iii

ANALYSIS OF BURIED OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE CHANNEL USING FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD

MOHD MUZAFAR BIN ISMAIL

This thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering (Telecommunication)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

April 2008

Special dedicated to Apple of my eyes; my beloved parents, brothers and sister. all my friends, teachers and lectures for their support and encouragement

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillah.

Praise to Allah S.WT The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful, there is no power no strength save in Allah, The Highest and The Greatest, whose blessing and guidance have helped me through the process of completing this project. Peace and blessing of Allah be upon our prophet Muhammad S.A.W who has given light to mankind.

My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abu Sahmah Mohd Supaat for all the knowledge, motivation and support that he had given me in completing this thesis. Lots of love from deepest of my heart goes to my family especially my parents whom always given me their love and warm support.

I sincerely and almost thanks all of my teachers, lecturers and all of my friends for helping directly or indirectly.

May Allah bless all of you. Ameen Thank you very much.

vii

ABSTRACT

Optical waveguides have been known as basic structure in integrated optics. Result of the optical waveguide an analysis is very useful before fabrication process. Therefore, ongoing development in the area of optoelectronic design have required accurate, reliable and powerful tools for the analysis of its constitute wave guiding elements as well as for entire circuits. This project focuses on modeling optical waveguide (buried channel) which is the main component of optical devices. Modeling is a very crucial process in designing optical devices because it can avoid many problems in early stage and hence help the designer to undertake necessary action. In this project, optical propagation characteristic of straight waveguide on light intensity distribution within the structures has been investigated at 1.55 micrometer window. The purpose of the simulation is to obtain the electric field profile and effective refractive index, neff of the waveguide that varies according to input parameters such as dimension of waveguide structure, refractive index of material and operated wavelength. The analysis has been analyzed using a numerical method based on finite difference approach and be calculated with efficiently using on the personal computer. Graphic user interface (GUI) had been applied in developing this simulation program using MatlabR2006a. The factors that contribute to the accuracy of simulation results were obtained and these results are agreeable with theory.

viii

ABSTRAK

Pandu gelombang optik telah lama dikenali sebagai struktur asas dalam struktur optik bersepadu. Keputusan analisis pandu gelombang ini amat berguna bagi aplikasi sebelum memulakan proses fabrikasi. Oleh itu perkembangan yang berterusan dalam bidang optoelektronik memerlukan perisian yang tepat dan boleh dipercayai bagi membuat analisis pandu gelombang dan litar keseluruhan. Projek ini difokuskan kepada pemodelan pandu gelombang (saluran tertanam) yang merupakan komponen utama dalam peranti optik. Permodelan adalah sangat penting didalam proses merekacipta peranti optik kerana ia dapat mengelakkan banyak masalah pada peringkat awal dan ini dapat membantu pereka untuk mengambil tindakan yang sepatutnya. Dalam projek ini, ciri taburan cahaya perambatan optik yang melalui struktur pada tingkap panjang gelombang 1.55 micrometer dalam perambatan lurus dikaji. Tujuan simulasi adalah untuk mendapatkan profil medan elektrik dan indeks biasan berkesan, neff pada pandu gelombang yang berubah mengikut parameter masukan seperti ukuran struktur, indek biasan bahan dan panjang gelombang dalam projek ini. Analisis pengiraan di lakukan melalui penghampiran pembezaan terhingga permodelan dalam pendekatan kaedah berangka yang mana boleh dikira secara berkesan dengan menggunakan komputer peribadi. Pengantaramuka grafik pengguna telah diaplikasikan dalam pembangunan program simulasi ini dengan menggunakan perisian Matlab R2000a. Faktor-faktor yang menentukan ketepatan hasil simulasi juga diperoleh dan dipersetujui dengan teori.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF APPENDICES

ii v vi vii viii ix v xiii xvi xviii

INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Introduction Objectives Scope of the work Problem Statement Motivation of the work Methodology Structure of Thesis 1 2 2 3 4 4 7

x 2 OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Background Buried Optical waveguide Type of waveguides 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2-D Optical Waveguides 3-D Optical waveguides 8 8 9 11 11 13 14 15 16

Optical waveguide application 2.5.1 Fabrication process

2.6

Optical waveguide analysis techniques 2.6.1 Analytical approximation solutions for Optical waveguide 2.6.2 Numerical solutions for optical waveguides

