FLOWSHEET ASSESSMENT TO RECOVER MORE GOLD

Baran Tufan1, Erol Kaya1, Tolga Oyman2, Z. Ebru Sayn3, Turan Batar1
1 2 3

Dokuz Eylul University, Engineering Faculty, Mining Engineering, Izmir, Turkey Dokuz Eylul University, Engineering Faculty, Geological Engineering, Izmir, Turkey Afyon Kocatepe University, Department of Mining Engineering, Afyon, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Gold exploration and production activities have intensified considerably over the recent years due to a substantial rise in the price of gold. This high price has compelled the mining industry to develop many new conventional ore deposits and to continue the search for improvements in existing operations. Simultaneously, public concern to the impact of mining industry on the environment has increased substantially, too, over the years. Gold is generally recovered by cyanidation which accounts for 84% of the world gold production. Due to environmental concerns or issues, however, the use of cyanide may not be permitted at certain developing mining operations located near or next to agricultural and ecologically sensitive areas. This has lead to a continuing search for different processing alternatives to the cyanidation in the recovery of gold. This paper presents experimental results of flowsheet designs excluding cyanidation to maximize the gold recovery for a refractory Turkish gold ore with a leach recovery of 82 %. Different processing alternatives included gravity concentration, flotation and a combination of both. First, a laboratory type Knelson gravity concentrator was evaluated at different centrifugal forces and particle sizes. A recovery of 71.4 % with a concentrate gold grade of 91.1 g/t was obtained with a particle size below 106 m. A recovery of 85.1 % with 44.1 g/t gold grade was achieved with flotation tests. A combination of Knelson and flotation circuit brought the recovery to 92.2 %.

Keywords: Gold recovery, froth flotation, Knelson gravity concentrator, gold cyanidation
1. INTRODUCTION Finding an optimal gold processing method for a specific ore sample has always been a challenge for mining investors. Conventionally, gold is recovered by leaching (cyanidation), gravity concentration, flotation, biological or pressure oxidation, and roasting methods (1 6). In practice, a combination of these processes may be used. For over 100 years, the cyanidation process is the primary leaching method to dissolve gold from ores and concentrates and today it alone accounts for 84% of the world gold production (7, 8). The extracted gold is finally recovered from the leach solution by cementation, precipitation or electro-winning (4). In the last 20 years, however, there has been a growing awareness of the environment, and a need for mining industry to work within the constraints that are imposed by the sustainable development. Cost and maximum recovery are no longer the only criteria in plant design. The environmental effects of mining are under close scrutiny with increasing public awareness for the possible harmful effects. The use of cyanide compounds in mining is frequently a controversial issue due to environmental concerns (9, 10). The debate surrounding the use of cyanide in the mining industry has fuelled considerable investigation into the development of more environmentally benign alternatives. The most promising alternatives were identified as thiourea (11 14), thiocyanate (15, 16), thiosulphate (17, 18) and halides 19 leaching, coal-oil agglomeration (20 23) coal-gold agglomeration (24 26). Even tough there has been a wide spread research aimed at identifying and developing less toxic and environmentally safe leaching agents to replace cyanide, none of the alternative lixiviants for gold ores made any significant inroad into the dominant position of cyanide because of its robustness and relatively low costs and high gold recoveries (13, 27, 28). Alternatives are not as efficient as cyanide and also have many unanswered environmental issues to deal with (10). It appears that the cyanide leaching and carbon adsorption process will continue to play a dominant role in the processing of free-milling and refractory gold ores for the foreseeable future although more stringent and hence more costly precautions to protect both the environment and the workforce can be expected (28). The latest developments in gold processing technology have not only focused on the advancements in gold treatment methods but also on environmental aspects to minimize the effluent discharges from gold plants. Environmental constraints necessitates alternative processing methods be used in the gold circuits in the environmentally sensitive areas. In addition, for refractory (sulfides, carbonaceous) gold ores characterized by low gold recoveries and high

