Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept?

1
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Competence-based curricuIum deveIopment in
Higher Education: a gIobaIised concept?

Win Kouvenhoven
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1. Introduction

In a sinpIe vay one nighl slarl lhe inlroduclion of conpelence-lased educalion and
conpelence-lased curricuIun deveIopnenl vilh a slalenenl of Lvervijn, oners and
Knullen (1993) on lradilionaI educalion. They slale lhal educalion, parlicuIarIy
professionaI, lechnicaI, vocalionaI educalion is aIvays facing lhe prolIen lhal knovIedge
acquisilion does nol necessariIy nean lhe successfuI appIicalion of lhe sane knovIedge.
MiIIer (199O) ciles lhe phiIosopher AIfred Norlh Whilehead vho slaled lhal lhere is nolhing
nore useIess lhan a nereIy veII inforned nan. CIassicaI reaclions lo a discipIine-orienled
curricuIun have leen lhe Harvard case nelhod lhal slarled in lusiness adninislralion,
and prolIen-lased Iearning lhal slarled in nedicine sludies al McMasler nedicaI SchooI in
Canada. ul a lhird ansver Iies in aliIily- or conpelence-lased Iearning and viII le
eIaloraled in lhis chapler.
Inporlanl deveIopnenls in sociely in lhe pasl decades have Ied lo a differenl viev of
knovIedge, acconpanied ly an increased allenlion for lhe acquisilion of conpelencies and
conpelence-lased educalion and lraining (Kearns, 2OO1). Aspecls of a differenl viev of
knovIedge are:
x The cIassicaI concepl of knovIedge as schooI-lased and discipIine-lased is lroadened,
knovIedge is seen as an inlegralive capaliIily. The acquisilion of knovIedge in ilseIf is
nol lhe najor ain of educalion and lraining, lul vhal can le done vilh lhis knovIedge.
Is lhis a lypicaI Weslern deveIopnenl` DeIors (1996) slaled sone len years ago lhal in
nany sul- Saharan African counlries lhere is lradilionaIIy no fornaIIy codified
knovIedge and lhe knov-hov is lased on inpIicil, lacil knovIedge.
x The deveIopnenl of knovIedge is laking pIace in nore diverse conlexls. Cillons (1998)
speaks aloul lvo 'nodes of knovIedge produclion. Mode 1 produclion refers lo
knovIedge of lhe discipIine-lased lype, lypicaIIy produced in lhe 'cIassicaI
universilies. Mode 2 knovIedge deveIopnenl is lhe produclion of knovIedge in lhe
conlexl of appIicalion, lhal is, il arises in lhe process of soIving parlicuIar conpIex
prolIens in coIIaloralive lrans-discipIinary leans and parlnerships, silualed lolh
vilhin and oulside higher educalion inslilulions.
The roIe of universilies in lhis node of knovIedge deveIopnenl has leen anliguous
(Conczi, 2OO1). In sone cases universilies vanl lo pul a slrong enphasis on lradilionaI,
1
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Technology, Education and Development 2

discipIinary knovIedge produclion lecause lineIess, universaI knovIedge is inporlanl in a
vorId vhere everylhing is in fIov. Hovever, nore and nore lhe need is recognised for
donain-specific conpelencies vilhin lhe discipIines DQG lrans-discipIinary, as veII as
generic conpelencies (TeichIer, 1998). Inslilulions of higher educalion in deveIoping
counlries have noslIy kepl lo lhe lradilionaI funclions and oljeclives of Weslern
universilies (Maanouri & Wagner, 2OO1), oflen leing 'nore Ronan lhan lhe pope.
Hovever, gIolaI deveIopnenls in science, sociely and econony affecl lhe deveIoping
counlries as veII and lheir higher educalion inslilulions are cIosing lhe gap lelveen
'cIassicaI discipIinary knovIedge and knov-hov required for lhe nev jol narkel. One
ansver on lhe denand for nore reIevanl educalion has leen a slronger focus on lhe vorId
of vork, signified ly lhe allenlion for 'core, or personaI lransferalIe skiIIs, such as lhe
aliIily lo co-operale, connunicale, and soIve prolIens, skiIIs vhich are assuned lo lransfer
readiIy across a range of conlexls (ennell, Dunne & Carre, 1999).
Anolher resuIl of lhe deveIopnenls descriled alove is lhal lhe difference lelveen
vocalionaI and acadenic/generaI educalion is gelling snaIIer, vilh increasingIy aclive
parlnerships lelveen higher educalion inslilulions and lhe vorIds of induslry, connerce
and pulIic service (Slern & Wagner, 1999, Hager & HyIand, 2OO3).
A vay lo concepluaIise lhe reIalion lelveen educalion and lhe vorId of vork is lhrough
conpelence-lased educalion. Slarling vilh lhe sinpIe descriplion of conpelence as lhe 'lhe
aliIily lo perforn a lask up lo slandard il is nol difficuIl lo see lhal conpelence reIales lo
lhe vorId of vork. Acquiring and deveIoping conpelence is nore lhan Iearning a sel of
skiIIs. A connon lern descriling lhe acquisilion and deveIopnenl of conpelence is
'Conpelence-lased Lducalion and Training (CLT), vhere 'lraining is nore associaled
vilh lhe naslering of skiIIs. In lhe resl of lhis arlicIe lhe lern 'conpelence-lased educalion
or CL viII le used.
CL is noslIy Iinked lo lechnicaI and vocalionaI educalion al secondary IeveI. Hovever al
lerliary IeveI ve see nore and nore universilies adopl a conpelence-lased approach,
slarling vilh areas lhal have a nore direcl professionaI Iink, such as nedicine, denlislry,
Iav, engineering, and accounling.
This chapler slarls vilh a concepluaI cIarificalion of conpelence, conpelence-lased
educalion and lhe deveIopnenl of conpelence-lased curricuIa. Allenlion is paid lo lhe roIe
of personaI lrails in lhe concepl of conpelence and conpelenl professionaI acling. AIlhough
sonelines radicaI choices have lo le nade vhen designing conpelence-lased curricuIa,
lhere is sliII a greal variely of 'soIulions vilh varying characlerislics. Conpelence-lased
educalion, especiaIIy in Higher Lducalion has oulspoken adversaries. The nosl inporlanl
crilicisns are discussed in lhis chapler logelher vilh vays lo counler lhe dangers and nake
nosl use of lhe advanlages of CL. As an exanpIe lhe fornuIalion of acadenic
conpelencies ly a group of Dulch universilies viII le presenled. IinaIIy sone exanpIes
fron conpelence-lased curricuIun deveIopnenl processes viII shov lhal CL is indeed a
gIolaIised concepl.
efore expanding on conpelence-lased higher educalion in lhe NelherIands and in sone
African counlries ve need lo descrile nore in delaiI lhe concepls of conpelence (or
conpelency) and conpelence-lased educalion.
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 3

