) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
.
0 0
. . .
0
. . .
0
0


Consider a small element with mass of dm, then



. . . . V C V C
d dm N dm dN

. .
.
V C
V C
d
t t
N


69
t
N
t t B
t

+

) (
lim
0
= time rate of flow of N out of the control volume
=

+

SB C
t t
B
t
dt
d
t
d
.
0
) (
lim

+

+

) ( . .
0 0
.
) (
lim
) (
lim
area outflow SB C SB C
t t
B
t
t t B
t
A d V
dt
d
t
d
t
N
r r

Similarly, for inflow to the control volume:

A d V
dA V
dA
dt
dl
dt
d
dldA d
r r
.
cos
cos
cos

dl

cos dA
70

+

+

) (inf . .
0 0
.
) (
lim
) (
lim
area low SC C SC C
t t
C
t
t t C
t
A d V
dt
d
t
d
t
N
r r

,
_
+ +

,
_
S C V C system
area low SC C area outflow SB C V C system
A d V d
t dt
dN
A d V A d V d
t dt
dN
. . .
) (inf . ) ( . . .
.
. .
r r
r r r r





The last equation states that the time rate of increase of N within a
system is just equal to the time rate of increase of the property N within
the control volume (fixed relative to xyz coordinate sytem) plus the the
net rate of efflux of N across the control volumeboundaries.


CONSERVATION OF MASS


+

,
_
S C V C system
A d V d
t dt
dN
. . .
.
r r


N =Property=m , =Property per unit mass=1

Then:


+

,
_
S C V C system
A d V d
t dt
dm
. . .
.
r r


0 . 0
. . .
+

,
_

S C V C system
A d V d
t dt
dm
r r
(conservation of mass or continuity
equation)

The continuity equation states that the time rate of change of mass in the
control volume plus the net rate at which mass leaves through the control
surface equals zero.






71


Consider the cylindrical tube in the figure, flow enters the tube atstation 1 and
exists at station 2. No flow is permitted through the solid surface comprising
the tube. The application of the conservation of mass proceeds as follows:

1- The control volume is defined to include all the fluid in the tube out to
the solid wall and from station 1 to station 2. If at all possible the inlet
and outlet stations should be defined or placed in regions where the
stream lines (or tubes) are parallel to the boundary such that the
entrance and exit fluid velocities are perpendicular to the respective
areas.
2- For steady flow:



0 . . 0 .
2 .
2 2 2
1 .
1 1 1
.
+

S C S C S C
dA V dA V A d V
r r r r


3- If the inlet and outlet velocity vectors are at each inlet and outlet,
perpendicular to their respective areas;

4- - 0
2 .
2 2 2
1 .
1 1 1
+

S C S C
dA V dA V
5- If average velocities are used;

m A V A V A V A V & +
2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
0


72
m& is the mass flow rate in kg/s or slug/s. If the discharge Q (also called the
volumetric flow rate, flow or discharge) is defined as VA Q


For incompressible, steady flow:

2 2 1 1
A V A V Q


Go back to the general equation:

0 .
. . .
+

S C V C
A d V d
t
r r


For incompressible fluids:

0 .
.

S C
A d V
r r
which states that the net volume efflux is zero. This implies that
the control volume is filled with liquid at all times:

2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
0 A V A V A V A V +


EXAMPLE

Apply the steady continuity equation for the figure:

73

0
0 . 0 .
2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1
. . . .
+
+

A V A V A V
A d V A d V d
t
S C S C V C


r r r r


For incompressible fluid flow ( t cons tan ):

2 2 3 3 1 1
2 2 3 3 1 1
0
A V A V A V
A V A V A V
+ +
+




CONTINUITY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION













0 .
. . .
+

S C V C
A d V d
t
r r
Continuity Equation


dxdydz
t
dxdydz
t
d
t
V C

) (
. .



z y x
S C
m m m A d V & & &
r r
+ +

.
. (Summation of net effluxes in x, y and z directions)


dxdydz
x
u
dydz dx
x
u
u udydz m
x

,
_

+ +

&

Similarly, it can be proved that:
udydz
dydz dx
x
u
u ) (

+


dx
dz
dy
x
y
z
74

dzdxdy
z
w
m
dydzdx
y
v
m
z
y

&
&


Hence;

0 ) .(
0
0
+

V
t
Or
z
w
y
v
x
u
t
dzdxdy
z
w
dydzdx
y
v
dxdydz
x
u
dxdydz
t
r r

For steady flow 0 ) .( V
r r

For incompressible fluid flow 0 . V
r r


























75
CONTINUITY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES

0 .
. . .
+

S C V C
A d V d
t
r r
Continuity Equation


z r
S C
m m m A d V & & &
r r
+ +

.
. (Summation of net effluxes in r, and z directions)




dz rdrd
t
dz d dr
t
dz rdrd
t
drdz
d dr r rd
t t
m

,
_

,
_

+ +

2
) (
2
) (
2


dzdr rd
r
V
dz drd V
dz d dr
r
V
dzdr rd
r
V
dz drd V dz rd V dz rd V
dz d dr r dr
r
V
V dz rd V m
r
r
r r
r r r
r
r r r

+ + +
+
,
_

+ +
2
) (
) ( &


r
V
D
r
V
V
r
r

+
V
V
z
V
z
V
V
z
z

+


76
drdz d
V
drdz d
V
V drdz V m

,
_

+ + &


dr dzrd
z
V
d dr
dr rd dz
z
V
V
d dr
dr rd V
dr
d dr r rd
dz
z
V
V dr
d dr r rd
V m
z
z
z z
z
z z z

,
_

+
,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +
,
_

+ +

2
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2 2
&

Hence;

0
1
0

+ +

+ +

z
V V
r r
V
r
V
t
dr dzrd
z
V
drdz d
V
dzdr rd
r
V
dz drd V dz rdrd
t
z r r
z r
r

FLUID FLOW CLASSIFICATION

Flow can be classified in many ways such as laminar versus turbulent;
steady versus unsteady; uniform versus non-uniform.

Laminar Flow



Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
77

In laminar flow, fluid particles move along smooth paths in laminas, or layers,
with one layer gliding smoothly over an adjacent layer. Laminar flow is
governed by Newtons law of viscisity.


TURBULENT FLOW

In turbulent flow the fluid particles (small molar masses) move in very
irregular, swirling paths, causing an exchange of momentum from portion of
the fluid to another. The turbulent swirls continuously range in size from very
small (say a few thousand fluid molecules) to very large (a large swirl in a
river or in an atmospheric gust).

The turbulent sets up greater shear stresses through out the fluid and causes
more irreversibilities or less.

ity vis eddy the called is
dy
dV
cos ,

The eddy viscosity is not a property of the fluid, varies from time to time and
point to point.

The eddy viscosity is not constant and it is function of flow characteristics
(velocity, velocity gradient, fluid density and distance from wall)
ky l
dy
du
l

2



STEADY FLOW

Steady flow is the flow that does not change with time:



0 0 , 0

t
P
and
t
Q
t
V
78


UNSTEADY FLOW

Unsteady flow is the flow that changes with time:


0 0 , 0

t
P
and
t
Q
t
V











Changes with time
Fixed
79
UNIFORM FLOW

Uniform flow occurs when at every point, the velocity vector or any of the
other fluid variables is identically the same for any given instant:


0

t
V
r





Uniform over the cross section means that the velocity is the same at all points
over the cross section:












NON-UNIFORM FLOW

Non-uniform flow is the flow in which the velocity vector varies from place to
place at any instant.