6 cyanide consumption when subject to direct cyanide leaching, alternative flowsheet development becomes necessary. In these cases, more environmentally friendly alternative flowsheet arrangements using conventional methods of flotation and gravity can be investigated first for the right ores. Normally, the best choice of a processing route to treat a gold ore is ultimately determined by the mineralogy and the behavior of the ore in a standard testing (9, 29 32). Gold extraction involving flotation can be split into four categories, free milling gold ores, copper gold ores, refractory gold ores and partially refractory gold ores. It may be beneficial for those circuits where free gold is present, to involve selective flotation of the free gold to improve the overall gold recovery (33). Many novel applications and fundamental studies have been produced to gain more through understanding of the chemical and physical phenomena that occur within the solid-water interface. However, during this time, the flotation behavior of gold bearing minerals, especially free gold particles and refractory gold bearing sulphides remains largely unclear (34). The most commonly used collectors for the flotation of native gold, other gold minerals and auriferous sulphides are the xanthates, exemplified by sodium (5, 35). ethyl xanthate (NaC2H5OCSS) Dithiophosphates are probably the most widely used promoters in gold flotation as secondary collectors. These are collectors added in smaller quantities than those of the primary collector and their addition results in overall better flotation recoveries (9, 36, 37). The monothiophosphates provide a good selectivity for gold values with a high silver content and are able to recover gold selectively from sulfide ores (38). Nagaraj et al (1992) (39) have reported that 100% pure metallic gold does not readily adsorb any known sulfide collectors. However, if the gold ore contains even a small amount of silver or copper, adsorption is significantly enhanced. Fortunately, almost all naturally occurring gold ores do contain silver and copper which are sufficient for good collector adsorption and flotation. It is now generally accepted that the surface of pure clean gold is hydrophilic (40) and displays a zero contact angle. The copper sulphate (CuSO4) is widely used as an activator in the gold flotation, but, its role is still not entirely clear (9, 41). Too high an addition of copper sulfate is known to have negative effect on flotation recovery. Lins and Adamian (1993) (42) and Bulatovic (1997) (43) both found Cu ions actually reduced the floatability of gold at concentrations above 400 g/t of CuSO4, using xanthate as collector. Teague et al (1999 and 2000) (34, 44) has found that activation with copper sulphate did not increase the

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recovery of free gold but increased the rate of recovery. The use of sodium silicate as an effective gangue-dispersing agent for gold ores was reported (41). Polyglycol ether-based frothers appear to be preferred on most gold plants in combination with one or other frothers. When selectivity is required, a weaker frother such as methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) ir preferred (41, 45). The addition of sulfide ions (sodium sulfide and sodium hydrosulfide) to enhance the flotation of oxidized ores is well known (46). They sulfidize mineral surfaces and subsequent xanthate addition will promote flotation (47). Sulfide ions appear to act as flotation activators at low concentrations (less than 10-5 M) and as a strong depressant at concentrations above 10-5 M (48). Naturally occurring or free (liberated) gold is optimally recovered in a flotation circuit at natural or near-natural pulp pH values and with the addition of small amounts of collector (41). It was also reported that the operating pH for the flotation of gold is depended on the collector (33). The adverse effects of high pH on the flotation of metallic gold when lime is added have been reported in the literature. An evidence of the loss of free gold due to depression induced by surface-bound calcium and hydroxyl ions was provided (49, 50). In general, it was suggested that free gold floats in the presence of xanthate collectors and frothers but not if its particle size is too great or if reagents such as CaO or sodium sulfide are added to the pulp (44). Liberated gold finer than about 150 m floats readily with most collectors and in particular xanthates and dithiophosphates. The flotation response of free gold is better in pulps of high density (41). The use of gravity concentration to supplement either flotation or cyanidation is a well established practice in the gold industry. Gravity separation has been utilized in gold plants as the primary recovery mechanism or alternatively ahead of other downstream processes such as flotation and cyanidation (51). For more than 95 % of all applications, gravity recovery targets gravityrecoverable gold (GRG) to supplement cyanidation or flotation, thereby increasing overall gold recovery by 1-5 % and slightly reducing some of the costs associated with carbon stripping and regeneration. The Knelson concentrator has found wide acceptance in the gold processing industry because of its ability to recover coarse and fine gold. The introduction of the Knelson Centrifugal Concentrator in the early to mid-1980s started a trend to more compact, simplified and lowermaintenance circuits. The use of centrifugal concentrators has resulted in increases in fine GRG reporting to gravity concentrates. There are many