2. The concepts of competence and competence-based education

Throughoul lhis arlicIe lhe vord 'conpelence viII le used in a generic sense, neaning lhe
quaIily or slale of leing conpelenl. The lern 'conpelence-lased educalion viII le used
assuning lo incorporale lhe Anerican 'conpelency-lased educalion. eIov a conpelence
nodeI viII le presenled in vhich lhe 'quaIily of leing conpelenl is expIained ly lhe
possession of a sel of 'conpelencies lhal logelher are causaIIy reIaled lo a conpelenl
perfornance. A conpelency is concepluaIised in lhe nodeI as lhe capaliIily lo choose and
use (appIy) an inlegraled conlinalion of knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes vilh lhe inlenlion
lo reaIise a lask. Conpelence is lhen defined as lhe capacily lo reaIise 'up lo slandard lhe
key occupalionaI lasks (see leIov) lhal characlerise a profession.
Conpelence-lased educalion ains lo nake sludenls nore conpelenl lhrough lhe
acquisilion of conpelencies and lhe furlher deveIopnenl of lhe nevIy acquired or aIready
heId conpelencies. This presupposes lhal lhere is cIarily aloul hov conpelencies are
concepluaIised and lhal, in case of a parlicuIar educalion or lraining progranne, lhe
reIevanl conpelencies have leen fornuIaled.
The Iack of a generaIIy accepled operalionaI definilion of conpelence/conpelency is
generaIIy acknovIedged (Caravan & McCuire, 2OO1). Sone aulhors sinpIy accepl lhe facl
and supporl a pragnalic approach. Sloof el aI. (2OO2) IaleI lhe search for an overarching
definilion as an oljeclivisl approach, lhal is fuliIe in alsence of an alsoIule lrulh, and
advocale inslead a conslruclivisl approach vhere lhe .crilerion for a conpelence
definilion is nol vhelher lhe definilion is lrue lul lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe conslrucled
definilion has proved lo le adequale in lhe conlexl lo vhich il is used (i.e.vialiIily) (p.347).
In lhe Iileralure nany definilions of conpelency/conpelence can le found, aInosl as nany
as lhere are aulhors vriling on conpelence-reIaled nallers.
Conparing a seIeclion of conpelence definilions ly various aulhors, five groups can le
dislinguished (for a delaiIed discussion see Kouvenhoven, 2OO3):
1. Conpelence as lhe abI!Ity tn pcrfnrm at a dcsIrcd !cvc! or according lo a cerlain
slandard. This refers lo conpelence as oulpul. An exanpIe:
Conpelence is lhe aliIily lo perforn in vork roIes or jols lo lhe slandard required in
enpIoynenl. (IieId & DrysdaIe, 1991)
2. Conpelence as lhe abI!Ity tn chnnsc and usc thc attrIbutcs (knovIedge, skiIIs and
alliludes) lhal are needed for a perfornance al a desired IeveI. This invoIves nela-
cognilive allrilules. An exanpIe:
A conpelenl person is, vilhin a cerlain conlexl (silualion) alIe/capalIe lo choose
fron a sel of avaiIalIe lehaviours and lo execule suilalIe lehaviours in order lo reach a
cerlain goaI. (Kirschner el aI., 1997)
3. Conpelence as lhe pnsscssInn nf ccrtaIn attrIbutcs (knnw!cdgc, skI!!s and attItudcs),
or conpelence as inpul. An exanpIe:
Conpelence represenls lhe lolaIily of knovIedge, skiIIs and aliIilies required for
professionaI praclice. (AAIA, 1996)
4. Conpelence as a nere dcscrIptInn nf what snmcnnc can dn. This refers aIso lo
conpelence as oulpul. An exanpIe:
Conpelence is an aclion, lehaviour or oulcone vhich lhe person shouId le alIe lo
denonslrale. (Caravan & McCuire, 2OO1)
5. More c!abnratc dcfInItInns nf cnmpctcncc, conlaining eIenenls of lhe four groups
alove. An exanpIe:
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Technology, Education and Development 4

Conpelence is lhe capaliIily of a person or an organisalion lo reach specific
achievenenls. IersonaI conpelencies conprise: inlegraled perfornance orienled
capaliIilies, vhich consisl of cIuslers of knovIedge slruclures and aIso cognilive,
inleraclive, affeclive and vhere necessary psychonolor capaliIilies, and alliludes and
vaIues, vhich are condilionaI for carrying oul lasks, soIving prolIens and nore
generaIIy, effecliveIy funclioning in a cerlain profession, organisalion, posilion or roIe.
(MuIder, 2OO1)
ased on lhe various conpelence definilions and dinensions of lhe conpelence concepl
Kouvenhoven (2OO3) presenls a conprehensive definilion of conpelency lhal can le furlher
cIarified in a nodeI (see Iig. 1, leIov). Ioinl of deparlure for lhe nodeI is lhe queslion:
Whal drives a salisfaclory or exceIIenl perfornance` The nodeI descriles vhal 'goes on
in lhe head (i.e. processing al cognilive IeveI) vhen a lask is reaIised. Iron lhis nodeI
conpelency is deduced as lhe aliIily lo process in an inlenlionaI vay. A professionaI
perforns in his/her vork a Iarge nunler of lasks lhal can le grouped inlo 'key
occupalionaI lasks or roIes.

























Iig. 1. A nodeI of lhe cognilive aspecls of lask perfornance

The reaIisalion (perfornance) of lasks inpIies 'inlenlionaI aclions, aclivilies lhal are
consciousIy pIanned, nonilored and reguIaled and lhal invoIve cerlain allrilules
(knovIedge, skiIIs, alliludes) and personaI characlerislics of lhe professionaI. KnovIedge,
TASK Task related
Context
personal
characteri sti cs:
- motivation
- selI-conIidence
- creativity
- ambition
- etc.
knowledge
skills
attitudes
PROCESSING
Personal
Context
PERFORMANCE
OF
TASK
meta-cognition
e.g. situational
understanding
OUTCOMES
reflection
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 5

skiIIs and alliludes are uliIised in an inlegraled vay, aIlhough lhey nay le used in varying
degrees, depending on lhe (occupalionaI) lask or a lask conponenl.
One vouId expecl, for exanpIe, in counseIIing a crine viclin nore enphasis on alliludes
lhan in luiIding a looksheIf. In order lo perforn (key) lasks lhe professionaI shouId le alIe
lo 'seIecl and use lhe appropriale knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes, lhal is, process lhen and
cone lo deIilerale aclions, ained al reaIising lhe lask. The nenlaI processing of a lask or a
prolIen, characlerised ly 'inlenlionaI aclion', requires cerlain cognilive noniloring and
reguIalion aclivilies, IaleIIed 'nela-cognilion (Marzano el aI, 1988, Ashcrofl, 1994). An
exanpIe is 'silualionaI underslanding (professionaIs lake accounl of lhe varying conlexls in
vhich lhey are operaling and are alIe lo lransfer, lhal is, seIecl and appIy lhe necessary
allrilules in nev conlexls).
In lhe nodeI, presenled in Iig. 1 lhe lask reIaled conlexl (vhere and hov lhe lask is
'silualed) is perceived and processed ly silualionaI underslanding. The personaI conlexl
invoIves (anongsl olhers) enolionaI, physicaI faclors lhal direclIy infIuence lhe professionaI
as a person. Ior exanpIe, an individuaI nighl jusl have recovered fron an iIIness and is sliII
feeIing lired, or she/he nighl le vorried ly faniIy lroulIes, elc. The personaI
characlerislics delernine lo vhal exlenl lhese posilive or negalive faclors viII infIuence lhe
processing of lhe lask. RefIeclion on lhe oulcones provides feedlack lo lhe praclilioner,
Ieading, if necessary, lo addilionaI inlenlionaI aclions.
Conpelency and conpelence can le deduced fron lhe nodeI and le defined as foIIovs:
x Cnmpctcncy is lhe capaliIily lo choose and use (appIy) an inlegraled conlinalion of
knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes vilh lhe inlenlion lo reaIise a lask in a cerlain conlexl,
vhiIe personaI characlerislics such as nolivalion, seIf-confidence, viIIpover are parl of
lhal conlexl.
x Cnmpctcncc is lhe capacily lo reaIise 'up lo slandard' lhe key occupalionaI lasks (see
leIov) lhal characlerise a profession. A cnmpctcnt professionaI shovs a salisfaclory (or
superior) perfornance. Kcy nccupatInna! tasks are lhe lasks lhal are characlerislic for a
profession. A profession couId le descriled ly 2O - 3O key occupalionaI lasks (Hager &
Conczi, 1996).
The lroad, generaI, concepl of conpelence can le reIaled lo conpelencies lhrough lhe
concepl of 'core conpelencies as is shovn in Iig. 2, leIov.
Cnrc cnmpctcncy is defined as: lhe sel of appropriale conpelencies needed lo reaIise a key
occupalionaI lask al a salisfaclory or superior IeveI.
Slaled in anolher vay: Core conpelencies are direclIy Iinked lo key occupalionaI lasks and
are inlegraled cIuslers of donain-specific and generic conpelencies.
Il shouId le noled lhal in lhe Iileralure lhe lern 'core conpelencies is aIso used in lhe sense
of slralegic lusiness capaliIilies lhal provide a conpany vilh a narkelpIace advanlage (cf.
IrahaIad & HaneI, 199O). In lhe UK lhe lern 'core skiIIs is referring lo generic
conpelencies (in lhis case connunicalion, nuneracy, IT, prolIen soIving, and vorking
vilh olhers)
Conpelencies are calegorised in lhis nodeI in lvo groups. Conpelencies can le dnmaIn-
spccIfIc, reIaling lo cIuslers of knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes vilhin one specific conlenl
donain reIaled lo lhe profession. Anolher group of conpelencies is caIIed 'gcncrIc', lecause
lhey are needed in aII conlenl donains and can le uliIised in nev professionaI silualions
(lransfer). The nane 'Iife skiIIs is sonelines used for lhe Ialler group and indicales lhal
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Technology, Education and Development 6