0

t
V
r







1
V
r

2
V
r

Velocity is the same over cross section
1
V
r

2
V
r

80
EXAMPLES


-Liquid flow through a long pipe at a constant rate is steady uniform flow.
- Liquid flow through a long pipe at a decreasing rate is unsteady uniform
flow.
-Flow through an expanding tube at a constant rate is steady non-uniform
flow.
-Flow through an expanding tube at an increasing rate is unsteady non-
uniform flow.




STREAM LINE

A stream line is a continuous line drawn through the fluid so that it has the
direction of the velocity vector at every point.

There can be no flow a cross a stream line.

If a particle of a fluid which moves along a stream line has a displacement dS ,
its displacement components in xyz directions will be: dx, dy and dz:



















dx
dy
dz
dS
A stream line
81
w
dz
dt
dt
dz
w
w
dz
v
dy
u
dx
v
dy
dt
dt
dy
v
u
dx
dt
dt
dx
u
dt
dS
V

r






EXAMPLE

A three-dimensional velocity distribution is given by u=-x , v=2y , w=5-z

Find the equation of the stream line through (2,1,1).

y
x
C y x
Cy
x
Cy Ln
x
Ln C Ln y Ln x Ln
y
dy
x
dx
v
dy
u
dx
2
2 / 1 1 , 2
1
) ( )
1
( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
2 / 1 2 / 1

82
2
5 2
2
5
2 1 , 2
5
1
)
5
( )
1
( ) ( ) 5 ( ) ( 5
1
1 1
1
z
y
x
z
x C z x
z
C
x z
C
Ln
x
Ln C Ln z Ln x Ln z
x
dx
w
dz
u
dx

EULER EQUATION ALONG A STREAM LINE

A prismatic control volume of very small size (a bar element) with cross
sectional area dA and length of dS , is selected along a stream line as shown in
the figure:






Assuming that the viscosity is zero, i.e., the flow is frictionless, the only forces
acting on the element in the s-direction are end forces and the weight. Other
pressure forces are acting perpendicular to s.

s s
ma F

Z
83
s
Z
a g
s
P
dAds dAdsa gdAds dsdA
s
P
dAdsa gdAds dA ds
s
P
P PdA
s
s
s

+ +

1
]
1

cos
) 1 ( 0 cos
1
cos
cos ) (


V
s
V
t
V
t
s
s
V
t
V
dt
t s dV
a
s

) , (



Substiyuting in equation (1) yields:

0
1

s
V
V
t
V
s
Z
g
s
P

Euler Equation for Unsteady Flow

For steady flow:

0
1

+ +

s
V
V
s
Z
g
s
P

Now s is the only independent variable. Therefore, total differentials can
replace the partials:


0
0
1
+ +

1
]
1

+ + +
VdV
dP
gdZ
ds
ds
dV
V
ds
dZ
g
ds
dP

The last equation is The Euler equation for steady flow.


Assumptions used in the derivation


1- The equation holds along a stream line.
2- Frictionless flow ( 0 )
3- Steady flow


84
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Integrating of Euler equation for constant density yields the Bernoulli
equation:

t cons
V P
gZ tan
2
2
+ +

The last equation represents energy per unit mass. Dividing the equation by g
yields:


C
g
V P
Z + +
2
2

This can be interpreted as energy per unit weight in Newton.meter per Newton
or Pound.feet per pound.

This equation is derived by applying the momentum equation on a small
element.







2
1
g
V P
Z
g
V P
Z
E E
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
2 1
+ + + +

85
INTERPRETATION OF BERNOULLI EQUATIONS TERMS







Energy Kinetic Energy Potential
mV mgH Emg
g
V
H mg Emg
g
V
H
g
V
h Z E
g
V P
Z E
+
+

,
_

+
+ + +
+ +
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 2
2

P
Z + = Potential Energy per unit weight of fluid

g
V
2
2
= Kinetic Energy per unit weight of fluid


h=
H
86
Units
ft
lb
ft lb
or
m
N
m N
Newton
joul
fluid of Weight
Energy


.
.



EXAMPLE


Water is flowing in an open channel as shown in the figure at a depth of 2 m
and a velocity of 3 m/s . It then flows down a chute into another channel
where the depth is 1 m and the velocity is 10 m/s. Assuming frictionless flow,
determine the elevation of the channel floors. The velocities are assumed to be
uniform over the cross sections, and the pressures hydrostatic.




The points 1 and 2 may be selected on the free surface, as shown, or they
could be selected at other depths. If the difference in elevation of floors is y,
Bernoulis equation is:


g
V P
Z
g
V P
Z
E E
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
2 1
+ + + +

87

m y
y
64 . 3
806 . 9 2
10
1 0
806 . 9 2
3
2
2 2

+ +

+ +



EXAMPLE

a) Determine the velocity of efflux from the nozzle in the wall of the reservoir
of the figure b) find the discharge through the nozzle.










The jet issues as a cylinder with atmospheric pressure uniformly distributed a
cross the outlet and around its periphery. The energy equation without losses
88
is applied between a point on the water surface and a point downstream from
the nozzle:


g
V P
Z
g
V P
Z
E E
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
2 1
+ + + +

g
V
2
2
1
is negligible compared to
g
V
2
2
2


s L s m A V Q
s m gh V
g
V
h
/ 70 / 07 . 0
4
1 . 0
86 . 8
/ 86 . 8 4 806 . 9 2 2
2
0 0 0 0
3
2
2 2
2
2
2

+ + + +

If losses are to be considered, then :

gh C V 2
C is called the orifice coefficient.
1 < C


EXAMPLE


Find the discharge of the previous example by integration assuming non-
uniform outflow.














4 m
h
dh
x
.
s m
dh h gh Q
dh h R gh
xdh gh VdA dQ
h R x
h x R
/ 0695 . 0
) 4 ( 05 . 0 2 2
) 4 ( 2 2
2 2
) 4 (
) 4 (
3
05 . 4
95 . 3
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2

89


EXAMPLE


Calculate the time required to lower the water surface in the tank from
elevation 4 m to 2 m. The tank cross sectional area is 50 m
2
.






















y
dy
1
2
Lets assume that the water
surface level at time t is y. Then:
gy V E E 2
2 2 1

Continuity
2 2 1 1
A V A V
[ ]
4
2 2
2
4
2
2
2
1
2 ) 05 . 0 (
50
2 2 ) 05 . 0 (
50
2 ) 05 . 0 (
50
) 05 . 0 ( 2
y
g
y
dy
g
t
y g
dy
dt
gy A
dt
dy

90
EXAMPLE



A hydroelectric plant as shown in the figure has a difference in elevation from
headwater to tailwater of H=50 m and a flow Q=5 m
3
/s of water through the
turbine. The turbine shaft rotates at 180 rpm and the torque in the shaft is
measured to be m N T . 10 16 . 1
5
. The output of the generator is 2100 kW.
Determine:

a) the reversible power for the system
b) losses in the system
c) losses and efficiency in the turbine
d) losses and efficiency in the generator


Solution

a) m H E H E
T T
50
2 1


For perfect conversion, the reversible power is :

kW N m N QH
T
5 . 2451 / . 2451500 50 5 9806

b) Lost power in the system is the difference between the power into and out
of the system, or:

91
2451.5-2100=351.5 kW

c) The rate of work by the turbine is the product of the shaft torque and the
rotational speed:

kW T 5 . 2186
60
2 180
10 16 . 1
5

Lost power through the turbine = 2451.5-2186.5 = 265 kW

Head loss through the turbine = lost power per unit fluid weight
m
Q
Power
4 . 5
5 806 . 9
265

The generator power loss = 2186.5-2100 = 86.5 kW

The generator head loss = m
Q
Power
76 . 1
5 806 . 9
5 . 86

Efficiency of the turbine = % 19 . 89 100
50
4 . 5 50

Efficiency of the generator = % 05 . 96 100
4 . 5 50
76 . 1 4 . 5 50

KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR

Often the flow entering or leaving a port is not strictly one-dimensional. In
particular, the velocity may vary over the cross section. In this case the kinetic
energy term for a given port should be modified by a correction factor :

Kinetic energy per unit time by integration = Kinetic energy per unit time
using average velocity

dA
V
v
A
g
V
VA
g
v
dA v
A
A
3
2 2
1
2 2

,
_

Find for the velocity distribution of flow in a pipe, given below:

92

,
_

2
2
max
1
R
r
V v Ans. 2


EXAMPLE

In the figure, a pump with a water horsepower (WHP) rating of 10 hp draws
water from the reservoir as indicated and delivers water to an outlet 15 ft
higher than the reservoir surface for crop irrigation. What is the outlet
discharge? Total system losses from the pump to the outlet are parametrized
as
g
V
2
8
2
, but there are no losses from the reservoir inlet to the pump. The
delivery pipe diameter is 4.67 in.






93
s ft VA Q s ft V
g
V
V g
V
g
V
Q g
V
g
V P
Z H h
g
V P
Z
E H h E
P f
P f
/ 83 . 1 / 4 . 15
2 4 / ) 12 / 67 . 4 ( 4 . 62
550 10
2
8
2
0 15
550 10
2
8 0 0 0
2 2
3
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2 1
2
1 1
1
2 2 1 1

+
+ +

+ + +
+ + + + +
+

EXAMPLE

A venturimeter, consisting of a converging portion followed by a throat
portion of constant diameter and then a gradually diverging portion, is used to
determine rate of flow in a pipe. The diameter at section 1 is 0.15 m and at
section 2 it is 0.1 m. Find the discharge through the pipe when
. 9 . 0 ., 2000
2 1
S Pa P P





94

2 1
1 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2 2 1 1
) 1 ( 25 . 2
4
1 . 0
4
15 . 0
4 4
E E
V V V V
D
V
D
V
A V A V Q

s L s m A V Q
s m V
V V
V V
g
V V P P
g
V P
Z
g
V P
Z
/ 4 . 58 / 0584 . 0
4
15 . 0
31 . 3
/ 31 . 3
806 . 9 2
) 25 . 2 (
9806 9 . 0
20000
) 2 ( ), 1 (
) 2 (
806 . 9 2 9806 9 . 0
20000
2
0
2 2
3
2
1 1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 2 1
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1

+
+ + + +

Assignments

Chapter1 1.18, 1.20 plus class assignment
Chapter 2 2.3, 2.5, 2.15, 2.17, 2.35, 2.50, 2.51, 2.52, 2.69, 2.78, 2.82, 2.91,
2.94, 2.100, 2.124, 2.133
Chapter 3 3.19, 3.29, 3 .34, 3.36, 3.46, 3.61, 3.62, 3.73
Chapter 4 4.13, 4.16, 4.19













95

THE CONTROL VOLUME LINEAR-MOMENTUM EQUATION




+

,
_

+

,
_
S C V C
system
S C V C system
A d V V d V
t dt
V dm
V
m
V m
m
N
V m N
A d V d
t dt
dN
. . .
. . .
.
,
.
r r r r
r
r
r
r
r r

S C V C
A d V V d V
t
F
. . .
.
r r r r r

S C
y
V C
y y
S C
x
V C
x x
A d V V d V
t
F
A d V V d V
t
F
. . .
. . .
.
.
r r
r r


























96

EXAMPLE



Water flows in the pipe

D
1
=25 cm
D
2
=15 cm
Q=50 L/s
P
1
=8.5 kPa
P
2
=5.83 kPa
W=2.0 N (total fluid weight in the pipe)

Find the horizontal and vertical forces required to hold the pipe in place.

Q V A d V V A d V V A d V V d V
t
F
Q V A d V V A d V V A d V V d V
t
F
y y
S C
y
S C
y
V C
y y
x x
S C
x
S C
x
V C
x x


r r r r r r
r r r r r r
. . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . .


Q V F
x x



N R
R
Q V Q V R A P A P
x
x
x
4 . 801
) 05 . 0 ( 30 cos
4 / 15 . 0
050 . 0
1000
) 05 . 0 ( 45 cos
4 / 25 . 0
050 . 0
1000 30 cos
4
15 . 0
5830 45 cos
4
25 . 0
8500
) ( cos ) ( cos cos cos
2
2
2 2
2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1

+
+ + +

R
x

R
y

97




Q V F
y y


N R
R
Q V Q V W R A P A P
y
y
y
2 . 963
) 05 . 0 ( 30 sin
4 / 15 . 0
050 . 0
1000
) 05 . 0 ( 45 sin
4 / 25 . 0
050 . 0
1000 2 30 sin
4
15 . 0
5830 45 sin
4
25 . 0
8500
) ( sin ) ( sin sin sin
2
2
2 2
2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1

+
+ + +

EXAMPLE

Find the reaction force exerted on a fixed vane when a jet discharging 60 L/s
of water at 50 m/s is deflected through 135
o
. The frictional resistance between
jet and vane is neglected.
















The velocity is assumed to be uniform throughout the jet upstream and
downstream from the vane, that is, the control volume.

When the small change in elevation between ends, if any, is neglected,
application of the energy equation shows that the magnitude of the velocity is
unchanged for fixed vanes.


Ry
Rx
u V
0
u V
0
98
kN N
Q V Q V R
Q V F
x
x x
121 . 5 5121
) 06 . 0 ( 135 cos 50 1000 ) 06 . 0 ( 50 1000
) ( 135 cos ) (
0 0

+ +
+ +

kN N
Q V R
Q V F
y
y y
121 . 2 2121
) 06 . 0 ( 135 sin 50 1000
) ( 135 sin
0

+
+

EXAMPLE

Fluid issues from a long slot and strikes against a smooth inclined flat plate.
Determine the division of flow and the force exerted on the plate, neglecting
losses due to impact.



As there are no changes in the elevation or pressure before and after impact,
the magnitude of the velocity leaving is the same as the initial speed of the jet.
The plate surface is assumed to be smooth. Therefore, there is no shear force
exerted on the surface.
R
99

) 2 (
) 1 ( cos 0
) )( ( ) ( ) ( cos 0
2 1 0
2 1 0
2 0 1 0 0 0
Q Q Q Continuity
Q Q Q
Q V Q V Q V
Q V F
x x
+
+
+ + + +

Equations (1) and (2) yields: ) cos 1 (
2
0
1
+
Q
Q , ) cos 1 (
2
0
2

Q
Q

The force R exerted on the plate must be normal to it.

0 0
0 0
sin
) )( sin (
Q V
Q V R
Q V F
y y

100

101
MOVING VANES

To analyse the problem, it is reduced to steady state by superposition of vane
velocity u to the left.

