D.S.

Q:>Concept of M.I.S.
Definition:M.I.S (Management information system):M.I.S is defined as C.B.I.S. (Computer base information system)

Definition:M.I.S (Management information system):M.I.S is defined as a system which provides information support for decision making in the organization.

Definition:M.I.S (Management information system):M.I.S is defined as a system based on database of the organization, evolved for the purpose of providing information to the people in the organization.

Concept of M.I.S: M.I.S is the necessity of all organization. The initial concept of M.I.S was to process data from the organization and presents it in the form of report at regular interval. In M.I.S information is a product of analysis of data, and after analyzing the data it is given to different departments. The M.I.S should present information in such forms and format that it makes the person at the end take necessary action.

 M.I.S in todays world is a system which handles database, provides computing facilities to the end user and provides the system with variety of decision making tools. M.I.S provides data to end users at various departments as per priorities mentioned. M.I.S can be developed for a specific objective or for many objectives, only if it is planned and designed systematically. M.I.S is a product of many disciplinary approach and practical approach of the business world. M.I.S is dynamic concept subject which changes from time to time, with the change in business management process. M.I.S in an organization is said to be successfully implemented only if the end users are efficiently working as per the information generated by the system.

Q:->System and Designs system development. OR Detail study of life cycle design and implementation case study.
A traditional SDLC consist of four fundamental phases i.e

1. Planning 2. Analysis 3. Design 4. Implementation. The below figure shows The traditional system development life cycle SDLC)

 Each phase i.e. the planning, the design the analysis phase or the implementation phase has to follow a series of steps, so that the desired result is obtained. The SDLC presentation appears linear, though at any time the project can be halted or can return to an earlier step in any phase. The phases are

Planning:Planning phase starts with the business needs not being met. In this phase the problem is identified and the feasibility test is conducted on it, to see that the solution is feasible or not. If the solution is feasible then we move towards the next step and if the solution does not exist then the problem is left behind. Questions concerning technical feasibility, cost feasibility and organizational feasibility are answered in this phase.

Analysis:The analysis face is like a journalists interview, in this phase the questions are answered such as: who will be the user? Where will it run? When it will run? Will there be any increase in the cost over the estimated cost? And so on. This phase even looks towards a prototype i.e. whether the problem to be solved has already been solved in any organization? If the answer is yes then the same technology is purchased or the company can go for their own solution.

Design:The design phase indicated how the system will work, considering all the details of the hardware, software to be required and the network infrastructure to be implemented. This information leads to the architecture design, which in turn leads to the database design and files design and together helps the program to be built.

Implementation:The implementation phase brings all the above phases together, this is where the system is built or purchased. Implementation involves building of the system but also testing it to verify that it works as planned.

Q:-> Life cycle and Prototype approach? OR Prototyping: The DSS development OR Constructing a DSS: Steps in designing a DSS.

In the earlier stages of development, neither the manager nor the DSS developer knows the type of model or technology to apply so as to resolve the problem. Because of this most of the DSS developer, develops the DSS model through Prototyping process. Prototyping is also knows as iterative design or evolutionary development (other names are middle-out process, adaptive design and incremental design.) The prototyping development methodology aims at building a DSS in a series of short steps with immediate feedback from users to ensure that development is proceeding correctly. Therefore DSS tools must be flexible to permit changes quickly and easily. The below figure show the details of the prototyping methodology

 Note!!! In the next point explain the all the steps in detail i.e. (Planning ,Analysis, Design, Implementation) Next, the analysis, design, and prototype implementation phases are iteratively performed until a small prototype is sufficiently developed. If in case there are more than one problem to be solved than in that case the developer and the user jointly identifies the problem which is

to be solved first and whose effect is on the other models which is in future has to be developed. As the development of the system progress the user and the developer continuous evaluate that the system is being built as required. If the prototype is OK, we move to the implementation phase for implementing the prototype. Most DSS are developed with the prototyping technology, so that if any problem comes in the process of designing that problem can be solved at that stage itself.

Q:> Data Model: Relevance data DB design in DSS?

Data models:The DBMS uses the data model to develop data structure. The data model represents the relationship between the entities.

Relationships within a data model:To understand the relationship concept let us understand the terms used in explaining it. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Entity Attribute Values Key attributes Record.

i.

Entity:Entity is an event or concept about which information is recorded. Example Person, Place, animal, thing, bank account etc..

ii.