17

18

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 3.1 3.2 3.3 Overview of numerical method Finite Difference Methods Numerical methods solve Maxwells Equation exactly 24 19 20

MATLAB AND GUI DEVELOPMENT 4.1 Introduction of MATLAB software 4.1.1 4.2 Basic MATLAB features 29 29 33 33 34 34

Basic Graphical User Interface (GUI) 4.2.1 4.2.2 User of guide Starting GUIDE

4.3

My GUI concept

xi 5 RESULT, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Result Process 5.1.1 First stage 5.1.2 Second stage 5.2 Calculation result and Buried optical waveguide figure presentation 5.3 Effective index, neff and normalized propagation constant, b analysis 5.4 5.5 Comparison with previous analysis Discussion 66 68 69 55 53 53 55

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6.1 6.2 Conclusion Recommendation 72 73

REFERENCES

74

APPENDIX A: Source code for Buried Waveguide modeling by Using MATLAB 76

xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO

TITLE

PAGE

1.1

Differentiation before software developed and after software developed 3 54 54 54 66

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Categories of input Processing data Final output 9 samples of data from GUI calculation

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO. 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

TITLE Overview project flow Gantt Chart of PSM 1 Gantt Chart of PSM 2 Buried optical waveguide Buried waveguide for integrated circuitry Three layer dielectric waveguide 2-D optical buried waveguide channel Plane of symmetry The cross-sectional profile of the air-clad buried waveguide 3-D buried waveguide channel NASAs Glenn research centre (fabrication process) Typical finite difference mesh Locting node (a) on centre (b) on mesh point The flow chart show how the MATLAB work The flow chart of programming process Overview plan of My GUI Main page of My GUI Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (3 x 3) Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44),n cladding (3.34) and n air (1)

PAGE 4 5 6 10 10 12 12 12 13 13 15 21 21 31 32 35 36 37 37

4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

Optical Normalized Power button - 0.7010 E-field profile button Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (5 x 5) Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44),n cladding (3.34) and n air (1)

38 38 39 39

xiv 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Optical Normalized Power button - 0.6500 E-field profile button Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (7 x 7) Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44),n cladding (3.34) and n air (1) 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 Optical Normalized Power button - 0.6100 E-field profile button Calculation part in My GUI Analysis section in My GUI neff graph (left) and b Graph (right) Main page of application in My GUI Optical concept button Symmetry waveguide and ray transmission button Mathematical Equation button Material application button Figure 1 (left) and figure 2 (right) from material application button 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 5.1 5.2 Main pages of optical devices application button APD Preamplifier application button Photo diode application button Optical fiber application button Fiber Spec Corning application button Laser diode application button Fabrication Process button Buried optical waveguide structure plan view (a) neff and b at waveguide (3 x 3) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.3 (a) neff and b at waveguide (3.5 x 3.5) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.4 (a) neff and b at waveguide (4 x 4) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.5 (a) neff and b at waveguide (4.5 x 4.5) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 48 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 56 57 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 42 42 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 48 40 40 41 41

xv 5.6 (a) neff and b at waveguide (5 x 5) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.7 (a) neff and b at waveguide (5.5 x 5.5) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.8 (a) neff and b at waveguide (6 x 6) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.9 (a) neff and b at waveguide (6.5 x 6.5) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.10 (a) neff and b at waveguide (7 x 7) calculation result (b) Figure of refractive index, E-field and E-field contour 5.11 (a) Effective Index, neff graph (b) Normalized propagation constant,b graph 5.12 Dispersion characteristic for the lowest four modes of an anisotropic rectangular dielectric waveguide 69 61 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 65 67 67

xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

b c B d div D E F H H j J k0 l m M n ng ns nc NA

Normalized propagation constant Speed of light; Phase velocity [m/s] Magnetic flux-density complex amplitude [Wb/m2] Differential Divergence Electric flux density [C/m2] Electric field [V/m] Force [kgms-2] Magnetic-field complex amplitude [A/m] Magnetic field [A/m] (-1)1/2 integer Electric current density [A/m2] Free space propagation constant [rad/m] length [m] number of modes Magnetization density [A/m] Refractive index Refractive index of guiding layer Refractive index of substrate layer Refractive index of cladding layer Numerical Aperture Electric polarization density [C/m2] Electric charge [C] Time [s] Transverse electric wave Transverse magnetic wave Transverse electromagnetic wave