The control volume relationship has been proved with respect to fixed
coordinates. Therefore, in order to be able to use the same relationship, the
coordinate system has to be moved with the vane velocity u to the right. By
this way the control volume will have a stationary position with respect to the
coordinate system.


EXAMPLE

The vane in the figure is moving with a velocity u=30 ft/s. Determine the
force components due to the water jet and the rate of work done on the vane.














V
o

V
o
-u
V
o
-u
V
o


u

R
x
R
y
x
y
z
x
y
z
u
102
s ft u
s ft V
ft A
/ 30
60
/ 100
04 . 0
0
0
2
0

lb R
A u V
A u V u V A u V u V R
Q V F
x
x
x x
569
) 5 . 0 1 ( 04 . 0 ) 30 100 (
17 . 32
4 . 62
) cos 1 ( ) (
] ) ( ][ cos ) ( [ ] ) ( )[ (
2
0
2
0
0 0 0 0 0 0

+ +
+ +

lb
A u V
A u V u V R
Q V F
y
y y
329
60 sin 04 . 0 ) 30 100 (
17 . 32
4 . 62
sin ) (
] ) ][( sin ) [(
2
0
2
0
0 0 0

The power exerted on the vane is s ft lb uR
x
/ . 17070 569 30






















103

THE MOMEN OF MOMENTUM EQUATION

The general unsteady linear momentum equation applied to a control volume:

S C V C
A d V V d V
t
F
. . .
.
r r r r r


Taking the cross, or vector, product of the equation and the position vector r
of a point on the line of action of the vector from any point O, yields:

S C V C
A d V V r d V r
t
F r
. . .
.
r r r
v
r
v
r
v


Moment of the resultant force = Summation of moments of components;

Hence:

S C V C
A d V V r d V r
t
F r
. . .
.
r r r
v
r
v
r
v


For steady flow and uniform average flow on the cross section:





Q V r M
Q V r A V V r F r
r
v
r
v
r r r
v
r
v

) . (









104
















105

lb ft T
T
A V h V A V h V h A P h A P T
Q V r M
A
A
A
. 455
)
4
) 12 / 3 (
40 )( 12 / 10 40 ( 94 . 1 )
4
) 12 / 3 (
40 )( 12 / 2 40 ( 94 . 1
12
10
4
) 12 / 3 (
144 80
12
2
4
) 12 / 3 (
144 100
) )( ( ) )( (
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1

+ +
+
+ + +

r
v





3.79 In Fig. 3.66, a jet,
3
/ 2 ft slug , is deflected by a vane through 180
0
.
Assume that the cart is frictionless and free to move in a horizontal direction.
The cart weighs 200 lb. Determine the velocity and the distance traveled by
the cart 10 s after the jet is directed against the vane A
0
= 0.02 ft
2
and V
0 =
100
ft/s.














V
0
106




2
1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
) ( 2
] ) ( )][ ( [ ] ) ( )[ (
V V A F
A V V u V A V V V V F
Q V F
x
x
x x

+ +

F
x
is variable. It varies with respect to V
1
.

For the cart:

2
1
1
1 2
1
2
1 0 0
) 100 (
71 . 77
17 . 32
200
) 100 ( 02 . 0 2 2
) ( 2
V
dV
dt
dt
dV
V
dt
dV
m V V A ma F
x x

ft x s t
t Ln t x C x t
C t Ln t x
t dt
dx
V
s ft V s t
t
V
V
t
C V t C
V
t
796 10
3 . 19 ) 7771 . 0 ( 71 . 77 100 3 . 19 0 , 0
) 7771 . 0 ( 71 . 77 100
7771 . 0
71 . 77
100
/ 79 . 92 10
7771 . 0
71 . 77
100 7771 . 0
100
71 . 77
7771 . 0 0 , 0 ,
100
71 . 77
2
2 1
1
1
1
1 1 1
1

+
+ +
+


+

V
0
-V
1
V
0
-V
1
F
x

107
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND DYNAMIC SIMILITUDE


Solving practical design problems in fluid mechanics usually requires both
theoretical developments and experimental results. By grouping significant
quantities into dimensionless parameters, it is possible to reduce the number of
variables and make this compact result (equations or data plots) applicable to
all similar situations.


Dimensions

Quantity Symbol Dimension

Length l L
Time t T
Mass m M
Force F F or MLT
-2

Velocity V LT
-1

Acceleration a LT
-2

Area A L
2

Discharge Q L
3
/s
Pressure P FL
-2
or ML
-1
T
-2

Density ML
-3

Specific weight FL
-3
or ML
-2
T
-2

Dynamic viscosity ML
-1
T
-1

Kinematic viscosity L
2
T
-1



EXAMPLE

Obtain an equation for distance traveled by a body in a free fall after time t.

Assume distance =S
Gravity acceleration = g

) , ( t g f S

According to dimensional homogeneity:

b a
t Kg S

Where K is a dimensionless coefficient.
108

2 0 2 , 1
) (
2 2
+

+
b b a a
T L L T LT L
b a a b a


2
Kgt S

K can be determined by experiment.

EXAMPLE

Determine the power P of a pump as a function of discharge Q, total dynamic
head H and fluid specific weight .

H Q K P
c c b a a b
T L F
L FL T L FLT
H KQ P
a c b a b
c b a
c b a

+

1 1 3 3 , 1 , 1
) ( ) (
3 3
3 1 3 1


In S.I. units K=1 which can be determined by experiment.



EXAMPLE

Find a relationship for the drag force F
D
exerted by a fluid on a sphere in
terms of flow velocity V, sphere diameter D, fluid viscosity , and fluid
density .

Method 1

Obtain the relationship for F
D
versus D by keeping other variables as
constants. 10 points may be appropriate for obtaining a curve. These curves
should be plotted for various cases including combinations of 10 , 10 V and
10 . Similar curves for F
D
versus other variables can be obtained. Hence,
number of required experiments will be: 10101010=10
4
and number of
curves should be 10
3.


If it is assumed to spend half an hour for every experiment and work 8 hours
daily, then it takes 2.5 years to prepare the data of the mentioned 1000 curves.

109
Method 2

d c b a
D
V D F

To obtain the unknowns a, b, c, and d four equations are required, while only
three equations can be written.

Method 3

Grouping significant variables into dimensionless parameters by using the pai
theorem (Buckingham theorem) as explained in the following:

1- Select repeating variables. Repeating variables should have the
following characteristics:
Number of them should be equal to number of dimensions.
They should be significant.
They should not be dependant variable.
They should not have similar dimensions.
They should altogether include all dimensions in the problem.

According to the above-mentioned characteristics D and V, , are selected
as repeating variables.

2-
1 1 1
1
z y x
D V
In which
1
is dimensionless.

VD
Or
VD
z y x
T L M T ML L LT ML T L M
y z y x x z y x



+ + +
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 0 0
1 1 , 1 1 , 1 1
) ( ) ( ) (

A dimensionless parameter can be inverted if desired.

Similarly:

D
z y x
F D V
1 1 1
1

2 2
2
2 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 0 0 0
2 2 , 2 2 , 1 2
) ( ) ( ) (
D V
F
z y x
T L M MLT L LT ML T L M
D
y z y x x z y x

+ + + +


110
2 /
2 /
4
(Re)
8
(Re)
(Re) ) ( ) , (
0 ) , (
2
2
2
1
2 2
1
1 1
2 2 2 2
2 1
AV C F
V
D
f F
D V f F
f
VD
f
D V
F
D V
F VD
f
f
D D
D
D
D D

Where C
D
is a function of R
e..