Baran Tufan, Erol Kaya, Tolga Oyman, Z. Ebru Sayn, Turan Batar / The Journal of ORE DRESSING 2011

advantages of such a system including reduced permitting and environmental issues (52 56). This paper presents an alternative flowsheet arrangement using conventional flotation and gravity methods to recover high gold values with either no cyanidation or use of much less cyanide. Different processing alternatives, including gravity concentration, flotation and a combination of both, were evaluated in this study. The results were compared with the direct cyanide leaching method. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The gold ore was obtained from Efemcukuru deposit, located near Izmir, Turkey. Mineralogical characterization of the ore was carried out by an optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) instrument. Chemical analysis of the ore was performed with the Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). A sample of 850 kg was crushed to minus 3.35 mm and subsamples of 1.25 kg were prepared. Each of these subsamples was ground in a laboratory rod mill at a pulp density of 60% solids and 100 rpm to different size fractions. A laboratory type Knelson gravity concentrator (MD3) (obtained from Knelson Gravity Solutions, Canada) with a cone diameter of 7.6 cm was evaluated at three different centrifugal forces (Gforces) and five different particle sizes, prepared with different milling times. The MD3 model operates with a centrifugal speed of 1200 rpm at 1/6 horse power. The flow rate of the washing water was 0.02 m3/h with back water pressures of 2 and 4 psi. Experimental conditions used were a pulp density of about 30 % solids, 2 kg of samples, three G-forces of 60, 90 and 120 and particle sizes below 25, 75, 106, 150 and 212 m top sizes. The feed rate of the pulp to the Knelson concentrator was 1.4 l/min which corresponds to 0.024 t/h. Flotation tests were applied to the run-of-mine ore (feed) and to the Knelson tailings. The tests with the feed were conducted at different particle sizes, using primary and secondary collectors, modifiers, pH values adjusted with lime and caustic soda (NaOH). Flotation tests were accomplished with the Denver flotation cell at 1500 rpm impeller speed and 2.5 psi air pressure. After grinding to a desired particle size, the pulp of 625 g at 30% solids was transferred directly to the Denver flotation cell with 2 liters of volume. The conditioning time was 10 minutes for the collectors and 1 minute for the frother. Flotation concentrates were produced at 2 and 4 minutes. The flotation tests were accomplished first with primary collectors of potassium amyl xanthate (Aero 350) and

sodium isobutyl xanthate (Aero 317) at dosages of 50, 100 and 200 g/t. The effect of secondary collectors [dithiophosphates/or modified dithiphosphates (Aero 404, Aero 3477 and Aerophine 3418A)] to float the gold were also investigated by adding them into the flotation cell after 2 minutes of flotation with the primary collectors of Aero 350 and Aero 317. The pH was adjusted with lime and caustic soda ranging from natural (around 5.6) to 9.5. The frothers used were Aero Froth 70 (70 g/t) and pine oil (70 g/t). The effect of NaHS (0,1 and 0,2 kg/t) for sulfidization of oxide minerals, CuSO4 (200 and 400 g/t) for activation of sulfide minerals and Na2SiO3 (1 and 2 kg/t) for depression of gangue minerals were also investigated to increase gold recovery and grade. The sulfidizers, activators and depressants were added to the flotation cell after the primary collector and additional 2 minutes of conditioning time were given. The effect of aeration was also evaluated. The aeration was applied about 10 minutes during conditioning. All the concentrates and tailings were collected, analyzed for gold using AAS. All the collectors and Aero Froth 70 were received from Cytec Industries, Inc. The flotation tests with the Knelson tailings were carried out with the collector of Aero 350 at the above conditions. Cyanide (NaCN) leaching process was applied directly to the run of mine samples after crushing and grinding to below a maximum particle size of 106 m. The leaching process was carried out in 2 liter beakers and the sample was continuously stirred by mechanical stirrer under laboratory conditions for 24 hours. Different amounts of NaCN were investigated with different amounts of oxygen. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Characterization of Efemcukuru gold ore Efemukuru, located in the Aegean Region near Izmir, Turkey, is an example of vein-type epithermal gold deposit with related stockwork and replacement mineralization 57. The chemical characterization studies have shown that the ore sample contained on the average of 5.7 g/t Au, 50 g/t Ag, 0.028 % Cu, 0.26 % Pb, 0.053 % Zn, 5.57 % Fe2O3, 2.8 % Mn and 0.0095 % Ni. The result of XRD examination of the feed sample is given in Figure 1. The ore contains quartz (SiO2), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), pyrite (FeS2), silver (Ag), goethite (FeO(OH)). Characterization of ore minerals on polished sections has been completed using a polarizing reflected light microscope which is a standard and widely used for the identification of the ore minerals. Associated sulfides in the ore are pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena and their oxidized products.