lhese conpelencies are, lecause of lheir lransferaliIily, lhe lasic sel of capaliIilies for lhe
Iife of loday, vilhin and oulside lhe profession.
In lhe deveIopnenl of a conpelence-lased curricuIun a sequence is foIIoved (sonelines
caIIed lhe 'RoyaI lrack) invoIving lhe fornuIalion of a professionaI profiIe vilh key
occupalionaI lasks, foIIoved ly graduale profiIe vilh (seIecled) core conpelencies lhal
reIale direclIy lo lhe professionaI profiIe. In lhe curricuIun profiIe lhe finaI allainnenl IeveIs
of lhe graduale are defined in conpelence slandards for lolh donain-specific and generic
conpelencies.























Iig. 2. The reIalion lelveen conpelence, core conpelencies and consliluling (donain
specific and generic) conpelencies

LarIier in lhis chapler Sloof el aI. (2OO2) vere nenlioned vilh lheir pragnalic approach
lovards conpelence definilions. They dislinguish cerlain dinensions in lhe various
definilions. One dinension refers lo hov lroad or narrov lhe conlexl is. The conlexl nay
range fron professionaI fieId or cuIlure lo specific roIes in lhe profession. Anolher
dinension invoIves generic or specific conpelencies. Are conpelencies silualed in a cerlain
discipIine or donain or are lhey lranscending donains and concern conpelenl lehaviour
in- and oulside lhe profession` An inleresling poinl is vhelher a conpelency definilion is
on lhe surface or deep. This concerns specificaIIy lhe queslion vhelher personaI lrails or
characlerislics are parl of a conpelency. Sone use lhis eIaloraled viev on conpelence,
olhers see conpelencies as inslrunenlaI and define conpelenl lehaviour as resuIling fron
conpelencies and personaI characlerislics. WeII knovn is lhe icelerg nodeI of Spencer
and Spencer (1993). SkiIIs and knovIedge are discussalIe and olservalIe, as lhe visilIe
A competent proIessional
(perIormance oI key occupational tasks at satisIactory level)
Key occupational tasks
Core Competencies
domain-speciIic
competencies
generic
competencies
knowledge
skills
attitudes
cognitive
attributes
realisation oI
through
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 7

parl of an icelerg, lul lhe seIf-concepl, alliludes, vaIues and personaIily lrails are under lhe
surface , nol direclIy olservalIe lul parl of lhe faclors lhal drive professionaI lehaviour.
This is aIso niceIy iIIuslraled ly Korlhagen (2OO4) vho advocales a nore incIusive definilion
of conpelence, incIuding personaI lrails, lul presenls his onion nodeI (see figure 3) lhal
iIIuslrales lhe nore inslrunenlaI viev of conpelencies and lhe inlegralion vilh personaI
lrails Ieading lo cerlain lehaviour, Ieading lo cerlain oulcones (change in lhe environnenl).
This nodeI is nirrored in lhe inlegraled viev of conpelence (cf. Hager, 2OO7) vhich
invoIves an inlegralion of seIecled lasks vilh personaI allrilules.

Iig 3. The reIalion lelveen lehaviour, conpelencies and personaI lrails. (adapled fron
Korlhagen, 2OO4)

3. Competence-based (higher) education

The characlerislics of conpelence-lased educalion shouId le lased on lhe appIicalion of
recenl findings of lhe cognilive sciences lo lhe concepl of conpelence. ased on lhe
descriplions of CL ly a nunler of aulhors Kouvenhoven (2OO3) has derived a Iisl of
characlerislics lhal, logelher, forn lhe 'archelype of a conpelence-lased curricuIun.
x CL is orienled lo lhe professionaI praclice. CL is lased on lhe fulure occupalionaI
praclice of lhe graduale. The curricuIun has an inlegraI sel-up in vhich lhe profession
is cenlraI (oyalzis el aI., 1996)
lehaviour
conpelencies
leIiefs
idenlily
environnenl
nission
Whal do you encounler`
Whal are you invoIved in`
Whal are you doing`
Whal are you alIe lo do`
Whal do you leIief in`
Who are you`
Hov do you see your professionaI roIe`
Why are you doing lhis`
To vhal grealer enlily are you reIaled`
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Technology, Education and Development 8