EXAMPLE

The losses h
f
in turbulent flow through a smooth pipe depend on pipe length L,
flow velocity V, diameter D, dynamic viscosity , g, and density . Use
dimensional analysis to determine the general form of the equation.

0 ) , , , , , / (
0 ) , , , , , , (

g D V L h F
g D V L h F
f
f




h
f
/L is a dimensionless parameter, say L h
f
/
1
.
Select repeating variables among other variables.

The repeating variables will be similar to those of the previous example.

Repeating variables are D V, ,

VD
D V
z y x

2
2 2 2
2

g D V
z y x 3 3 3
3

gD
V
V
gD
z y x
T L M LT L LT ML T L M
y z y x x z y x
2
3
2
3
2 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 3 0 0 0
1 3 , 2 3 , 0 3
) ( ) ( ) (



+ + +



111
g
V
D
L
f h
g
V
D
L
f h
gD
V
f
L
h
gD
V VD
f
L
h
gD
V VD
L
h
F
f
f
f
f
f
2
2
(Re) 2
(Re
,
0 , ,
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2

,
_

,
_

The last equation is called the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

For rough pipes with absolute roughness , another dimensionless parameter
D

4
will be added . Hence, the equation will be as follows:

g
V
D
L
D
f h
f
2
Re ,
2

,
_

Second Method


-Select Repeating Variables:

L D LT V ML

, ,
1 3

-Obtain dimensions in terms of repeating variables:

3 3
, , D L M
V
D
V
L
T D L
-Obtain non-repeating variables in terms of repeating variables:

VD
VD V D D D T ML

1
1 1 3 1 1
) / )( )( (


gD
V
D V V D D LT g
2
2
2 2 2
/ ) / (



112
D
l
D L l
3

D
h
D L h
f
f

4


D
D L


5

l
h
D l
D h
f f

/
/
3
4
6

g
V
D
l
D
f h
g
V
D
l
D
f h
gD
V
D
VD
f
l
h
D l
h
gD
V VD
F
F
f
f
f
f
2
) (Re,
2
) (Re, 2
) , (
0 ) , , , (
0 ) , , , (
2
2
1
2
1
2
5 6 2 1

DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETRS

Reynolds Number

Force Viscous
Force Inertial
A
ma
L
L
V
T
L
L
L
L
V
L
T
L
L
L
V
L V
VL
VL VD VD

2
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
Re

Froude Number

Force Gravity
Force Inertial
gL
L V
L
L
gL
V
Fr
gL
V
Fr
3
2 2
2
2 2
2

Mach Number

Force Elastic
Force Inertial
C L
L V
L
L
C
V
Ma
C
V
Ma
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2

113


MODEL STUDIES AND SIMILITUDE

Model studies of proposed hydraulic structures and machines are frequently
undertaken as an aid to the design.

Geometric Similitude

The ratios of all corresponding dimensions must be the same.
r
prototype
el
L
L
L

mod
=constant

Dynamic Similitude


The ratios of the various types of forces must be the same at corresponding
points.

.
mod
const
F
F
prototype
el




p
viscous
p
inertial
p
p m
p
viscous
m
viscous
p
inertial
m
inertial
p
viscous
p
inertial
m
viscous
m
inertial
p
m
m
viscous
m
inertial
m
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

Re
Re Re 1
Re
Re
Re



Similarly, it can be proved that
p m p m
Ma Ma Fr Fr , and all
dimensionless parameters should be equal when a dynamic similitude exists.

In order to achieve exact similitude between model and prototype, the scale
ratio should be 1:1(Strict fulfillment of these requirements (equality of the
dimensionless parameters) is generally impossible to achieve unless the scale
ratio is 1:1
114

Therefore, the dominant forces and consequently the corresponding
dimensionless number is considered to be equal for model and prototype.


Pipe Flow Re
m
=Re
p


Hydraulic structures Fr
m
=Fr
p


Very high velocities of compressible flow, i.e., sonic and super-sonic
velocities Ma
m=
Ma
p






m
p
m
p
p
p
m
m
p m
L
L
V
V
gL
V
gL
V
Fr Fr
2
2
2 2

m
p
p
m
m
p
m
p
p
p
p
m
m
m
t
t
V
V
L
L
t
t
V
L
t
V
L
t
1
,


( )
2 / 5 2
2 / 5
3
3
3
3
/
/
/
/

m m
p p
m
p
m p
m p
m m
p p
m
p
A V
A V
Q
Q
t t
L L
t L
t L
Q
Q



Force ratio, for example, on gates:


3

m m
p p
m
p
A h
A h
F
F



Assignment#5 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.2

115
VISCOUS FLOW

This chapter deals with real fluids, that is, situations in which irreversibilities
(losses) are important, viscosity is the fluid property that causes shear stresses
in a moving fluid, viscosity is also one mean by which losses are developed.
In turbulent flows random fluid motions, superposed on the average; create
apparent shear stresses that are more important than those due to viscous
shear.
Turbulent flow, however, has very erratic motion of fluid particles, with a
violent transverse interchange of momentum.

We have used continuity and Euler equations which was integrated to
Bernoulli equation to solve problems without viscous effects.

In order to solve problems with viscous effects continuity and Navier-Stokes
equations should be used.

Navier-Stokes Equations




x-component

x x
ma F
x
Viscous
x
essure
x
Gravity
x
a d F F F + +
Pr


116
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
dt
dz
z
u
dt
dy
y
u
dt
dx
x
u
t
u
dt
du
a
x

,
_

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
g
z
u
y
u
x
u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
z y x
p
g
x
xz
xy
x

Or

u
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
2
1
+

Similarly:

y-component

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
g
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
y

v
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
2
1
+

z-component

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
g
z
w
y
w
x
w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
z

w
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
2
1
+

117
Two Dimensional Navier Stokes equations

y
x
g
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
g
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1

Or

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

EXAM PLE

Derive an expression for the flow past a fixed cross section of the figure for
laminar flow between the two moving plates. Find the shear stress at each
plate.




x
y
118
) ( 0
) 0 ( 0
0
) 0 ( 0
) ( 0
) ( 0
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
direction x the in component no has g g
x
u
x
u
x
p
v
y
u
v
continuity
x
u
Flow Steady
t
u
g
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
x
x

,
_

1
2
2
2
2
0 0 C Cy u C
dy
du
dy
u d
y
u
+

Boundary Conditions

y=0, u=-V
1
C V
y=a, u=U
a
V U
V Ca U
+

V y
a
V U
u
+


a
V U
y
u +

EXAM PLE


In the figure one plate moves relative to the other as shown; s Pa. 08 . 0 and
3
/ 850 m kg . Determine the velocity distribution, the discharge, and the shear
stress exerted on the upper plate.

y
119






















x
p
y
u
y
u
x
p
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

,
_

,
_

1
1
0
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2



At point 1
pa
h P P
26405 3 806 . 9 850 1400
+


At point 2
pa
h P P
800
+


1m/s
P
1
=1.4kpa
P
2
=0.8kpa
3m
3m

x
6 mm
120
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
2
37718
08 . 0
6035
08 . 0
6035
6035
08 . 0
1
/ 6035
2 3
26405 800
C y C y u
C y
dy
du
dy
u d
y
u
m pa
dx
P d
+ +
+