Attribute:The attributes characterize the entity or describes the entity

meaningfully. Example If house is an entity the its attributes are the size, color, age, house number, owner etc..

iii.

Data Value:Each attribute of an entity has value and is called s data value.

The data value can be number, char, date etc depending upon the attribute. Example Roll no : Numeric. Name : Char. Date : Date.

Key attribute:Some attribute can be key attribute of an entity. Using the key attribute, we can find the value of other attributes. Example Roll No. of a student is an attribute using which we can find all the attributes such as his class, address, city, state. Country etc.

Record:The record is a collection of attributes of an entity. Example Name : Ram Roll no. : 12 Class : M.B.A.(II) City: Aurangabad.

Relation type:There are three types of relationships in an entity. a) One to One. b) One to Many. c) Many to Many.

Symbols used in the ER-Diagram are shown below.

One-to-One:At a given point of time, a patient occupies a bed or a bed is assigned to a patient. Science patient cannot occupy more then one bed at a given time.

One-To-Many:At a given time, one or more patient are assigned to one hospital room. hence, the relationship between the hospital room and the patient is one to many.

Many-To-Many:A surgeon operates on many patient or a patient may have been operated by many surgeon. The relationship between the patient and the surgeon is Many to Many.

Q:> Managerial decision making.

Managerial decision making is becoming more complex then ever, in the earlier days the chance of taking a wrong decision was less the reason behind that is, in those days the choices where very less, but in this modern time, in this modern world we are having many choices and the chance of making an error is more. As choosing the best one from all the available alternatives is difficult. The below figure shows The factors affecting decision making

Note:And I expect all the students to explain this figure in detail, explaining why it has become more difficult for managers to take decision in this present time.

Q:> Characteristics and Capabilities of DSS.

DSS provide support for decision makers mainly in semi structured and unstructured situations by bringing together human judgment and computerized information. Such problems cannot be solved (or cannot he solved conveniently) by other computerized systems or by standard quantitative methods or tools. Support is provided for various managerial levels, ranging from top executives to line managers. The diagram below shows The characteristics and components of DSS

 Support is provided to individuals as well as to groups. Less structured problems often require the involvement of several individuals from different departments and organil.3tionallevels or even from different organizations. DSS provide support to several interdependent and/or sequential decisions. The decisions may be made once, several times, or repeatedly. DSS support all phases of the decision-making process: intelligence, design, choice, and implementation. DSS support variety of decision-making processes and styles. DSS are adaptive over time. The decision maker should be reactive, Able to confront changing conditions quickly, and able to-adapt the DSS to meet these changes. DSS are flexible, and so users can add, Delete combine, or rearrange basic elements.

Users must feel at home with DSS. User friendliness, strong graphical capabilities, and an English-like interactive human-machine interface can greatly increase the effectiveness of DSS.

DSS attempt to improve the effectiveness of decision making (accuracy, timeline, quality) rather than its efficiency (the cost of making decisions). The decision maker has complete control over all types of the decision -

making process in solving a problem. A DSS specifically aims to support and not to replace the decision maker.

End users should be able to create and modify 'simple systems by themselves. Larger systems can be built with assistance from information system (IS) specialists.

A DSS usually utilizes models for analyzing, decision making situational. The modeling capability enables experimenting with different strategies under different configuration.

The DSS should provide access to a variety of data sources, formats and types ranging from geographic information system (GIS) to object-oriented ones.

Q:> Decision making process problem solving techniques, How decisions are being supported Or Framework of decision support.
The figure below shows the decision support frame work

 The left side of the above figure is based on Simons idea, which says decision making process falls from highly structured to unstructured. The structured process are routine work such as accounts, P.F etc. and unstructured process are those in which the future and or the information is not known, such as choosing the cover of magazine, purchasing software, recruitment etc.. Gorry and Scott Morton describes that a decision in which some, but not all the phases (information) are known are called as semi-structure phase. Semi-structured problem falls between structured and unstructured problems, having some structured elements and some unstructured elements. Solving this problem requires the combination of standard operating procedure and human judgment. The second half of this frame work (as shown in the above fig.) is based on Anthonys (1965) model, which defines three broad categories, the high level category, the middle level category and the low level category. The high level

management mainly deals with strategies decisions, the middle level management deals with resource utilization and aims towards the organizational goal and the low level management deals with production.