x CL is Iearner-cenlred and lhe Iearning process is cenlraI. The individuaI vorker is
cenlraI and, lased on his 'conpelence slalus (aIready acquired conpelencies) lhe
conpelencies are defined lhal sliII have lo le acquired and deveIoped. Olher aspecls of
a Iearner-cenlred approach in CL are lhe use of individuaIised naleriaIs, fIexilIe
Iearning line and a conlinuous feedlack lo lhe Iearner (IieId & DrysdaIe, 1991)
x CL has a conslruclivisl approach. Criffioen (2OO2) uses lhe nelaphor of lhe nelvork of
sleeI in reinforced concrele lo enphasise lhal lhe conslruclivisl paradign logelher vilh
lhe concepls of conpelence forns lhe lacklone of conpelence-lased educalion.
Molschnig-Iilrik & HoIzinger (2OO2) slale in a succincl vay: In lrief, lhe nain goaI of
conslruclivisn is conpelence, nol knovIedge as in cognilivisn, or achievenenl as in
lehaviourisn. (p. 163). Slalenenls aside, il is knovn lhal lhe quaIily of lhe acquired
knovIedge lhrough aclive conslruclion is leller lhan passiveIy gained knovIedge.
x In CL lhe roIe of lhe leacher is lhal of a 'cognilive guide. Teachers encourage sludenls
lo engage in aclive inquiry and nake expIicil lheir lacil assunplions. A conslruclivisl
leacher is nore inleresled in uncovering neanings lhan in covering prescriled
naleriaI. (Kerka, 1997, p. 1).
x CL has Iearning environnenls focussed on lhe deveIopnenl of conpelencies.
DiscipIinary conlenl is nol any nore lhe crilerion for arranging lhe curricuIun, lul lhe
conpelencies lhal shouId have leen acquired and deveIoped ly lhe end of lhe
educalion progranne (Kirschner el aI., 1997). In lhis sense one couId speak of
designing and deveIoping lhe curricuIun 'lackvards, lecause lhe knovIedge and
skiIIs are delernined ly lhe conpelencies lhal are needed ly a conpelenl professionaI
and nol ly lhe discipIinary 'lody of knovIedge.
x CL incIudes lhe deveIopnenl of generic conpelencies. Aspecls are: generic
conpelencies are inlegraled lhroughoul lhe vhoIe curricuIun, CL slinuIales lhe
lransfer capacily, focus on innovalions and prolIen soIving and lhe expIicalion
(definilion) of prolIens, seIf-refIeclion and seIf-assessnenl pIay a fundanenlaI roIe.
Lvervijn el aI. (1993) indicale lhal in a conpelence-lased curricuIun lhree goaIs have a
roIe lo pIay. Inporlanl is and renains lhe delerninalion of lhe discipIinary and
funclionaI suljecl areas. The second goaI invoIves lhe deveIopnenl of generaI skiIIs or
conpelencies. IrincipIes and slralegies underIying generaI skiIIs provide lhe sludenl
vilh an insighl lhal leaches hin lo alslracl fron specific silualions
(deconlexluaIisalion) and lo purposefuIIy vork lovards lhe specific silualion fron lhe
alslracl (conlexluaIisalion). IinaIIy lhe deveIopnenl of lhe capaliIily of Iearning lo
Iearn is inporlanl. This is parlIy reaIised ly a leaching-Iearning process invoIving lhe
deveIopnenl of generaI skiIIs, parlIy ly enphasising a refIeclive allilude as such. This
requires as veII assessnenl lhal enalIes lhe sludenl lo refIecl on vhal has leen
achieved and vhal sliII has lo le Iearned. Such assessnenl nay Iead lo personaI
Iearning arrangenenls, oflen fornuIaled in a IersonaI DeveIopnenl IIan.
x In CL assessnenl focussed on conpelencies. Aspecls are: nainIy assessnenl of
conpelencies, ralher lhan knovIedge and skiIIs, assessnenl is lolh fornalive and
sunnalive and forns an inlegraI parl of lhe process of lhe deveIopnenl of
conpelencies.
x In CL curricuIun deveIopnenl is lased on lhe eIaloralion of profiIes and
idenlificalion of conpelencies. Donain-specific knovIedge and skiIIs are delernined
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 9

ly lhe conpelencies lhal are needed ly a conpelenl professionaI and nol ly lhe
discipIinary lody of knovIedge.
In praclice one nighl find educalionaI progrannes lhal are lo a grealer or Iesser exlenl
conpelence-lased. ased on research on lhe praclice of conpelence-lased educalion in
eIgian educalionaI inslilulions, Dochy and Nicknans (2OO5) descrile four calegories of
conpelence-lased curricuIa lhal shov an increasing degree of conpelence-lased
characlerislics. Descriling lhe infIuence of 'conpelence lhinking in lhe calegories nighl le
iIIuslralive. This is done in lalIe 1, leIov.

Thc Inf!ucncc nf 'cnmpctcncc thInkIng'
Catcgnry 1:
Purpnscfu! cducatInn, ncw
nbjcctIvcs and ncw tcachIng
and !carnIng apprnachcs
x IrofessionaI praclice poinl of deparlure
x Conpelencies deconposed inlo knovIedge, skiIIs and
alliludes
x More allenlion for appIicalion of knovIedge and for skiIIs
x IncIusion of generic conpelencies
x Lnphasis on aclive Iearning
Catcgnry 2:
IntcgratInn vIa cascs
x KnovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes fornuIaled as separale
oljeclives, lul aIvays slrongIy Iinked lo professionaI
praclice and oflen Ieading lo inlegralion
x Use of reaIislic (aulhenlic) silualions
x Cases oflen used in leaching/Iearning and in assessnenl
x AIso prolIen-lased Iearning and projecl vork
Catcgnry 3:
LcarnIng and dcvc!npmcnt
trajcctnrIcs
x IncIusion of Iearning (deveIopnenl) palhvays in lhe
curricuIun
x Syslenalic and graduaI deveIopnenl of conpelencies
x Lnphasis on generic conpelencies
x Increasing conpIexily and decreasing guidance and
coaching
x Learning lo Iearn is lhe uIlinale goaI
x Nol onIy assessnenl and evaIualion of perfornance of
sludenl (in lerns of knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes) lul
aIso of personaI deveIopnenl
Catcgnry 4:
Dcmand-drIvcn, aImcd at
dcvc!npmcnt nf cnmpctcn-
cIcs
5cparatc tcachcr dIrcctcd and studcnt dIrcctcd parts
x Iron leacher: aulhenlic lasks vilh increasing conpIexily
and decreasing guidance
x Iron sludenl: fornuIalion of personaI deveIopnenl pIan
x IraclicaI prolIens Iead lo inpul ly leacher
Cnmp!ctc!y dcmand-drIvcn
x Slarl vilh a lroad, open assignnenl
x Sludenl fornuIales Iearning queslions
x Sludenl, guided ly leacher, fornuIale personaI
deveIopnenl pIan and reIaled conpelency nalrix
x Sludenl indicales vhal conpelencies viII deveIoped vhen
and al vhal IeveI
TalIe 1. Iour calegories of conpelence-lased curricuIa. (Iron Dochy & Nicknans, 2OO5)

Iron lhe exanpIe alove lhe nessage can le deduced lhal engaging in conpelence-lased
curricuIun deveIopnenl requires conscious, nore or Iess radicaI choices. Il is, al lhe sane
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Technology, Education and Development 10

line, cIear lhal lhere is nol one conpelence-lased curricuIun nodeI lhal can le considered
lo le lhe slandard.