Q T TE TM

TEM -

xvii

Total internal reflection phase shift [rad] Voltage [V] Propagation constant [rad/m] Electric permittivity of medium [F/m] Electric permittivity of a free space [F/m] Relative dielectric constant of the material[F/m] Angle Critical angle Wavelength [m] Free space wavelength [m] Magnetic permeability [H/m] Magnetic permeability of free space [H/m] Angle in a cylindrical coordinate system Angular frequency [rad/s] Partial differential Gradient operator Divergence operator Curl operator Laplacian operator

0 r c 0 0
. x 2

xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

Source code for Buried waveguide modeling by using MATLAB

76

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

The use of optical signals as a means for carrier in telecommunications is evident since the invention of laser in 1960 [2]. It was in 1969, Miller introduced the term Integrated Optics involves the realization of the optical and electro optic elements which may be integrated in the large numbers on one chip means of the same processing techniques used to fabricated integrated electronic circuits [7]. Demand for integrated optic circuits comes from the side of the light wave communication system which required in addition to laser source, components such as optical switches, modulators and power splitters.

Material science and fabrication technology have advanced in recent years at an explosive rate, creating a strong interest in the possibility of extending and replacing several functions traditionally performed by electronics with optical devices. Day by day, new optical devices are being design, investigated and demonstrated in research laboratories throughout the world .This development, combined with the rapidly increasing demand for more sophiscated and widespread telecommunication services, has put very strong pressure on the continuous development of accurate and efficient methods for the analysis of the devices and systems involved.

2 Dielectric waveguide are fundamental components of devices and systems both in microwave and optics, and as such, a full understanding of how electromagnetic waves propagate in complicated waveguide structures is essential. While in microwaves dielectric waveguides constitute only one of the types of waveguide in use, in optics they are practically the only form of waveguide structure. They play an essential role in optoelectronics, being in the form of optical fibers, fiber lasers and amplifies or in integrated optics where most devices are made from optical waveguides of different configurations properties.

Buried optical waveguide channel are higher-index guiding layers are selectively formed near the substrate surface by metal in diffusion, ion exchange, ion implementation, and light/electron-beam irradiation. The buried type of 3-D waveguide has the advantages that the propagation loss is typically lower than 1db/cm with a smooth guide surface and that planar electrodes are easily placed on the waveguide to achieve light modulation and switching. The buried 3-D waveguide is thus the most suitable for optical waveguide devices.

1.2

Objectives

The objective of this project is to develop simulation software for buried waveguide structure. It also to analyst buried waveguide channel using finite difference method and to aim for educational study on computer analysis and design.

1.3

Scope of the work

Scope of this project begins with: i) Understanding the optical waveguide concept (buried optical waveguide). ii) Understanding the finite difference method as a chosen method for analyzing the waveguide. iii) Understanding the MATLAB and GUI (graphical user interface) software as a tool to build the simulation program and to get the accurate result.

3 1.4 Problem Statement

The propagations characteristic of optical waveguides can be calculated by solving Maxwells equation, but this is difficult task and time consuming also involve tedious or rigorous mathematically. Furthermore, Mathematical analysis not many software available for characterization of optical waveguide and expensive software available and also needs high speed computer such as mainframe computer. In this project, numerical solution, finite difference method using computer (matlab software) provide the solutions to overcome the problems and give advantages over analytical approximation solutions. Table 1.1 shows the differentiation analysis of optical waveguide between before software analysis and after software analysis.

Table 1.1: Differentiation before software developed and after software developed

Before software developed Formulation Fundamental briefly Solution laws

After software developed Formulation

explained Exposition of relationship of problem to fundamental laws Solution

Elaborate an often complicated Easy-to-use computer method method to make problem tractable Interpretation Interpretation

In-depth analysis limited by time- Ease of calculation allows holistic consuming solution thought and intuition to develop; system sensitivity behavior can be studied

4 1.5 Motivation of the Work

The analysis where this software simulation hopefully can be used in the laboratory or classroom as a friendly user tool. Besides that, this analysis given accurate, fast, effective, low cost and can be used using personal computer. The mathematical is formulated so that with give accurate results but not involves tedious or rigorous mathematical equation.

1.6

Methodology

Implementation and works of the project are summarized into the flow chart as shown in Figure 1.1. Gantt charts as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3 show the detail of the works of the project that had been implemented in the first and second semester.