 Anthonys and Simons taxonomies are combined in a 9 cell decision support.

In the figure, the right hand column and the bottom column indicates the technologies to be implemented in order to take decision. Cells 1, 2 and 4 indicates the operations which is Performed by low level management. The cells 6,8 and 9 indicates the operations which is performed by top level Executives and/or highly trained specialists. This that IDSS, ES, DSS and KMS are mainly used by top level management to take decisions.

Q:> Features of various CBIS.

Transactions Management Decision Support Systems (DSS) Executive Expert Systems (ES) Processing Information Systems Systems (TPS) (MIS) Payroll, Production i t record keeping , control. sales production forecasting, and sales monitoring information Information Systems Neural (EIS) Computing (KMS) Long-range Diagnosis, Support to Complex, Complex t strategic managemen repetitive decisions in a planning, planning, decisions, decisions; changing complex internal environment diagnosis, environment integrated planning, scanning control problem strategies investment areas Decisions, Inferencing, Tracking, Pattern Reusability of control, flexibility, transfer of recognition best practices drill-down userexpertise friendliness Database Unique to Interactive each application, access by batch update programmers Database Procedural External Historical management and factual [online) and cases, provide knowledge; corporate, learning repository enterpriseinteractive knowledge wide access, base (facts, access [to all factual rules] databases) , knowledge SemiSystem Structured Only when Mainly structured makes routine problems, complex combined predictions, problems using decisions, with a DSS based on enterprise conventional management unstructured historical management science use of rules cases science tools blend of [heuristics) and modelling Numerical Numerical Symbolic Numeric Numeric (mainly), needs some symbolic pre-processing Scheduled Information Advice and Status Forecasts, to support specific decisions explanations exception reporting, indicators Senior i managers classification to patterns Organizational knowledge

Dimension Applications

Focus

Data transactions

Information

Decision Capabilities

No decisions

Complex, including level

Manipulation

Numerical

Numeric, qualitative, symbolic Advice, knowledge, know-how

Type of Information Generated

and demand reports, structured flow, reporting Highest Sub managerial, Middle Organizational low-level management Level Served management

Summary reports, operational

Analysts and Managers and [only)

Specialists, specialists

Managers,

Impetus

Expediency

Efficiency

Effectiveness Effectivenes Timeliness Expediency and expediency

Effectiveness, expediency

Q:> Components of DSS.

A DSS application is composed four subsystems

i. ii. iii. iv.

Database management system (DBMS). Model Management Subsystem. Knowledge management subsystem. User interface subsystem.

i.

Database management subsystem (DBMS): The data management subsystem

consists of data of the organization and is managed by software called database management system. The data management subsystem can be interconnected with the cooperate warehouse, where this data can be shared.

ii.

Model management subsystem: The model management subsystem consist of

financial model, quantitative model, mathematical model, H.R model, marketing management (M.M) model, sales and distribution model and so on, that helps in appropriate software management. This subsystem also provides a language through new models can be developed. This software is often called as model base management subsystem (M.B.M.S).

iii.

Knowledge base management subsystem: The knowledge base management

subsystem can support any subsystem or can act independently. This model helps the decision maker in decision making. This model can also be connected with the organizational knowledge depositor, which is known as Organizational knowledge base.

iv.

User interface subsystem: The user communicates and commands the DSS

using User interface subsystem. In this subsystem user is considered as part of the system, and the user even makes new models as required using this subsystem.

These components of the DSS can be connected to the intranet, to an extranet, to an internet as per the company requirement.

Q:> DSS Classifications OR Holsapple and Whinstons classification.

The DSS are classified as i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Text oriented DSS Database oriented DSS. Spreadsheet oriented DSS. Solver oriented DSS. Rule oriented DSS. Compound oriented DSS. Intelligent DSS

i.

Text oriented DSS: In text oriented DSS the information is stored in textual

format, which can be accessed by the decision maker. The records over here are created electrically and the user is allowed to modify the record, delete the record, copy the record, and these all operations are done electrically.

ii.

Database oriented DSS: Database oriented DSS features strong report

generation and query capabilities. The data here are stored in a way which is easily accessible by the user.

iii.

Spreadsheet oriented DSS: Spreadsheet oriented DSS has all the capabilities of

database oriented DSS. Spreadsheet oriented DSS also allows the users to perform mathematical operations, statistical operations, financial operations,

linear programming operation and so on. The most popular Spreadsheet oriented DSS, which is mainly used by the end users is Microsoft EXCEL.

iv.