4. Pains and pitfaIIs in competence-based education

Conpelence-lased higher educalion is nol undispuled. One of lhe dangers lhal crilics oflen
nenlion is lhe ninor roIe of discipIinary knovIedge, logelher vilh a haphazard laking in of
pieces of discipIinary knovIedge ly sludenls. Il is feared lhal sludenls do nol acquire a
coherenl viev on lhe lody of knovIedge in lheir discipIine lhal is lhoughl necessary for an
acadenic profession or lhe scienlific endeavour. Il is cIear lhal knovIedge in CL supporls
lhe deveIopnenl of conpelencies and lhal lhe acquisilion of knovIedge lakes pIace in lhe
conlexl of (professionaI) appIicalion. Hovever, CL Iearning environnenls incIude Iearning
assignnenls and Iearning praclices. Wilhoul knovIedge lhe Iearning lasks cannol le
perforned, cerlainIy nol al acadenic IeveI. Higher educalion is characlerised ly
scienlificaIIy sound and crealive-crilicaI anaIysis and soIving of unslruclured, conpIex
prolIens. Sludenls need lherefore lo deveIop acadenic (generic) conpelencies lhal onIy are
lransferalIe vhen lhey possess enough high quaIily knovIedge of lhe discipIine. Whal one
knovs delernines vhal one sees and nol lhe olher vay around (Kirschner el aI., 1997).
arnell (1994) eIalorales crilicisn on CL fron lhe vievpoinl of lhe inporlance of
knovIedge and deep underslanding in acadenic educalion. DeveIoping deep
underslanding lakes line. Il inpIies a lroad and firn lasis of discipIinary knovIedge.
Conpelence-lased curricuIa Iead, in lhe viev of arnell lo IooseIy coupIed noduIes, lIocks,
projecls lhal undernine lhe quesl for deep underslanding. AIlhough noduIarisalion
increases lhe responsiliIily and lhe opporlunilies for lhe sludenls lo delernine lheir ovn
Iearning palhs, lul il aIso Ieads lo fragnenled Iearning experiences for lhe sludenls. The
dininished inporlance of discipIinary knovIedge is seen as a serious danger. DiscipIines
are considered lhe 'sociaI facls of acadenic Iife. Research (nainIy aclion research) and aII
kind of skiIIs (enlerprise skiIIs, connunicalion skiIIs, ICT skiIIs) are addressed vilhoul
nuch discipIinary groundvork. arnell inlroduces a lroader concepl of professionaIisn
lhal nol onIy refers lo adequaleIy perforning lasks lhal reIale lo professionaI praclice lul
aIso professionaI lehaviour lhal is fed ly an acadenic-hunanislic educalion. He nakes a
pIea for a curricuIun lased on a 'IileraI vocalionaIisn.
DeveIoping (acadenic) conpelence in a cerlain discipIine requires, anongsl olher lhings, a
veII organised and fIexilIy accessilIe donain-specific knovIedge lase (De Corle, 1996).
Lvervijn el aI. (1993) vhen vriling on lransfer enphasise lhal a rich knovIedge lase -
vhich conlrasls experls and novices perfornances - seens lo le lhe reaI pover lehind
good lhinking vilhin a donain-specific silualion. Specific knovIedge and skiIIs are
necessary lo discover siniIarilies and differences lelveen oId and nev professionaI
silualions. Anolher reIaled danger of lhe praclice of CL is lhal il is narroved dovn lo lhe
acquisilion of lhinking slyIes, alliludes and schenes for prolIen soIving reIaled lo a specific
profession (Wendrich el aI., 2OO5). Scienlific knovIedge shifls lo lhe lackground and is
sulordinale lo vhal is need for soIving reaIislic professionaI prolIens. There seens lo le no
roIe for refIeclion on lhe lheory and lhe reIevance of lheorelicaI insighls for lhe professionaI
acling. Ierrenoud (1999) speaks, in lhis conlexl, aloul crealing a nev proIelarial.
Tvo nore crilicisns on CL lhal are oflen voiced concern lhe lehaviourisl approach and
lhe viev lhal CL is lasicaIIy econonicaIIy driven. Too nuch lehaviourisn in CL Ieads lo
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 11

an excessiveIy reduclionisl, narrov, rigid, alonised approach (MacfarIane & Lonas, 1994).
Il ignores conneclions lelveen lasks and allrilules underIying perfornance (Kerka, 1998).
So, CL shouId incIude nore generic conpelencies (core skiIIs, key conpelencies, essenliaI
skiIIs, foundalion skiIIs). Lnphasis shouId le pul on leaching and Iearning aclivilies and in
assessnenl on lhe ..generaI aliIily lo Iearn and appIy conpelencies in nany differenl
aspecls of a persons aclivilies (IIening, 1993). Irovided lhe acquisilion and deveIopnenl
of conpelence inpIy a groving aliIily lo choose, deveIop and adapl aliIilies lo address nev
silualions in a crealive, innovalive research-Iike vay, CL viII leller respond lo lhe
denands of daiIy praclice lhan knovIedge-driven lradilionaI nodeIs of professionaI
lraining (Divakar, 2OO2). esl seens lhe lroad hoIislic viev (aIso caIIed inlegraled or
reIalionaI). Conpelence is seen as a conpIex conlinalion of knovIedge, alliludes, skiIIs and
vaIues dispIayed in lhe conlexl of lask perfornance. In lhis viev lhere is no lrained
lehaviour lul lhoughlfuI capaliIilies and a deveIopnenlaI process.
In lhe poIilicaI crilicisn CL is seen as a neans lo salisfy enpIoyers needs for a skiIIed
vork force. Wendrich el aI. (2OO5) speak of CL as lhe polenliaIIy pedagogicaI condensalion
of hunan capilaI lheory, cognilivisn/conslruclivisn and neolayIorisn.
Regarding lhe inpIenenlalion of lhe inlended curricuIun il is exlreneIy inporlanl lhal
inlended Iearning oulcones (conpelencies) leaching & Iearning approaches and assessnenl
are aIigned. There are various lhreals lo lhis proper aIignnenl. Universily ruIes and
reguIalions nay prohilil innovalive approaches, for exanpIe, lo assessnenl. Accredilalion
oards nay denand slricl adherence lo a lradilionaI approach. Reforning a curricuIun
lovards a nore conpelence-lased approach inpIies nore aulonony for lhe educalionaI
inslilulion offering lhe educalionaI progrannes. This nay confIicl vilh exisling lodies vho
are in favour of a cenlraIislic approach, for exanpIe lhrough cenlraI exaninalions.
Nev vays of leaching and Iearning, crealing rich Iearning environnenls, designing nev
forns of (aulhenlic) assessnenl aIso require inlensive lraining and coaching of acadenic
slaff and a conlinuousIy appIied noniloring and evaIualion of lhe curricuIun in aclion.
One vay of deaIing vilh lhe pilfaIIs of superficiaI Iearning lhrough CL in Higher
Lducalion has leen a focus on lhe queslion vhal nakes educalion acadenic or vhal
acadenic conpelencies sludenls shouId acquire in higher educalion progrannes. In lhe
conpelence-lased educalion of acadenic professionaIs in lhe NelherIands, incIuding
researchers, lhe acquisilion and deveIopnenl of acadenic conpelencies has a cenlraI roIe in
lhe undergraduale curricuIun. Three lechnicaI universilies and one 'generaI universily
have fornuIaled seven acadenic conpelencies (Meijers el aI., 2OO5). Three are reIaled lo lhe
donain/discipIine and incIude leing conpelenl in one or nore scienlific discipIines (refers
lo exisling knovIedge), and leing conpelenl in doing research and designing (reIaled lo
knev knovIedge and arlefacls). Three acadenic conpelencies reIaled lo 'nelhods and
incIude lhe scienlific approach (specific for lhe naluraI sciences), lasic inleIIecluaI skiIIs and
conpelence in co-operaling and connunicaling. The reIalion vilh lhe conlexl is fornuIaled
in lhe sevenlh conpelency in laking inlo accounl lhe lenporary and socielaI conlexl. See
Iigure 4 for an overviev and lalIe 2 for descriplions of lhe seven conpelencies.
Sone acadenic progrannes, such as lhe acadenic leacher educalion progrannes are fuIIy
lased on lhe fornuIalion of core conpelencies, incIuding lhe underIying allrilules in lerns
of knovIedge, skiIIs and alliludes. In lhe design of Iearning environnenls neaningfuI,
aulhenlic conlexls are essenliaI. As far as leaching and Iearning nelhods are concerned, in
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Technology, Education and Development 12

CL various approaches can le found: prolIen lased Iearning, projecl lased educalion,
case lased Iearning, and duaI Iearning vilh inlernships in lhe vorId of vork.