Boundary Conditions

y y u
C s m u y
C u y
646 . 59 37718
646 . 59 / 1 , 006 . 0
0 0 , 0
2
1
2
+




s m dy y y udy Q udy dQ / 00164 . 0 ) 646 . 59 37718 ( 1
3
006 . 0
0
2
006 . 0
0
+



pa y
y
u
y
44 . 31 ) 646 . 59 37718 2 ( 08 . 0
006 . 0
+

EXAMPLE

For the fluid flowing downward on the inclined surface, find u , Q and the
shear stress at the bed. Fluid viscosity = , fluid specific gravity = .


b
y
x
121

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
sin
sin
sin 0
1
C y
g
dy
du
g
dy
u d
g
y
u
g
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
x
+

,
_

,
_

Boundary Conditions

2
2
1
2
sin
sin
0 0 , 0
C y u
y
g
dy
du
C u y
+

2
2
2
sin
0 , b C u b y

2 2
2
sin
2
sin
b y u

) (
2
sin
2 2
y b u

3
sin
) (
2
sin
3
0
2 2
0
b
dy y b udy Q
b b




b g
y g y
g
y
u
bed

sin
sin
sin

122
LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPES

Cylindrical Coordinates






z-Component

'

+
,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
2
1 1
0
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r z
P
z
V
V
V
r
V
r
V
V
t
V
z z z z
z
z z
r
z

123

1
2
2
1 1
1
0
C
dr
dV
r
dz
P d r
dr
dV
r
dr
d
dz
P d r
dr
dV
r
dr
d
r dz
P d
r
V
r
r r z
P
z
z
z
z
+

,
_

,
_

,
_

At r=0 , V
z
=V
max
,i.e. , 0 0
1
C
dr
dV
z

2
2
2
4
2 2
C
dz
P d r
V
dz
P d r
dr
dV
dr
dV
r
dz
P d r
z
z z
+

Equation Poiseuille Hagen
R
r
dz
P d R
V
dz
P d R
C C
dz
P d R
V R r
z
z

,
_

+
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
4
4 4
0 0 ,

,
_

2
2
max
2
max
1
4 R
r
V V
dz
P d R
V
z

Average Velocity V

) 1 (
8 2
2 1 2
2
max
0
2
2
max
0
dz
P d R V
rdr
R
r
V rdr V dA V V
R R
z z

,
_

Darcy-Weisbach Equation

) 2 (
) /
2
( ) /
2
(
) / ( ) / (
) / ( ) (
2
2
1
2
1 2
L
h
L
Z P
g
V
Z P
g
V
dz
P d
L
Z P Z P
Z P
dz
d
Z P
dz
d
dz
P d
f

+ + + +

+ +
+ +

Substituting for
dz
P d
from equation (2) in equation (1) yields:

124
) 3 (
32 8
8 8
2 2
2 2
D
V
R
V
h
L
h
R
dz
P d R
V
f
f

It should be noted that in laminar flow V h
f


On the other hand the Darcy-Weisbach equation is as follows:

) 4 (
2
2
g
V
D
L
f h
f


Comparing equations (3) and (4), it can be concluded that :

Re
64
f

EXAMPLE

Find the discharge in the pipe shown below.

g
V
g
V
g
V P
Z E
g
V
g
V
g
V P
Z E
2
5 . 37
2 8000
300000
0
2
2
30
2 8000
200000
5
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
1 1
1 1
+ + + + +
+ + + + +

E
2
>E
1


Hence, flow direction should be from 2 to 1.
125

m
g
V
g
V
E E h
f
5 . 7 )
2
30 ( )
2
5 . 37 (
2 2
1 2
+ +

g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
5 . 7
2

Assuming laminar flow (which is the opposite in practice);

g
V
V
g
V
D
L
VD g
V
D
L
f h
f
2 01 . 0
10
04 . 0
01 . 0
806 . 9
8000
64
5 . 7
2 /
64
2
5 . 7
2
2 2

,
_

V= 0.47 m/s 6 . 95
04 . 0
01 . 0 47 . 0
806 . 9
8000
Re

VD


Hence, the assumption of laminar flow is correct.



REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT


Glass tube
dye
126

Laminar flow is defined as flow in which the fluid moves in layers, or
laminas, one layer gliding smoothly over an adjacent layer with only a
molecular interchange of momentum.

Any tendencies toward instability and turbulence are damped out by viscous
shear forces that resist relative motion of adjacent fluid layers.

Turbulent flow, however, has very erratic motion of fluid particles, with a
violent transverse interchange of momentum. The nature of the flow, that is,
whether laminar or turbulent, and its relative position along a scale indicating
the relative importance of turbulent to laminar tendencies are indicated by the
Reynolds number.
For small flows, the dye stream moved as a straight line through the tube,
showing that the flow was laminar.

As the flow rate increased, the Reynolds number increased, since D, and
were constant and V was directly proportional to the rate of flow.

With increasing discharge a condition was reached at which the dye stream
wavered and then suddenly, broke up and was diffused or dispersed
throughout the tube. The flow had changed to turbulent flow with its violent
interchange of momentum that had completely disrupted the orderly
movement of laminar flow. By careful manipulation Reynolds was able to
obtain a value Re=12000 before turbulence set in. A later investigator, using
Reynolds original equipment, obtained a value of 40000 by allowing the
127
water to stand in the tank for several days before the experiment and by taking
precautions to avoid vibrations of the water or equipment. These numbers,
referred to as Reynolds upper critical numbers, (lately, Re=1000000 was
obtained before turbulence at Brown university) have no practical significance
in that an ordinary pipe installation has irregularities that cause turbulent flow
at a much smaller value of the Reynolds number.

Starting with turbulent flow in the glass tube, Reynolds found that it always
becomes laminar when the velocity is reduced to make
Reynolds number less than 2000. This is the Reynolds lower critical number
for pipe flow and is of practical importance.

With the usual piping installation, the flow will change from laminar to
turbulent in the range of Reynolds numbers from 2000 to 4000. For the
purpose of this treatment it is assumed that the change occurs at Re=2000. In
laminar flow the losses are directly proportional to the average velocity, while
in turbulent flow the losses are proportional to the velocity to a power varying
from 1.7 to 2.












Starting with low Reynolds number (laminar flow), the upper critical value
was 12000, 40000, and 1000000.
Starting with high Reynolds number (turbulent flow), the lower critical value
was always 2000.

This can be interpreted due to stability principles.


Stable flow is the flow in which the disturbance energy is damped.

Laminar flow with Reynolds number less than 2000 is stable, i.e., disturbance
energy damps.

10
6

10
5

12000
10000
5000
2000
1000
100
10
6

10
5

12000
10000
5000
2000
1000
100
128
Laminar flow with Reynolds number greater than 2000 is unstable, i.e.,
disturbance energy does not damp and changes the laminar flow to turbulent.

At Brown university, disturbance and vibrations were avoided by using more
fixed equipments.


MOODY DIAGRAM




Laminar Zone (Re =0-2000)

Re
64
f which plots a straight line with slope equals to -1 on a log-log chart.

Head-loss h
f
is independent of roughness.