Research an optical waveguide generally and buried optical waveguide specifically

Study the mathematical equation with finite difference method solution (FDM) to get parameter and characteristic for optical waveguide analysis.

MATLAB programming and GUI development

Result and analysis

Thesis writting

Figure 1.1: Overview Project Flow

5 n o
1 2 3

ACTIVITY

w w w 1 2 3

w 4

W w 5 6

w w w 7 8 9

w 1 0

w 1 1

w 1 2

w 1 3

w 1 4

w 1 5

Meeting with supervisor Thesis title confirmation Making proposalobjective Making proposalMethodology & Approaches Making proposal Expected Result Complete and submit PSM11 form Create The Gantt Chart Study optical waveguide & buried waveguide Study Maxwell equation and finite difference method Study Matlab simulation and GUI Preparation for PSM 1 seminar PSM 1 seminar Writing final report of PSM1 Submit final report PSM 1

7 8

10

11

12

13

14

Figure 1.2: Gantt chart PSM 1

6
N O

ACTIVITY

W W W W W W W W W W 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

W 1 1

W 1 2

W 1 3

W 1 4

W 1 5

1 2

Meeting with supervisor Thesis writingchapter1 (introduction) Thesis writingchapter2 (literature review) Thesis writingchapter3 (mathematical analysis) Submit the progress project form2-0 Run MATLAB simulation and build GUI Result and analysis

5 6

7 8

Thesis Writingchapter4 (MATLAB and GUI development) Thesis writingchapter5 (result and analysis) Thesis writingchapter6 (conclusion and recommendation) Submit a brief project formPSM21 PSM2 TOP Exhibition ( seminar and demo) Final check and submit final draft Submit the hardcopy and the softcopy

10

11

12

13

14

Figure 1.3: Gantt Chart for PSM 2

7 1.7 Structure of thesis

This thesis consists of six chapters including this introduction follow the university thesis standard. In second chapter present overview of an optical waveguide structure. Dielectric waveguides are the structures that confine and guide the light in the guided-wave devices and circuits of the integrated optic in a region of higher effective index that surrounding media. Buried structure waveguide, which are integrated optical component and as well as methods for analyzing the electromagnetic fields. The analytical methods for describing propagation along waveguides using the single modes are presented.

Analysis of optical waveguide will be present at chapter three. Based on the Maxwell equations, a set of scalar wave equations governing the propagation of Efield and H-field in the straight waveguides are derived. The propagation characteristic of buried waveguide with straight and bending structure have been investigated at wavelength of 1.55 micrometer. Then, an optical waveguides have been analyzed using the numerical method based on finite difference approach.

Meanwhile the chapter 4 focused on propagation characteristic and the field of the guided modes can be calculated very efficiently on a personal computer with modest computational time. Three dimensional (3D) figure plot and contour profile field in waveguide using MATLAB software will be determine as result analysis. Beside that chapter 5 present on the analysis of the result and discussion which analysis the performance in terms of the waveguide modes and its confinement depends on parameters that include dimension on the core waveguide and relationship between core and the cladding refractive index will be an optimized. Finally, the main contributions are summarized in chapter six to conclude this thesis.

CHAPTER 2

OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE

2.1

Introduction

The increasing complexity of modern devices in optics rules out accurate analytical treatment and so it has maintained a critical demand for accurate and efficient computer modeling. Computer modeling techniques that allow an accurate simulation of the behavior of real devices have become increasingly more common and popular with the availability of cheaper and ever more powerful computer resources. Optical waveguide had been used widely and becoming fast as a major reason in development of optical circuit that gives more advantages than conventional way. Thus, the analysis and modeling optical waveguides had been given special attentions by researchers as important step before waveguides can be practically used.

2.2

Background

The rapid development in fields such as fiber optics communication engineering and integrated optical electronics have expanded the interest and increased expectations about guided-wave optics, in which optical waveguides play a central role. Optical waveguides for optical fibers and optical integrated circuits utilize a wave phenomenon that traps the light locally and guides it in any direction,

9 although their propagation lengths differ greatly [2]. In order to develop new optical communication systems or optical devices, we need to fully understand the principle of optical guiding, while obtaining accurate quantitative propagation characteristic of waveguides and utilizing them effectively in actual design. The generally meaning optical waveguide is the physical structure that guides electromagnetic waves in the optical spectrum. Common types of optical waveguides include optical fiber and rectangular waveguides. Channel of optical waveguide such as buried, ridge, rib, slab and surface embedded. It is used as components in integrated optical circuit or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication system.