8 The predominant occurrence of gold is electrum with lesser amounts of native gold. Electrum contains 6169 weight % Au and 23-30 weight % Ag. Gold is also associated with tellurides. The grain size of gold

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commonly varies between 3 to 50 m. Gold occurs as free grains in quartz and carbonate, and as inclusions in sulfide minerals as seen in Figure 2.

Figure 1. The results of XRD for gold feed sample (1-Quartz, 2-Orthoclase, 3-Pyrite, 4-Silver, 5-Goethite)

Figure 2. Reflected light photomicrographs of Efemcukuru gold ore. Gold inclusions in sulfide minerals are seen

3.2 Knelson concentrator studies The results of the Knelson concentrator gravity tests were presented in Figure 3. In general, the results show that gold recoveries increase with increasing Gforces, except at the fine (-25 m) and coarse (-212 m) sizes. This is expected at coarser sizes as the liberation becomes problem, giving poor recoveries. The poor results at fine sizes are obtained due to the limitation of the instrument. Recoveries drop substantially at fine sizes as seen in the Figure. The effects of G-forces on the recoveries are more pronounced at finer sizes, increasing substantially with increasing G-forces. The effect of G-forces on the recoveries decreases with increasing particle sizes, again possibly caused by poor liberation of gold particles. Changing back water pressures of the device from 2 to 4 psi did not affect the results.

The highest recovery value of 71.4% with 91.1 g/t gold grade was achieved at 120 G-force with the particle size of -106 micron. The Knelson gravity concentrator suffers to achieve acceptable gold recoveries when used alone in the circuit. Thus, gravity cannot replace cyanidation (leaching) and flotation but it can be used as a supplement process by reducing the circuit size, reagent use, and environmental impact.

Baran Tufan, Erol Kaya, Tolga Oyman, Z. Ebru Sayn, Turan Batar / The Journal of ORE DRESSING 2011

Figure 3. Effects of G-forces and particle sizes on the concentrate gold recoveries and grades with a 7.6 cm laboratory type Knelson gravity concentrator operated at three different G-forces (60, 90,120) and five different particle sizes (-25 m, -75 m, -106 m, -150 m, -212 m). Experimental conditions are: pulp density 30 % solids, 2 kg of samples, and 1.4 l/m feed rate to the device.

3.3 Flotation studies Flotation tests were carried out with the run-of-mine feed samples and with the tailings from the Knelson concentrator. The flotation test variables with the feed samples were collector types and dosages, pH range, pH modifiers (lime and caustic soda), particle size, effects of aeration, activation, sulfidization and depression. The aim of the flotation investigation with the feed samples was to bulk float all the goldcontaining minerals of sulfides and oxides, and leaching only the concentrate reducing cyanide and lime consumption substantially, as well as the quantity of tailings needing detoxification. The results of the selected flotation tests were presented in Figures 4, 5 and 6. The highest gold recoveries and grades were achieved with the collector of Aero 350 compared to other primary collectors tested. Flotation recoveries increased to 80 %s when the dosage of Aero 350 increased from 50 g/t to 100 g/t. Further increase in the collector amount did not affect the recovery further but decreased the grade as seen in Figure 4. The use of the secondary collectors did not enhance the gold recoveries and grades further. The best recovery and grade values were obtained at the natural pH of 5.76. At higher pH values adjusted with caustic soda both the gold recovery and grades dropped as seen in Figure 5. Caustic soda appears to

give slightly better results than lime. The effect of copper sulfate (CuSO4) on the gold recoveries and grades was presented in Figure 6. As seen, the addition of copper sulfate has not affected the flotation recoveries, but, increased the gold grades further. The results slightly improved when maximum particle size was reduced from 106 m to 53m. Generally, the application of aeration did not affect the gold recoveries but substantially improved the gold grades. In general, the addition of sulfidizer (NaHS), activator (CuSO4) and depressant (Na2SiO3) did not improve the results when used alone, but, they improved both the recovery and grade substantially when all used together. The results of the flotation tests indicated that the highest gold recovery of 85.1% with a gold grade of 44.1 g/t was achieved. The optimum test parameters and the results are presented in Table 1. Table 2 presents the flotation test results of the tailings obtained from the Knelson gravity concentrator. The Knelson tailings contained on the average of 2 g/t gold grade and it was upgraded to 23.92 g/t in 2 minutes with a recovery of 51.57 %. In 4 minutes flotation time, the recovery increased to 72.66 %, but, the gold grade was substantially reduced to 14.05 g/t.