Iig. 4. Acadenic conpelences. (Iron Meijers el aI., 2OO5)

A universily graduale:
1. ls cometent ln one or more sclentlflc dlscl|lnes
A universily graduale is faniIiar vilh exisling scienlific knovIedge, and has lhe conpelence
lo increase and deveIop lhis lhrough sludy.
2. ls cometent ln dolng research
A universily graduale has lhe conpelence lo acquire nev scienlific knovIedge lhrough
research. Ior lhis purpose, research neans: lhe deveIopnenl of nev knovIedge and nev
insighls in a purposefuI and nelhodicaI vay.
3. ls cometent ln deslgnlng
As veII as carrying oul research, nany universily graduales viII aIso design. Designing is a
synlhelic aclivily ained al lhe reaIisalion of nev or nodified arlefacls or syslens vilh lhe
inlenlion of crealing vaIue in accordance vilh predefined requirenenls and desires (e.g.
noliIily, heaIlh).
4. has a sclentlflc aroach
A universily graduale has a syslenalic approach characlerised lhe deveIopnenl and use of
lheories, nodeIs and coherenl inlerprelalions, has a crilicaI allilude, and has insighl inlo lhe
nalure of science and lechnoIogy.
5. ossesses baslc lnte||ectua| skl||s
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 13

A universily graduale is conpelenl in reasoning, refIecling, and forning a judgnenl. These
are skiIIs vhich are Iearned or sharpened in lhe conlexl of a discipIine, and vhich are
genericaIIy appIicalIe fron lhen on.
6. ls cometent ln co-oeratlng and communlcatlng
A universily graduale has lhe conpelence of leing alIe lo vork vilh and for olhers. This
requires nol onIy adequale inleraclion, a sense of responsiliIily, and Ieadership, lul aIso
good connunicalion vilh coIIeagues and non-coIIeagues. He or she is aIso alIe lo
parlicipale in a scienlific or pulIic delale.
7. takes account of the temora| and the socla| context
Science and lechnoIogy are nol isoIaled, and aIvays have a lenporaI and sociaI conlexl.
eIiefs and nelhods have lheir origins, decisions have sociaI consequences in line. A
universily graduale is avare of lhis, and has lhe conpelence lo inlegrale lhese insighls inlo
his or her scienlific vork.
TalIe 2. Descriplions of seven acadenic conpelencies

Sludenls are, lhrough a syslen of guidance, coaching and fornalive assessnenl,
increasingIy direcling lheir ovn Iearning process. The chaIIenge for lhe Ieclurers is lo
inlegrale lhe deveIopnenl of nela-cognilion of sludenls in lheir educalionaI aclivilies.
Sludenls shouId, lhrough refIeclion, deveIop seIf-knovIedge and insighl in lheir ovn
Iearning processes.
The leacher in conpelence-lased (higher) educalion is nore lhe 'guide on lhe side lhan
'sage on lhe slage. Aparl fron lhis chaIIenge and lhe inporlanl queslion of designing
assessnenl praclices in CL leachers viII aIso have lo ansver lhe foIIoving lvo queslions
(Van AIeleek & Kouvenhoven, 2OO6):
x Hov can leachers Iearn lo conslrucl appIicalion orienled Iearning lasks or seIecl lhen
fron conlexls lhal are aulhenlic and neaningfuI lo sludenls`
x Hov can leachers Iearn lo shape 'sleering of seIf-sleering`

5. Competence-based (higher) education in Africa, some exampIes

The reshaping of higher educalion vilh a nore professionaI orienlalion is nol a
phenonenon reslricled lo Weslern universilies. There is nol nuch Iileralure yel on
conpelence-lased higher educalion in 'deveIoping counlries (Musonda 1999). Hovever,
lhere are design and deveIopnenl projecls going on in various counlries, oflen in lhe
conlexl of inlernalionaI cooperalion progrannes. MuIder (2OO8) slaled in ansver on lhe
queslion vhal pronise conpelence-lased educalion has for Africa: In ny opinion lhe
sane as in olher counlries: a nore reIevanl curricuIun. Craduales vho are leller prepared.
IrofessionaIs vho are adding nore vaIue lo deveIopnenl. And universily, coIIege and
lraining prograns vhich are nore salisfying for sludenls, leachers and polenliaI
enpIoyers. The aulhor of lhis chapler has leen invoIved in a Mozanlique projecl and is
sliII invoIved in lhe Chana projecl as educalion consuIlanl. In lolh cases curricuIun
deveIopnenl projecls vere underlaken vilh lhe ain lo design and deveIop conpelence-
lased Maslers progrannes.
The Lduardo MondIane Universily (ULM) in Mapulo, Mozanlique, decided in 1999 lo
reopen lhe facuIly of Lducalion lhal had leen cIosed for 14 years. An inslaIIalion
connission gol lhe assignnenl lo coordinale lhe process and lo design and deveIop a
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Technology, Education and Development 14

curricuIun for one graduale and lhree posl-graduale progrannes. This projecl vas
acconpanied ly experls fron lhree Dulch universilies in lhe conlexl of Dulch deveIopnenl
aid lo higher educalion inslilulions. Al lhe sane line a universily-vide curricuIun revision
process had slarled vilh lhe ain lo nake lhe curricuIa nore reIevanl lo lhe Mozanlican
sociely, a sign of lhe decreasing gap lelveen generaI (acadenic) and vocalionaI educalion.
The inslaIIalion connission for lhe nev educalion facuIly decided lo enlark on lhe road
lovard conpelence-lased educalion in lhe facuIly. The aulhor of lhis arlicIe vorked lhen al
ULM and lecane a nenler of lhe inslaIIalion connission. ecause he decided lo slarl al
lhe sane line a research projecl on lhe curricuIun deveIopnenl process (Kouvenhoven,
2OO3), he lecane lhe designer-researcher in lhe projecl. His design aclivilies, vilh inpul
fron a curricuIun experl of lhe Dulch Tvenle Universily and fron various slakehoIders Ied
lo lhe fornuIalion of a nunler of curricuIun aspecls or eIenenls of an inlended (ideaI)
conpelence-lased curricuIun.
The furlher deveIopnenl lovards a fornaI curricuIun (Iaid dovn in a curricuIun
docunenl) slarled vilh a needs assessnenl, adninislered lo represenlalives of reIevanl
professionaI connunilies in Mozanlique. The four nain queslions vere:
x Are lhe oplions chosen for lhe educalionaI progrannes (graduale progranne in
psychoIogy, posl-graduale progrannes in aduIl educalion, science & nalhenalics
educalion, and curricuIun & inslruclion deveIopnenl) Iegilinised ly lhe professionaI
connunilies` This queslion received a posilive ansver.
x Whal professionaI profiIes can le descriled for lhe progrannes` The resuIling profiIes
forned lhe lasis for lhe fornuIalion of graduale profiIes.
x Whal (generic) conpelencies shouId le deveIoped in lhe educalionaI progrannes`
x Whal inpul couId lhe professionaI connunilies give lo nelhodoIogicaI and IogislicaI
aspecls of lhe curricuIun` y and Iarge lhe conpelence-lased approach vas endorsed
ly lhe respondenls.
The design and deveIopnenl process Ied lo a curricuIun docunenl and lhe descriplion of
sone courses of lhe connon core progranne for lhe lhree posl-graduale progrannes. The
progrannes vouId have a duralion of lvo years, 8O veeks. The connon core progranne
vouId lake 3O veeks, foIIoved ly a speciaIisalion phase of 2O veeks. The renaining 3O
veeks vouId le used for lhe research projecl, Ieading lo Maslers lilIe.
The designer-researcher (aulhor) and four exlernaI curricuIun experls evaIualed lhe fornaI
curricuIun on conpelence-lased characlerislics. Il vas concIuded lhal lhe graduale profiIes
and descriplions of donain-specific and generic conpelencies nalched lhe oulcones of lhe
needs assessnenl. The curricuIun docunenl conlained guideIines for lhe deveIopnenl of
conpelence-lased Iearning environnenls and reconnendalions for fornalive assessnenl
lhrough a sludenl porlfoIio. Hovever, il vas nol aIvays cIear hov lhe (discipIinary) conlenl
reIaled lo lhe graduale profiIes. Inlegralion of conlenl, especiaIIy in lhe connon core
progranne vas nol visilIe. Anolher concern vas lhal lhe inlegralion of generic
conpelencies inlo lhe various courses vas nol sufficienlIy vorked oul. Il vas aIso olserved
lhal nore sludy and refIeclion vas needed on lhe roIe of (discipIinary) knovIedge in
conpelence-lased progrannes for higher educalion as veII as lhe inporlance of
inslilulionaIised conlacls vilh professionaI praclice in lhe Mozanlican conlexl.
A reconslruclion and anaIysis of lhe earIy inpIenenlalion of lhe connon core of lhe
Maslers progranne shoved a pronising slarl of nosl courses in lhe progranne fron a
conpelence-lased perspeclive. The inpul of foreign Ieclurers neanl lhal nol aIvays
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 15