Solver oriented DSS: The Spreadsheet oriented DSS use to perform many

operations, it even allows the user to create his own formulas, but programming was not possible. This drawback of Spreadsheet oriented DSS was removed by Solver oriented DSS, the Solver oriented DSS allows the user to built his own program, which in turns leads to the development of a new models, which may be required by the organization.

v.

Rule oriented DSS: In Rule oriented DSS, rules where made by keeping in

mind both reasoning rules and procedural rules. This helps the manager in taking decision, when he had semi-structured information. This also helps the programmer to develop a system, which is based on rules.

vi.

Compound DSS: The compound oriented DSS is the combination of

two or more of the above mentioned DSS.

vii.

Intelligent DSS: Intelligent DSS is also known as Knowledge-based DSS. The

Intelligent DSS has attracted a lot of attention. This DSS helps the management in taking decision in situation when they are not certain about the future.

Q:> Techniques of Simulation. OR Methodology of Simulation.

Problem definition: In Problem definition the real world problem is examined and classified. In this phase we specify why a simulation approach is necessary.

Construction of simulation model: This step involves data gathering and also involves determination of variables and their relationship, often this process is described by a flow chart and then a computer program is written.

Testing and validating the model: In this phase the model is tested and the validations are checked.

Design of the experiment: Ones the model has been validated, an experiment is designed. In design of experiment there are 2 important and conflicting

objectives i.e. accuracy and cos. That means to identify best-case (low cost and high income) and worst-case (high cost and low income).

Conducting the experiment: Conducting the experiment involves ranging from random number generation to result presentation.

Note:- (Students!!!!!!!!!)
You can remember this whole process of simulation, by remembering the sentence ( Principal Called The Delegates Conducting Exam Inside) i.e P Problem definition, C Construction of simulation model T testing and validating and so on..

Q:> Model based management system (MBMS functions):

The functions of model base management system are Model base management system helps in creating models quickly and easily. MBMS allows users to make changes in the model. MBMS in a logical and integrated manner manages and control different system. MBMS keeps track of all the models and applications used in the system. MBMS creates the DFS (distributed file system), which allows the user to use different models specified in the directory. MBMS manages different system software and application software used by different models in the system. MBMS make use of multiple models to solve a particulate problem.

Building of MBMS:
The model management subsystem of the DSS is composed of the following elements: Model base Model base management system Modeling language Model directory Model execution, integration and command processor

MODEL BASE: i. ii. iii. iv. Strategic models Tactical models Operational models Analytical models.

i.

Strategic models: Are mainly used by Top management in taking strategic

decision. Potential application includes developing corporate objectives, planning for mergers, plant location selection and environmental impact analysis.

ii.

Tactical models: Are used mainly by middle management to assist in

allocation and controlling the organizations resource and to take organization twords its goal. Examples of tactical models include labor

requirement planning, sales promotion planning, plant layout determination etc. Tactical models are not applied to the whole organization at once but are applied to sub departments such as accounting, H.R and so on.

iii.

Operational models: Operational models are mainly handled by low level

management; these models are used to support the day-to-day working activities of the organization. Typical decision involves production schedule, inventory control, maintenance planning and scheduling etc. these models mainly use internal data to take action.

iv.

Analytical models: Analytical models are used to perform some analysis on

data. It includes statistical data, financial data, mathematical data, data mining and more. Sometimes they are integrated with other models, such as strategic model to perform the analysis.

Model directory: The role of model directory is same as that of database directory. The model directory consist information of all the models and softwares used by the system.

Fig.:- Structure of the model management subsystem.

Modeling language: DSS deals with both semi-structured and structured program, it is often necessary to customize models using programming language, the programming languages used my M.B.M.S are C+ and Java.

MODEL Execution, Integration, And Command:

Model execution: Model execution mainly consists of controlling the model when it is running. The entire controlling of the model is done by model execution.

Model integration: Model integration involves the combining the operations of several models when needed.

Model command: The model command processor is used to accept command from the users, through user interface component.