2.3

Buried Optical Waveguide channel

A buried waveguide is made by modifying the properties of the substrate material so that a higher refractive index is obtained locally. Most fabrication process results in a weak, graded index guide buried just below the surface. Diffusion is often used to fabricate this type of guide. For example Titanium metal can be diffused into Lithium Niobate substrates, by putting the metal strip about 10000A thickness follow by higher temperature (approach 10000 C) for three to nine hours. This is known as Ti:LiNbO3 [5] process as shown in figure 2.1. The additional of that metal act as an impurities that cause a change of the refractive index.

Figure 2.2 illustrate configuration of a dielectric channel waveguide (buried). The surrounded channel with the refractive index n1 greater than n2, n3, and n4, is called the core, or, the guiding channel. And the other areas with the lower refractive indices are called the claddings, or, index buffering layers. This whole structure is usually built on a substrate, such as silicon wafer, silica, glass or PC board.

In the structure shown in Figure 2.2, n2, n3, and n4 can be the same, which makes the structure a buried channel waveguide. n2 and/or n3 may be air. Depending on the geometric structure, refractive indices, and wavelength, certain modes can be supported and light can therefore propagate through the waveguide [4].

10

Ti:LiNbO3 Figure 2.1: Buried optical waveguide

Figure 2.2: Buried Optical waveguide for integrated circuitry

11 2.4 Types of Waveguides

Optical waveguides can be classified according to their:

geometry (planar, strip, or fiber waveguides) mode structure (single-mode, multi-mode) refractive index distribution step or gradient index) material (glass, polymer, semiconductor)

2.4.1 2-D Optical waveguides

Waveguides that trap the light only in the direction of thickness are called 2D optical waveguides or slab waveguides. It can be stepped or graded optical waveguides based on distribution of its refractive index. Figure 2.3 shows the simplest three layer waveguide structure. It is the simplest, most basic waveguide structure.

Here, nf, ns and nc represent the refractive indexes of the thin film, substrate, and upper cladding, respectively. When the upper cladding is air, as in most cases, nc=1. This type of optical waveguide is called a three layer dielectric waveguide or an asymmetric slab waveguide. The relationship among the refractive indexes is nc<ns<nf , and the light is trapped inside the thin film [1] . In the case of rectangular waveguide geometry the presence of the air-semiconductor interface also reduces the symmetry, to only x-direction, as shown in Fig.2.5.

The cross-sectional profile of a buried waveguide with rectangular core cross section, lying near to the air-semiconductor boundary is given in Fig.2.6. The waveguide of core refractive index n1, width 2W and thickness 2H, is buried in a semiconductor of refractive index n2 at a depth D below the air boundary. The cross section is divided in two regions: region I which encloses the rectangular waveguide core, ( | x | < W) and region II ( | x | > W) [6] .

12

nc= cladding refractive index

z

nf =film refractive index

ns=substract refractive index

Figure 2.3: Three layer dielectric waveguide

Figure 2.4: 2-D optical buried waveguide channel

Figure 2.5: Planes of symmetry of (a) deeply buried waveguide, (b) shallowly Buried waveguide

13

Figure 2.6: The cross-sectional profile of the air-clad buried waveguide

2.4.2

3-D Optical Waveguides

A 2-D optical waveguides can trap light in the direction of the thickness (y direction), but allows light to spread in the horizontal direction(x direction). In order to facilitate the construction of optical integrated circuits, various types of 3-D optical waveguides as shown in fig.2.7, or optical channel waveguides, which trap the light in both x and y directions, have been devised.

Figure 2.7: 3-D Buried waveguide channel

14 2.5 Buried Optical Waveguides Application

The buried optical waveguide is a very important component and suitable for integrated optical technologies, finding widespread and significant inferometers, splitters, and switches and also as an optical interconnects such as bends and junction. The higher index guiding layers are selectivity formed near subtracts surface by metal in diffusion, ion exchange, on implantation and light beam radiation. The buried type of channel waveguide has the advantages that that the propagation loss in typically lower in 1 dBm with smooth surface. Its usually suitable for bend waveguide with small curvature radii due to its characteristic that strongly transverse confinement of scattering loss due to waveguide wall roughness [3].