conpelence-lased Iearning environnenls vere crealed. Ior exanpIe, a slralegy lo increase
lhe aulonony of sludenls vas Iacking. The IocaI slaff vas sliII nol capalIe lo refIecl on lheir
educalionaI praclices and lo guide and coach sludenls lovards seIf-refIeclion and seIf-
direclion. Hovever, resuIls of inlervievs vilh sludenls and course evaIualions shov lhal
sludenls indicaled lhe inpacl of lhe progranne on lheir vork (nosl sludenls vere parl-
line) and lheir furlher deveIopnenl of generic conpelencies. Sludenls aIso shoved a sound
conprehension of lhe concepls of conpelence and conpelence-lased educalion. A fev
years afler lhe inpIenenlalion of lhe conpelence-lased curricuIa, furlher noniloring vas
underlaken in lhe area of generic conpelencies lhrough a fornalive evaIualion exercise
(Van der Linden & Mendona, 2OO6).
In Chana, lhe Inslilule for LducalionaI Adninislralion and IIanning (ILIA) al lhe
Universily of Cape Coasl is presenlIy assisled in lhe design and deveIopnenl of a nev
Maslers progranne in Managenenl in Terliary Lducalion. The need vas feIl for a nore
praclice-orienled progranne vhiIe, al lhe sane line, lhe nalure of lhe MIhiI progranne
vouId require a heavy acadenic (research) inpul.
In an iniliaI neeling lelveen lhe aulhor of lhis paper and slaff of ILIA lhe decision vas
laken lo design and deveIop a conpelence-lased progranne vilh aII (nine) slaff of lhe
inslilule. This served as veII lhe purpose of equipping lhe ILIA slaff vilh knovIedge and
skiIIs in lhe area of curricuIun deveIopnenl. Nine vorkshops have leen heId in vhich
various aspecls of curricuIun and course deveIopnenl, and conpelence-lased educalion
vere presenled and appIied lo eIenenls of lhe nev curricuIun. Various exanpIes of
conpelence-lased nanagenenl educalion progrannes served as an iIIuslralion of possilIe
roules lo lake. In paraIIeI vilh lhe vorkshops lhe curricuIun deveIopnenl process slarled
aIong lhe alove nenlioned RoyaI lrack, indicaled ly lhe foIIoving sleps:
x IornuIalion of a professionaI profiIe. Il vas decided lo concenlrale firsl on a
progranne for niddIe-nanagers of IoIylechnics (Deans and Heads of Deparlnenl). A
Iisl vas conposed of 16 key lasks, suldivided inlo a lolaI of 74 sul-lasks. This Iisl vas
sulnilled for vaIidalion lo Heads of Deparlnenl of lhe len IoIylechnics in Chana. As a
resuIl sone lasks vere rearranged and refornuIaled. TalIe 3, leIov gives lhe 16 key
lasks.
x IornuIalion of graduale profiIe. The Iisl of 16 core conpelencies reIaled lo lhe 16 key
lasks vas conpressed lo a graduale profiIe vilh 9 core conpelencies. These core
conpelencies couId le seen as lhe inlend Iearning oulcones of lhe Maslers progranne
and descrile lhe conpelence of a graduale as an acadenicaIIy acling head of
Deparlnenl in a IoIylechnic vilh a slrong research allilude lovards her/his
professionaI lehaviour. ecause of lhe inporlance of research lhe aliIily lo carry oul
and lo pronole research vas added as a lenlh core conpelency. The graduale profiIe is
given in TalIe 4.
x LIaloraling conpelency descriplions. The len core conpelencies vere eIaloraled in
lerns of a descriplion of lhe conpelency, oulcones of lhe lehaviour lhal requires lhe
conpelency, and sone characlerislic silualions in vhich lhe conpelency vouId le
used. An exanpIe is given leIov, in TalIe 5, for lhe firsl core conpelency in lhe
graduale profiIe.


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Technology, Education and Development 16


EducatInna! LcadcrshIp
1. Designing, deveIoping and inpIenenling lhe curricuIun
2. DeveIoping, conducling and disseninaling research
3. Iroviding connunily and oulreach services
4. LslalIishing and nainlaining acadenic quaIily
OrganIsatInna! LcadcrshIp
5. Managing hunan resources (acadenic and non-acadenic)
6. Managing infornalion and connunicalion
7. Managing finances
8. Managing physicaI resources
AdmInIstratIvc LcadcrshIp
9.Inlerpreling and inpIenenling inslilulionaI poIicies, ruIes and reguIalions
1O. IIanning and inpIenenling deparlnenlaI/facuIly deveIopnenl
11. Organising and coordinaling deparlnenlaI progrannes
12. Linking deparlnenl vilh olher IeveIs and divisions vilhin lhe inslilulion
13. Linking lhe deparlnenl vilh lhe connunily and exlernaI inslilulions and
agencies
5upcrvIsnry LcadcrshIp
14. Moniloring slaff and sludenl aclivilies
15. LvaIualing slaff and sludenl perfornance
16. Mainlaining slaff and sludenl discipIine

TalIe 3. Key lasks of Heads of Deparlnenl in IoIylechnics

Tcn cnrc cnmpctcncIcs fnr HnDs
1. CurricuIun deveIopnenl and inpIenenlalion
2. Iroviding connunily and oulreach services
3. IIanning and inpIenenling deparlnenlaI/facuIly deveIopnenl
4. Managing Hunan Resources
5. Managing records
6. Managing IhysicaI Resources
7. Moniloring slaff and sludenl aclivilies
8. LvaIualing and supervising slaff and sludenl perfornance
9. Mainlaining sludenl and slaff discipIine
1O. Research
TalIe 4. Craduale profiIe for lhe Maslers progranne in Managenenl and Leadership in
Terliary Lducalion

x A nexl slep invoIved lhe fornuIalion of conpelence conponenls lo le addressed ly lhe
nev curricuIun. KnovIedge and skiIIs Iinked lo core conpelencies vere Iisled.
Alliludes vere conlined vilh personaI lrails and Iisled for aII key conpelencies
logelher. The queslion vhal lrails and nolives does a HoD need lo have in order lo le a
conpelenl professionaI is inporlanl, lecause il asks lo discuss vhelher an educalionaI
Ieader shouId have a cerlain personaIily. As slaled lefore in lhis chapler
required/conpelenl/up-lo-slandard lehaviour resuIls fron lhe use of necessary
conpelencies, and is co-direcled ly personaI quaIilies.