Critical Zone (Re=2000-4000)

The flow may be either laminar or turbulent.
129
Transition Zone

The zone in which h
f
is a function of Re and
D

. Colebrook formula in this

zone holds:

,
_

+
f
D
Ln
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
86 . 0
1


Complete Turbulent Zone

In this zone all curves are almost horizontal which means that h
f
is a function
of
D

only and is not a function of Re.

It should be noted that the relative roughness curves 001 . 0 <
D

approach the
smooth pipe curve for decreasing Reynolds numbers. This can be explained
by the presence of a laminar film at the wall of the pipe that decreases in
thickness as the Reynolds number increases.
For certain ranges of Reynolds number in the transition zone the film
completely covers small roughness projections, and the pipe has a friction
factor the same as that of a smooth pipe. The larger Reynolds numbers
projections protrude through the laminar film, and each projection causes extra
turbulence that increases the head loss.

For the zone marked complete turbulent rough pipes, the film thickness is
negligible compared with the height of roughness projections and each
projection contributes fully to the turbulence. Viscosity does not affect the
head-loss in this zone, as evidenced by the fact that the friction factor does not
change with the Reynolds number. In this zone
2
V h
f




130
SIMPLE PIPE PROBLEM

Type 1
f
h is unknown

Type 2 Q or V is unknown

Type 3 D is unknown

EXAMPLE TYPE 1

Q=140 L/s
s m / 00001 . 0
2

L = 400 m
D = 200 mm cast iron pipe mm 25 . 0

89127
00001 . 0
2 . 0 456 . 4
Re
/ 456 . 4
4 / 2 . 0
140 . 0
4 /
2 2

VD
s m
D
Q
V


00125 . 0
200
25 . 0

mm
mm
D

Colebrook Formula

,
_

+
f
D
Ln
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
86 . 0
1

,
_

+
f
Ln
f 89127
51 . 2
7 . 3
00125 . 0
86 . 0
1
023 . 0 f

m
g
V
D
L
f h
f
58 . 46
806 . 9 2
4 / 2 . 0
140 . 0
2 . 0
400
023 . 0
2
2
2 2

,
_

EXAMPLE TYPE 2

T =15
0
C water flow
D = 300mm riveted steel pipe
m h
mm
f
6
3

L = 300 m
Q =?

131
term ond the neglecting equation Colebrook g u
mm
mm
D
sec sin 01 . 0
300
3

04 . 0 0
7 . 3
01 . 0
86 . 0
1

,
_

+ f Ln
f


Darcy-Wesbach equation

s m V
V
/ 715 . 1
806 . 9 2 3 . 0
300
04 . 0 6
2

From appendix C , s m / 10 13 . 1
2 6

01 . 0 , 455000
10 13 . 1
3 . 0 715 . 1
Re
6

D
VD

Colebrook formula 038 . 0 f s m V
V
/ 76 . 1
806 . 9 2 3 . 0
300
038 . 0 6
2

01 . 0 , 467256
10 13 . 1
3 . 0 76 . 1
Re
6
D
VD

Colebrook formula 038 . 0 f

V= 1.76 m/s
Q=VA = s m / 1244 . 0
4
3 . 0
76 . 1
3
2



EXAMPLE TYPE 3

Determine the size of clean wrought iron pipe ( 00015 . 0 ) required to convey
8.93 cfs oil, s ft / 0001 . 0
2
, for 10000 ft with a head-loss of 75 ft.

Try 02 . 0 f in the middle of the diagram

ft D
D
D
398 . 1
806 . 9 2
4 /
93 . 8
10000
02 . 0 75
2
2

,
_

00011 . 0
398 . 1
00015 . 0
, 81400
0001 . 0
398 . 1
4 / 398 . 1
93 . 8
Re
2


,
_

D
VD

in ft D f formula Colebrook 6 . 16 382 . 1 019 . 0



132
NON-CIRCULAR CROSS SECTIONS

g
V
D
L
f h
h
f
2
2
,

,
_

+
f
D
Ln
f
h
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
86 . 0
1
,

h
VD
Re

Where
p
A
perimeter wetted
area tional cross
D
h
4
sec
4




,






Where


EXAMPLE




g
V
D
L
f h
h
f
2
2

,
_

+
f
D
Ln
f
h
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
86 . 0
1

h
VD
Re
p
A
perimeter wetted
area tional cross
D
h
4
sec
4
133

























g
V
g
V
D
L
f h
g
V P
Z
g
V
D
L
f
g
V P
Z
E h E
h
h
f
2
0 0
2
0 0
2 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
1 1
1
2 1
+ + + +
+ + + +


134
MINOR LOSSES

Losses which occur in pipe lines because 0f bends, elbows, joints, valves, etc.,
are called local or minor losses.

In almost all cases the minor loss is determined by experiment. However, one
important exception is the head-loss due to a sudden expansion in a pipe line.



Sudden Expansion in A pipe line

g
V
D
D
g
V V
g
V
K h
m
2
1
2
) (
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1
1
]
1

,
_

135
Continuity:

) 1 (
2 2 1 1
A V A V

Energy:

) 2 (
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
g
V P
hm
g
V P
+ +

Momentum:

) 3 ( ) (
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
Q V Q V A P A A P A P + +

Having known P
1
, A
1
, A
2
, Q , the unknowns V
2,
P
2
, h
m
by solving equations
(1), (2) and (3), simultaneously can be obtained:


2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
1
2
1
2
) (
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

D
D
K
g
V
D
D
g
V V
h
m


For the joint of a pipe and a reservoir , D
1
/D
2
approaches zero and hence,

K=1

This means that all kinetic energy will be dissipated.


Head-loss due to Gradual Expansion



g
V V
K h
m
2
) (
2
2 1



136






Head loss due to a sudden contraction




The head-loss from section 1 to the vena contrata ( the section of greatest
contraction of the jet) is small compared with the loss from section 0 to
section 2 , where velocity head being reconverted into pressure head
(expansion):


137
g
V
K
g
V
C g
V
C
V
h
C
V
A A
V
V
A
A
V A V A V
g
V V
h
C
C
m
C
m
2 2
1
1
2
/
2
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 0
2
2
0
2
0 2 2 0 0
2
2 0

,
_

,
_

K
K K
K K
K
138














EXAMPLE

Find the discharge through the pipe line in the figure for H=10 m and
determine the head-loss for Q =60 L/s.




20
0
C
60 m
30 m
10 m
12 m
150mm
139

) 1 (
2
) 680 3 . 13 (
2
0 0
2
10
2
9 . 0 2
2
5 . 0
2 15 . 0
102
0 0
2 2
10
2
9 . 0 2
2
5 . 0
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
1
2 2 1 1
g
V
f H
g
V
g
V
g
V
g
V
g
V
f H
g
V P
Z
g
V
g
V
g
V
g
V
D
L
f
g
V P
Z
E h E
f
+
+ +

,
_

+ + + + +
+ +

,
_

+ + + + +







s L s m VA Q s m V
f Colebrook
D
s m V f
D
/ 9 . 45 / 0459 . 0
4
15 . 0
6 . 2 / 6 . 2 ) 1 (
023 . 0 0017 . 0 , 391000
10 01 . 1
15 . 0 63 . 2
Re
/ 63 . 2 ) 1 ( 022 . 0 0017 . 0
3
2
6

For the second part, with Q = 60 L/s , the solution is straight forward:

m H
f
D
s m
A
Q
V
06 . 17 ) 1 (
023 . 0 0017 . 0 , 505000 Re / 4 . 3
4 / 15 . 0
06 . 0
2

Assignment 6.3.1, 6.3, 6.14, 6.20,
6.21, 6.28, 6.34, 6.78,
6.79, 6.100, 6.110









140
BOUNDARY LAYER

Consider flow over a flat plate as shown in the figure:




The flow approaching the plate is of uniform velocity, U
0
.