10
Table 1. The optimum flotation results and the test parameters with the run of mine feed sample
Products Con. 1 (2 min.)* Con. 2 (4 min.) Gangue Feed Flotation parameters Weigh t, % Au, g/t Cum. Au, g/t Cum. Recovery, % 76.84 85.07

Volume 13 - Issue 26 Table 2. The results of the flotation test applied to the Knelson tailings
Products Con. 1 (2 min.) Con. 2 (4 min.) Gangue Feed Flotation parameters Weigh t, % Au, g/t Cum. Au, g/t 23.92 14.05 1.92 Cum. Recovery, % 51.57 72.66

4.10 76.07 76.84 3.80 8.94 44.06 92.10 0.66 4.01 100.00 4.01 Primary collector (Aero 350, 100 g/t), Natural pH (5.76), NaSH (0.1 g/t), CuSO4 (400 g/t), Na2SiO3 (1 kg/t), Frother (Pine oil, 70 g/t), particle size (-106 m), pulp density (30 % solids)
100 90 80

4,10 23.92 5,80 7,00 90.10 0.58 100.0 1.92 Primary collector (Aero 317, 100 g/t), Natural pH (8.35), NaSH (0.1 g/t), CuSO4 (200 g/t), Na2SiO3 (1 kg/t), Frother (Pine oil, 100 g/t), particle size (-106 m), pulp density (30 % solids)
100 90 80

* Flotation durations

Recovery, Au(%)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50 Recovery,Au (%) Grade,Au (ppm) 100

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 200

Collector Dosage g/t (aero350-KAX)

Figure 4. Effect of collector dosages on the flotation recovery and grade of gold with the run-of-mine feed samples [Natural pH (5.76), pine oil (100 g/ton), Aeration (10 min.), NaHS (0.1 kg/ton), CuSO4 (200 g/ton), Na2SiO3 (1 kg/ton), particle size of -106 m, Aero 350 (varies)].
100 90 80 100 90 80

Recovery, Au(%)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5,76 Recovery,Au (%) Grade,Au (ppm) 7,50

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9,50

pH

Figure 5. Effect of pH on the flotation recovery and grade of gold with the run-of-mine feed samples [Aero 350 (100 g/t), Pine oil (100 g/ton), Aeration (10 min.), NaHS (0.1 kg/ton), CuSO4 (200 g/ton), Na2SiO3 (1 kg/ton), particle size of -106 m, pH (5.76 natural), 7.5 and 9.5 (adjusted with NaOH)].

Grade, Au (g/t)

70

70

Grade, Au (g/t)

70

70

Baran Tufan, Erol Kaya, Tolga Oyman, Z. Ebru Sayn, Turan Batar / The Journal of ORE DRESSING 2011
100 90 80 100 90 80

11

Recovery, Au(%)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 200 Recovery,Au (%) Grade,Au (ppm)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 400

CuSO4 Dosage (g/t)

Figure 6. Effect of copper sulfate (CuSO4) on the flotation recovery and grade of gold with the run-of-mine feed samples [Aero 350 (100 g/t), Pine oil (100 g/ton), Aeration (10 min.), NaHS (0.1 kg/ton), Na2SiO3 (1 kg/ton), pH (5.76 natural), particle size of -106 m, CuSO4 (varies)].

3.4 Cyanide leaching studies The cyanide leach tests were performed for comparison purposes. The results of the cyanide leach tests revealed the highest gold recoveries of 82.19% with the solution gold grade of 4.06 mg/L. The total NaCN consumption at the end of 24 hours was 840 g/t. The test conditions for the best results were presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Optimum experimental conditions for the leaching of the feed samples Conditions Parameters 300 g/t NaCN 106 m Maximum particle size 45 % solids Pulp density 30 ml/min Oxygen flow 19.6 0C Room temperature pH 10.5 Stirring speed 450 rpm

scavenged to maximize the gold recovery. Knelson tailings contained average of 2 g/t gold grade. When the Knelson concentrator tailings (middlings) were floated, a gold concentrate with 72.7 % recovery and 14.1 g/t grades (Table 2) was achieved. The combination of the Knelson and flotation circuit brought the gold recovery from 71.4 % to 92.2 % with an average gold grade of 38.9 g/t. Gold recoveries and grades achieved with different circuit arrangements are presented in Table 4. As seen, the Knelson and flotation circuit gave the highest gold recovery.
Table 4. Gold recoveries and grades different circuit arrangements Circuit arrangement Recovery, % Direct Knelson 71.4 Direct Leaching 82.2 Direct Flotation 85.1 Knelson + Flotation 92.2 achieved with Grade, Au g/t 91.1 ----44.1 38.7