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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 17

1. CurrIcu!um dcvc!npmcnt and Imp!cmcntatInn cnmpctcncy
DcscrIptInn
HoDs are conpelenl in curricuIun deveIopnenl and inpIenenlalion vhen lhey are alIe lo
design and deveIop a curricuIun, incIuding a descriplion of ralionaIe and nission,
ains and oljeclives, conlenl, Iearning aclivilies, roIe of leacher, naleriaIs and resources,
grouping, Iocalion, line , assessnenl,
vrile a projecl pIan for lhe design and deveIopnenl of a curricuIun (incIuding
lining and ludgel),
organise lry-ouls of a nev curricuIun, incIuding lraining of leachers, and refine,
lased on lhorough evaIualion, and
inpIenenl lhe curricuIun (adopl and disseninale il lo a largel group).
Outcnmcs nf thc bchavInur that rcquIrcs thc cnmpctcncy
They achieve vilh lhis conpelency a curricuIun lhal is reIevanl lo lhe (ever changing)
needs of sociely and lhe Iearners.
CharactcrIstIc sItuatInns
When lhere is a change in nalionaI phiIosophy/orienlalion (sociaI, poIilicaI,
econonic, lechnoIogicaI gap).
When lhere is a conlenporary chaIIenge (prolIen) confronling lhe nalion
(disaslers, epidenic).
An educalionaI gap.
TalIe 5. A (core) conpelency descriplion or conpelency slalenenl

x The knovIedge ilens lhal vere fornuIaled lased on lhe len core conpelencies couId
le condensed lo 6 lhenes. These lhenes couId lhen again le reIaled lo key
conpelencies as shovn in TalIe 6.

Thcmcs Cnrc cnmpctcncIcs
InslruclionaI Ieadership x CurricuIun deveIopnenl and
inpIenenlalion
Leadership in educalionaI
inslilulions
x IIanning and inpIenenling
deparlnenlaI/facuIly deveIopnenl
5upcrvIsnry !cadcrshIp x Eva!uatIng and supcrvIsIng staff and
studcnt pcrfnrmancc
x MaIntaInIng studcnt and staff dIscIp!Inc
x MnnItnrIng staff and studcnt actIvItIcs
Leadership and nanagenenl in
exlranuraI reIalions
x Iroviding connunily and oulreach services
Adninislralion nanagenenl &
Ieadership
x Managing Hunan Resources
x Managing Records
x Managing IhysicaI Resources
Leadership in research x Research
TalIe 6. Thenes and core conpelencies

x Ceneric skiIIs vere grouped inlo lhe foIIoving generic conpelencies:
IrolIen soIving skiIIs
Connunicalion
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Technology, Education and Development 18

ICT skiIIs
Hunan reIalions (rephrased lo InlerpersonaI skiIIs)
Leadership skiIIs:
CrilicaI/anaIylicaI lhinking
Learning lo Iearn (nela-cognilive skiII)
SeIf-refIeclion (nela-cognilive skiII)
x In lhe nexl slep lhe curricuIun slruclure vas designed and furlher shaped vilh
courses. Il vas decided lo slarl vilh a parl-line progranne, consisling of 6 seneslers.
Lach of lhe firsl lhree seneslers has lvo lIocks. In a lIock lvo courses are given in a
face-lo-face period of four veeks, foIIoved ly four veeks vhere sludenls appIy
knovIedge, praclice skiIIs and vork furlher on lheir conpelence deveIopnenl. So,
lhere viII le in lolaI 12 courses, given in 6 lIocks in 3 seneslers. The renaining
seneslers are used for lhe research projecl, Ieading lo lhe Maslers lhesis.
x Aparl fron lhe 12 courses lvo Iearning Iines have leen designed, running
lhroughoul lhe firsl lhree seneslers. They are deaIing vilh research and vilh personaI
deveIopnenl. In generaI 3O hours in a lIock viII le devoled lo course vork and 1O
hours lo aclivilies in lhe Iearning Iines.
x CuideIines for assessnenl and for crealing rich Iearning environnenls have leen
fornuIaled. ILIA slaff has leen engaged in furlher deveIoping lhe courses and
producing course oulIines.
Il shouId le noled lhal lhe aulhor is in lhis projecl nol acling as designer or designer-
researcher as vas lhe case in lhe Mozanlique projecl. AIlhough oulcones of lhe design and
deveIopnenl process are vaIidaled ly slakehoIders and exlernaI experls il is in firsl inslance
lhe ILIA slaff ilseIf lhal delernines vhal forn and conlenl lhe nev curricuIun viII have. Il
guaranlees ovnership ly lhe slaff couId reduce lhe dislance lelveen inlended and enacled
curricuIun.
The aulhor of lhis chapler is invoIved as veII in lhe design and deveIopnenl of Maslers
progrannes in Llhiopia and Vielnan. In lhese cases lhe conpelence-lased approach has
leen inlroduced al a Ialer slage, vhen lhe conlenl of courses had leen eslalIished aIready.
AIlhough lhe Llhiopian and Vielnanese curricuIun deveIopers and courses designers feIl
heIped parlicuIarIy in a concepluaI sense ly lhe conpelence-lased approach - in lhe end
lhey lolh vanl nore praclice-orienled progrannes - il proves nuch nore difficuIl lo
deveIop inlernaIIy consislenl progrannes. The experiences fron Mozanlique and Chana
shov lhal foIIoving lhe RoyaI Track in one or anolher vay nakes il easier lo end up vilh
progrannes lhal are acadenicaIIy sound and vaIualIe for lhe professionaI praclice.

6. ConcIusion

Iresenl sociely is characlerised ly ils groving conpIexily, dynanics and knovIedge inlensily.
This requires professionaIs vho are alIe lo face confidenlIy and experlIy nev silualions and
prolIens. In case of acadenic professionaIs lhey shouId possess, nexl lo a lroad and profound
donain-specific knovIedge and skiIIs, lhe capaliIily lo acquire expediliousIy knovIedge and
knov-hov vhere and vhen needed. Learning in a professionaI conlexl has, lherefore, lecone
nore inporlanl and generaI acadenic educalion is leconing nore professionaI or
professionaIIy orienled. In lhis perspeclive conpelence-lased educalion couId le an
appropriale choice. In such educalion sludenls Iearn lo acl conpelenlIy in an
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Competence-based curriculum development in Higher Education: a globalised concept? 19

acadenic/scienlific vay as cilizen of a nodern sociely (Iearning for Iife), in professionaI
silualions (Iearning for a profession), on lhe Ialour narkel (Iearning for a career) and in lhe
ovn Iearning processes (Iearning lo Iearn). This requires fundanenlaI changes in curricuIun,
incIuding lhe roIes of sludenls and leachers. DeveIopnenls in higher educalion in
Mozanlique and Chana, and nany nore counlries in lhe Soulhern henisphere, shov lhal in
a gIolaIised conlexl prolIens and chaIIenges in educalion are leconing nore and nore
siniIar. InlernalionaI cooperalion nay conlrilule lo lhe exchange of experiences and
discussion of inporlanl issues vilh respecl lo conpelence-lased educalion. Sone lhese issues
concern lhe invoIvenenl of sludenls and leachers in lhe design and deveIopnenl of
conpelence-lased curricuIa, hov lo keep lhen nolivaled in Iong-lern processes of curricuIar
change, and, nosl of aII, lhe queslion of lhe (acadenic) knovIedge lase of conpelencies.

7. References

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Technology, Education and Development 22

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perspeclives on conlenl, forn and ovnershipj, W. VeugeIers & R. osnan (Lds.),
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www.intechopen.com
Technology Education and Development
Edited by Aleksandar Lazinica and Carlos Calafate
ISBN 978-953-307-007-0
Hard cover, 528 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 01, October, 2009
Published in print edition October, 2009
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Wim Kouwenhoven (2009). Competence-based Curriculum Development in Higher Education: a Globalised
Concept?, Technology Education and Development, Aleksandar Lazinica and Carlos Calafate (Ed.), ISBN:
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development/competence-based-curriculum-development-in-higher-education-a-globalised-concept-
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