From the no-slip condition, we know the velocity at the plate
must be zero. The plate exerts a retardation force on the flow; it
slows the fluid in the neighborhood of the surface. At , the
flow will not be influenced by the presence of the plate. At some
intermediate point, the velocity has a value lies between zero and
U
0.

The flow field can be divided into two general regions. In the
region adjacent to the boundary, shear stresses are present; the
region is called the boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer
the velocity gradient is zero and hence the shear stresses are
zero.
U
0
y=
y=
141
is the boundary layer thickness. The plate would influence a
greater region of the flow field as we move farther down the
plate.

DRAG FORCE ON IMMERSED BODIES



















In the region between A and B, the pressure force behind fluid
particles is sufficient to overcome the resisting shear force and
the motion in the flow direction is maintained.

Now consider an element of fluid inside the boundary layer on
the back of the cylinder beyond point B. Since the pressure
increases in the direction of flow, the fluid element experiences a
net pressure force opposite to its direction of motion. Finally the
momentum of the fluid in the boundary layer is insufficient to
carry the element further into the region of increasing pressure.
The fluid layers adjacent to the solid surface will be brought to
rest and the flow will separate from the surface. The point at
which this occurs is called the point of separation.


A
Stagnation Point
V=0
B
Velocity increases
Pressure decreases
0 >
dx
dP

MaximumVelocity
Velocity decreases
Pressure increases
0 <
dx
dP

142




Boundary layer separation results in the formation of a relatively
low pressure region behind a body; this region which is deficient
in momentum, is called the wake. Thus, for separated flow over
a body, there is a net unbalanced of pressure forces in the
direction of flow; this results in a pressure drag on the body. The
greater the size of the wake behind a body, the greater is the pressure
drag.










143



















Reducing the size of wake results in reducing the pressure drag.

Since a large wake results from boundary layer separation, which in
turn is related to the pressure of an adverse pressure gradient
(increase of pressure in the direction of flow), reducing the adverse
pressure gradient should delay the onset of separation and hence,
reduce the drag.

STREAMLINING A BODY REDUCES THE ADVERSE
PRESSURE GRADIENT.

Streamling the body delays the onset of separation; although the
surface area of the body and, hence, the total shear force acting on
the body is increased, the drag is reduced significantly.







Wake
A
Stagnation Point
V=0
B
Velocity increases
Pressure decreases
0 >
dx
dP

MaximumVelocity
Velocity decreases
Pressure increases

Wake
Boundary Layer
144









COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Flows in which variation in density are not negligible are termed
compressible. For many practical cases liquids are
incompressible. However, water hammer and cavitation are
examples of the importance of compressibility effects in liquid
flows.

Gas flows also may be considered incompressible provided the
flow speeds are small relative to the speed of sound; the ratio of
flow speed V, to the local speed of sound, a, in the gas is defined
as the Mach number,
145


For values of M <0.3, the maximum density variation is less than
5 percent. Thus gas flows with M<0.3 can be treated as
incompressible; a value of M =0.3 in air at standard conditions
corresponds to a speed of approximately 100 m/s.
Compressibility effects are very important in the design of
modern high-speed aircraft and missiles, power plants, fans, and
compressors.


RT u P u h + + /
h is the enthalpy of the gas and u is the
internal energy

v
v
T
u
C
,
_

specific heat at constant volume ,

p
p
T
h
C
,
_

specific heat at constant pressure

v
p
C
C
k k is the ratio of specific heats
kRT a a is the sound speed

CONTINUITY EQUATION

. cons VA


ENERGY EQUATION

When there is no heat transfer and no work done by pumps and
turbines in the flow of an ideal fluid, the motion is isentropic
(Adiabatic[dQ=0] + reversible[dS=0]) and the steady flow
energy equation for the streamline becomes:

.
2
2
const
V P
u + +

, .
2
2
const
V
h + or .
2
2
const
V
T C
p
+

146
EULER EQUATION

0 + + VdV
dP
gdZ

For compressible flow, however, the term gdZ is usually
dropped (change of elevation is negligible) and the Euler
equation written:

0 +VdV
dP

INTEGRATION OF THE EULER EQUATION

When the Euler equation is integrated along the streamline for
isentropic flow of a perfect gas, it becomes:

1
2
2
1
2
2
2
P
P
dP V V

Obtaining from
k k
P P
1
1

and substituting in the above integral,
yields:

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

k
k
P
P
k
k P V V
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1 2

Or obtaining from
k k
P P
2
2

and substituting in the above
integral, yields:

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1 2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
k
k
P
P
k
k P V V

147
EXAMPLE

An airplane flies at 644 km/h (179 m/s) through still air at 90
kPa and -20
o
C. Calculate pressure, temperature, and air density
at the stagnation point (On nose of fuselage of the wings).

3
1
1
1 1 1
/ 24 . 1
) 273 20 ( 8 . 286 1000 90
m kg
RT P

s m kRT a / 319 253 8 . 286 4 . 1
1 1

562 . 0
319
179
1
M
C K T
T
V
T C
V
T C
o
p p
4 269
0 1003
2
179
253 1003
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1

+ +
+ +


kPa P
P
P
P
k
k P V V
k
k
5 . 111
90
1
1 4 . 1
4 . 1
24 . 1
1000 90
2
179 0
1
1 2
2
4 . 1
1 4 . 1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2

1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

3
1
2
2 2 2
/ 45 . 1
) 273 4 ( 8 . 286 1000 5 . 111
m kg
RT P

SUBSONIC AND SUPERSONIC VELOCITIES

Taking the differential of the continuity equation
. cons VA

and dividing by
VA
yields:

148
) 1 ( 0 + +
V
dV d
A
dA

And considering the Euler equation:

2
2
0 0
0 0
a
VdV d
VdV
d
a VdV
d
d
dP
VdV
d
d dP
VdV
dP

+ +
+ +

Substituting the last expression for

d
in equation (1) gives:

( ) 1
2
M
V
dV
A
dA



Subsonic Flow








0 0 1 , 0
2
> < <
V
dV
M
A
dA
Velocity increases










Convergent
Nozzle
149













0 0 1 , 0
2
< < >
V
dV
M
A
dA
Velocity decreases





Supersonic Flow





0 0 1 , 0
2
< > <
V
dV
M
A
dA
Velocity decreases










Divergent Nozzle
Convergent Nozzle
150



0 0 1 , 0
2
> > >
V
dV
M
A
dA
Velocity increases



THROAT




0 <
A
dA
0 >
A
dA


0
A
dA
throat

0
A
dA
Either 1
2
M ; 1 M or 1 M , Velocity
V
dV
0 is either
minimum or Maximum. Accordingly it can be concluded that if
the throat velocity is not sonic it will be a maximum in subsonic
flow and a minimum in supersonic flow.


For flow at sonic speed (M=1) the rate of change of area must be
zero; that is, this might occur at a maximum or minimum cross
section; use of the preceding conclusions will show this to be
restricted to a minimum section (a throat) only.

SONIC VELOCITY (M=1) OCCURS ONLY AT A THROAT.






Divergent Nozzle