Q:> TYPES OF MODELS Normative models:

Normative models are those in which the chosen alternative is the best alternative of all the possible alternatives. To find this, one should examine all the possible alternatives and prove the one selected is indeed the best. This process is known as optimization. In operational terms optimization can be achieved in one of the 3 ways. Human are economic beings whose objective is to maximize the attainment of goals. For decision making situation, all viable alternative course of action and their consequences should be known. Decision making have an order or preference that enables then to rank the desirability of all consequences of the analysis.

Sub-optimization model: By definition optimization requires a decision maker to consider the impact of each alternative course of action on the entire organization. Because a decision make in one area may have significant effect (Positive or Negative) on other areas. Consider a production department that plans its own schedule ideally and independently without concerning the other department. The result of this might not be good for the organization. Thus the production department should make its plans in conjunction with other

department. However, such an approach requires a complicated, expensive and time consuming analysis. Such an approach is called as Sub-optimization.

Descriptive model: Descriptive model describes the thing as they are or as they are believed to be. Descriptive analysis checks the performance of the system for a given set of a alternatives and suggests the best alternative. There is no guarantee that the chosen alternative is the best alternative from all the possible alternatives, in many cases the chosen alternative is not satisfactory. Simulation is the most commonly used descriptive modeling method. Simulation has been applied to many areas of decision making. Computer and video games are one form of simulation.

Good Enough Or Satisfying: According to Simon (1977), most human decision making, whether organizational or individual, involves a willingness to settle for a satisfactory solution, something less than the best. In a satisfying mode, the decision maker sets up an aspiration, goal or desired level of performance and then searches the alternatives until one is found that matches his level of satisfaction. The usual reason for satisfying is time pressure (decisions may loose values over time). This makes the decision maker behave rational, though at the other side he may be satisfied.

Q:> Certainly, Risk, Uncertainty:

Decision making under certainty:In decision making under certainty, it is assumed that complete knowledge is available so that the decision maker knows exactly what the outcome of each course of action will be. It may not be true that the outcomes are 100 percent known, but near to the objective. In this case the decision maker is the perfect predictor of the future because it is assumed that there is only one outcome for each alternative. For example, if a student has prepared 100% of the slybus, then he can predict, whatever the paper may be? he is for sure going to pass.

Figure showing zone of decision making.

Decision making under uncertainty: In decision making under uncertainty, The decision maker considers the situation in which several outcomes are possible for each course of action. Decision making under uncertainty is difficult because of insufficient information. Decision making under this situation depends upon decision makers risk.

Decision making under risk: A decision made under risk is one in which the decision maker must consider several possible outcomes for each alternative, each with a given probability of occurrence.

Q:> SIMONS MODEL IN INFORMATION SYSTEM:

Note: Explain all the phases, remembering the case study of Poonum biscuits as I have discussed in the class.

Q:>DSS technology levels and tools. OR DSS tools.

There are 3 DSS technological levels, i. ii. iii. DSS primary tool. DSS Integrated tool (Generator tool). Specific DSS.

i.

DSS primary tool:At the lowest level of DSS technology is the primary tools.

These fundamental elements facilitate the development of either DSS Generator or Specific DSS. Examples of DSS tools are programming language, Graphics, Query system etc.

ii.

DSS Integrated tool:A DSS Integrated tool is a software which develops a

specific DSS quickly, inexpensively and easily. The Integrated tool has many capabilities ranging from report generation to risk analysis. A popular PC based Generator (Integrator) is Excel.

iii.

Specific DSS:The final product or the DSS application that actually

accomplish the work is called Specific DSS.

Relationships among the 3 levels:The relationship among the 3 levels is illustrated in the above figure. The DSS primary tool are use to construct DSS Generator, which in turn is use to develop specific DSS. However DSS primary tools can also be used to directly construct specific DSS. DSS Generator or Integrator is extremely helpful in constructing specific DSS and in proving flexibility to adopt quick changes. Using DSS can save significant amount of time and money, thus making a DSS financially feasible. Developing DSS with only primary tools can be very time-consuming and expensive. Most early DSS were developed without Generator, while new are developed using Generator tool.

Q:>Database management system: Sources of data:

The data in DSS are extracted from Internal source and External source.

Internal Source:The data which is coming from different department within the organization is called as internal data. Example, the monthly payroll data of the organization.

External data:The data which is coming to the organization from external sources is called as external data. Example census data, government regulations, tax rates etc.

Q:> Dialog Generation Management system. OR User interface subsystem. OR Building of DGMS:
The term user interface is a bridge through which the user communicates with the DSS system. Some experts feel that this component of DSS is the most important from users point of view as they may consider this component as the entire DSS.