3.5 Combination of Knelson concentrator and flotation methods Gold recoveries of 71,44% with grades of 91,1 g/t are achievable with the Knelson gravity concentrator, however, these recoveries are considered very low when used alone in the circuit. On the other hand, higher gold recoveries (about 85.1 %) but with relatively poor gold grades of 44.1 g/t were attained with flotation. Both the methods suffer to achieve an acceptable recovery and grade when used alone in the gold circuit. A combination of Knelson gravity concentrator and flotation was considered to further increase the gold recoveries with acceptable gold grades. In this case, the tailings of the Knelson concentrator were

4. CONCLUSIONS The aim of this study was to investigate an alternative flowsheet arrangement using conventional methods to maximize the gold recovery for a Turkish gold ore, near Izmir. Different processing alternatives included gravity concentration, flotation and a combination of both, excluding cyanidation. Mineralogical analysis of the ore samples shows that gold is predominantly associated with the sulfide minerals and pyrite is the most abundant sulfide phase hosting the gold. Gold is also associated with sphalerite and chalcopyrite but as minute inclusions. The grain size of gold commonly varies between 3 to 50 m.

Grade, Au (g/t)

70

70

12 A laboratory type Knelson gravity concentrator was investigated at three different centrifugal forces (Gforces) and five different particle sizes. The results showed the existence of an optimum particle size and G force. The highest gold recovery of 71.4 % with 91.1 g/t gold grade was achieved below a particle size of 106 microns and maximum G force of 120. The first objective of the flotation studies was to evaluate the possibility of producing a bulk gold concentrate and leaching only the concentrate, thus, expecting a substantial decrease in the use of cyanide compared to whole ore leaching. The highest gold recovery of 85.1 % was achieved with a gold grade of 44.1 g/t. The second objective of the flotation studies was to float the gold rejected to Knelson tailings, thus, maximizing the overall gold recovery in the combined Knelson-flotation circuit. The combination of the Knelson and flotation circuit brought the gold recovery from 71.4 % to 92.2 % with a gold grade of 38.9 g/t, thus, giving a better gold recovery than either the conventional cyanide leaching or flotation. The combined Knelson gravity concentrator - flotation circuit is a better alternative flowsheet than cyanidation at certain mines located near or next to agricultural and ecologically sensitive areas to reduce environmental concerns. Acknowledgement Financial support for the present work from The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) is gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES [1] Dayton S H , Gold Processing Update, E&MJ (Engineering and Mining Journal), (June 1987) 25-29. Fraser K S , Walton R H & Wells J A, Processing of refractory gold ores, Minerals Engineering, 4 (7-11) (1991) 1029-1041. Prasad M S , Mensah-Biney R & Pizarro R S , Modern trends in gold processing overview, Minerals Engineering, 4(12) (1991) 1257-1277. La Brooy S R , Linge H G & Walker G S, Review of gold extraction from ores, Minerals Engineering, 7(10) (1994) 1213-1241. Allan G C & Woodcock J T , A review of the flotation of Native gold and electrum, Minerals Engineering, Vol 14(9), (2001) 931-962. Adams M D , Summary of Gold Plants and Processes, Developments in Mineral Processing, Ed. Mike D. Adams, Vol. 15, in