Figure below shows: Dialog Generation Management system.

Management of the User Interface Subsystem: The user interface subsystem is managed by software called UIMS (User interface management system). The UIMS software within itself consists of several softwares, which is used, in smooth running of DSS. The UIMS is also known as Dialog Generation Management System.

The user interface process: The user interface process for the DSS is shown in the figure below. The user communicates with DSS through the user interface subsystem, the process takes place in such a manner that when the user wants to access information from the DSS he communicates with the DSS in high level language which gets converted to machine language by the Natural language processor later the information is passed to the UIMS (User interface process system). The UIMS allows the user to access the desired information from Data management system, Knowledge-base subsystem, Model Management and MBMS. Later the information comes back to the UIMS, which again goes through the Natural language processor and gets converted into user understandable language.

Capabilities of UIMS: UIMS provides graphical user interface. UIMS allows the user to modify the report, delete the report and to create a new report. UIMS provide the user to interact with other models in DSS. UIMS stores input data and output data. UIMS provides colored graphics and three-dimensional graphics. UIMS allows user to work with multiple windows. UIMS also support the communication between the user and the DSS builder. UIMS trains the user, by providing guidelines of how the system is used. UMIS is flexible and have the ability to change with time.

Q:> Structure of OR model. OR Methodology of OR.

The basic and dominant characteristic feature of operational research is that it employs mathematical representation or mathematical model to analyses problem. This approach is a scientific approach. The scientific method translates a real world problem into a mathematical representation.

The OR approach consist of the following phase;

1) Formulate the problem 2) Model building 3) Obtain input data 4) Solution of model 5) Model validation 6) Implementation

1) Formulate the problem: In the first phase, a clear and concise statement of the problem is written. In many cases, this phase is considered to be the most important and difficult phase. It is essential, that the root problem should be identified as we cannot expect to get the right answer, if the problem is identified incorrect. Also, the case may be in which one problem may be related with other problem and solving one problem without having regard of the other can make the matter worse. Therefore the statement of a the problem should be made keeping in mind its effect on other sides.

2) Model building: Once the problem is defined, the next step is to build a suitable model. As already mentioned, the concept of model and model building lie at the very heart of the OR approach to solve the problem. Models can be represented in a verity of way. They can be classified as Physical and Symbolic.

Physical model:These models are the physical representation of the original model. There are three types of Physical model, i. ii. Iconic model Analogue model

i.

Iconic model:These models are actually the visual representation of the real

thing to be built. A model of airplane, building model, model of sun and other planets are all examples of Ionic model.

ii.

Analogue model: Analogue model use one set of property to represent another

set of property. Example of this is the SDLC model of computer.

Symbolic model:Many real-life problems can be described by symbolic models or mathematical forms. These are the most general and abstract types of models, they employ letters, numbers and other types of symbols to represent the variables and their interrelationships. As such they are capable

of experimental manipulation most easily. The symbolic model can be verbal or mathematical. A verbal model is a one which describes the thing verbally or in a written manner, and a mathematical model is a one which describe the thing mathematically, for doing this they employ letters, numbers and other types of symbols to represent the variables and their interrelationships.

3) Obtaining input data: Once an appropriate model as been formulated, the next step is to obtain the data to be used in the model as input. Since the quality of data determines the quality of output. This situation may be described as GIGO: gold in, gold out or garbage in, garbage out.

4) Solution of model: The solution can be classified as feasible or infeasible, optimal or non-optical, and unique or multiple.

Feasible and Infeasible solution: A solution which satisfies all the constraints of the problem is called a feasible solution, whereas an infeasiblw solution is the one which does not satisfy all the constraints.

Optimal and Non-optimal solution: An optimal solution is a one in which the desired result is obtained, a solution other than optimal solution is said to be a Non-optimal solution.

Unique and multiple solutions: If only one optimal solution to a given problem exits, it is called a unique solution. On the other hand, if two or more optimal solutions to a problem exists, which is equally efficient, then multiple optimal solutions are said to exist.

5) Model validation: The validation of model requires determining, where or not the model can solve the real world problem, to do this the model is first checked with the past results which have already happened. If it is ok the model is said to be valid.

6) Implementation: Once the model passes through all the phases it is implemented, in the middle of implementation, if the model does not meet the required result it can move back to the previous phase.