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2, in Advances in Gold Ore Processing, (2005) 21-71. [33] Forrest K, Yan D & Dunne R, Optimization of gold recovery by selective gold flotation for copper-gold-pyrite ore, Minerals Engineering, 14(2), (2001) 227-241. [34] Teague A J, Van Deventer J S J & Swaminathan C I, The effect of copper activation on the behavior of free and refractory gold during froth flotation, Int. J. Miner. Process, 59, (2000) 113-130. [35] Torem M L, Bravo S V C, Monte M B M, Dutra A J B & Tondo L A, Effect of thio collectors and feed particle size distribution on flotation of gold bearing sulphide ore, Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy, 115(2), (2006) 101-106. [36] Nagaraj D R, Development of new flotation chemicals, Trans Indian Inst Metall, 50 (5), (1997) 355-363. [37] Klimpel R R, Industrial experiences in the evaluation of various flotation reagent schemes for the recovery of gold, Minerals & Metallurgical Processing, 18(1), (1999) 1-11. [38] Nagaraj D R, Brinen J S, Farinato R S & Lee J, A study of the interaction of dicresyl monothiophosphate with noble metals using electrochemical, wetting and spectroscopic methods, Langmuir 8, (1991) 1943-1949. [39] Nagaraj D R, Brinen J S, Farinato R S & Lee J S, Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Studies of the Interactions between monothiophosphates and Noble Metals, 8th International Symposium, Surfactants in Solution, Univ Florida, 1990, Pub. In Langmuir, 8(8), (1992) 1943-1949. [40] Tennyson S, The Hydrophilic nature of a clean surface, J. Colloid Interface Sci, 75, (1980) 5155. [41] Dunne R, Flotation of Gold and GoldBearing Ores, Developments in Mineral Processing, Ed. Mike D. Adams, Vol. 15, in Developments in Mineral Processing, (2005) 309-344. [42] Lins F F & Adamian R, Some chemical aspects of gold flotation, XVIII International Mineral Processing Congress, Sydney, (1993) 11191122. [43] Bulatovic S M, Flotation behavior of gold during processing of porphyry copper-gold ores and refractory gold-bearing sulphides, Mineral Engineering, 10(9), (1997) 895-908.

14 [44] Teague A J, Van Deventer J S J & Swaminathan C, A conceptual model for gold flotation, Minerals Engineering, 12(9), (1999) 1001-1019. [45] Klimpel R R, An approach to the flotation of complex gold ores containing some free gold and/or some gold associated with easily floatable sulfide minerals. In: World Gold 97, Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, (1997) 109-113. [46] Jones M H & Woodcock J T, Aplication of pulp chemistry to regulation of chemical environment in sulfide mineral flotation, In: Principles of Mineral Flotation, Wark Symposium Series No. 40, Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, (1984) 147-174. [47] Healy T W, Pulp chemistry, surface chemistry and flotation, In: Principles of Mineral Flotation, Wark Symposium Series No. 40, Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, (1984) 43-56. [48] Aksoy B S & Yarar B, Natural hydrohobicity of native gold flakes and their flotation under different conditions, In: Dobby, G. S., Rao, S. R. (Eds.), Processing of Complex Ores, Pergamon Press, New York, (1989) 19-27. [49] Chryssoulis S L, Using mineralogy to optimize gold recovery by flotation, JOM, 53(12), (2001) 48-50. [50] Kendrick M, Baum W, Thompson P, Wilkie & G. Gottlieb, P., The use of QemScan automated mineral analyzer in the Candelaria concentrator, Proceedings, Copper/Cobre, Vol.111. (2003). [51] Laplante A & Gray S, Advances in gravity gold technology, Developments in Mineral Processing, Ed. Mike D. Adams, Vol. 15, in Advances in Gold Ore Processing, (2005) 9941013. [52] Ounpu M, Gravity Concentration of Gold from Base Metal Flotation Mills, 24th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottowa, Ontorio, (1992) 1-12. [53] Burt R, The role of gravity concentration in modern processing plants, Minerals Enginering, Vol. 12, No. 11, (1999) 12911300. [54] McLeavy M, Klein B & Grewal I, Knelson Continuous Variable Discharge Concentrator: Analysis of Operating Variables, International Heavy Minerals Conference, Fremantle, WA, (2001) 119-125.

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[55] Campbell J & Watson B, Gravity Leaching With the ConSep ACACIA Reactor Results from Anglo Gold Union Reefs, Eighth Mill Operators Conference, Townswille, QLD, (2003) 167-175. [56] Lunt D & Weeks T, Process Flowsheet Selection, Developments in Mineral Processing, Ed. Mike D. Adams, Vol. 15, in Developments in Mineral Processing, (2005) 73-96. [57] Oyman T, Minerace F & Piskin O, Efemcukuru B-rich epithermal gold deposit (Izmir, Turkey), Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 23, (2003) 35-53.