An optical waveguide that is uniform in the direction of propagation, as shown in Fig.2.1 is the most basic type of waveguide, but this alone is not sufficient for construction of an optical waveguides is placed on the substrate to construct an optical circuit with desired features. Corner bent waveguides, S-shaped waveguides, and bent waveguides are used to change the direction of the light wave. Tapered waveguides are used to change the width of waveguides; branching waveguides and crossed waveguides are used for splitting, combining, and interference; and optical waveguide directional couplers and two mode waveguide couplers are used for coupling. Waveguide gratings, with a periodic structure in the direction of propagations, play many important roles in the optical integrated circuit, such as wavelength filter, mode converter, reflector, resonator, demultiplexer, etc. Waveguide gratings are also used widely as a laser element, such as a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser or a distributed feedback (DFB) laser.

15 2.5.1 Fabrication process.

Semiconductor device fabrication is the process used to create chips, the integrated circuits that are present in everyday electrical and electronic devices. It is a multiple-step sequence of photographic and chemical processing steps during which electronic circuits are gradually created on a wafer made of pure semiconducting material. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor material today, along with various compound semiconductors.

The entire manufacturing process from start to packaged chips ready for shipment takes six to eight weeks and is performed in highly specialized facilities referred to as fabs [8] .

Figure 2.8: NASAs Glenn Research Center (fabrication process)

16
2.6 Optical Waveguide Analysis techniques

The propagation characteristics of optical waveguides can be calculated by solving Maxwells equations but this is not easy task. There are many reasons that optical waveguide analysis is difficult; some of the major reasons are listed below:

1) Optical waveguides have complex structures. 2) The general propagation mode is the hybrid mode. 3) Some optical waveguides have an arbitrary refractive index distribution (graded Optical waveguides), as in doped optical waveguides and non uniform core optical fiber. 4) The range of electromagnetic field distribution is open, or infinite. 5) Anisotropic materials and nonlinear optical materials are used to increase the range of performance. 6) Materials with a complex refractive index, such as semiconductors and metals, are used. To overcome these difficulties, various methods have been developed for the analysis of optical waveguides. Such methods may be roughly classified it analytical approximation solutions and numerical solutions using computer.

17
2.6.1 Analytical Approximation Solutions for Optical Waveguides

An exact analytical problem solution can be obtained for stepped 2-D optical waveguides and stepped optical fibers .if, however, the waveguide has an arbitrary refractive index distribution and exact analysis is no longer possible. Therefore, various types of analytical approximation solutions have been developed for 2-D optical waveguides in which the refractive index changes gradually in the thickness direction, and for optical fiber whose refractive changes gradually only in the radial direction.

In the case of 3-D optical waveguides for optical integrated circuits and non axisymmetrical optical fiber, hybrid mode analysis is required to satisfy the boundary conditions, even if the individual materials that constitute the waveguide are homogenous. However, the analytical approximation solutions developed for these optical waveguides generally do not treat them as hybrid mode, and therefore, the accuracy of the solution deteriorates near the cutoff frequency. The Marcatili method (MM) and the effective index method (EIM), known as typical analytical approximation solutions for 3-D optical waveguides, and the equivalent network method (ENM), which enables hybrid-mode analysis [9].

18
2.6.2 Numerical solutions for Optical Waveguides.

Numerical solutions can be grouped into the domain solution, which includes the whole domain as the operational area, and the boundary solution, which includes the whole domain as the operational area, and the boundary solution, which includes only the boundaries as the operational area. The former is also called a differential solution, and the latter, an integral solution. The domain solutions include the finite element method (FEM), finite difference method (FDM), variation method (VM) and multilayer approximation method(BEM), point matching method (PMM) and modematching method(MMM).For the analysis of graded optical waveguides, the use of boundary solutions is difficult. The finite difference method (FDM) is a simple numerical technique used in solving problem that uniquely defined by three things: 1) 2) 3) A partial differential equation such as Laplaces or Poisson equation A solution region Boundary and/or initial conditions

A finite difference method to Poissons or Laplaces equation, for example, proceeds in three steps: 1) Dividing the solution region into a grid of nodes

2) Approximating the differential equation and boundary conditions by a set of Linear algebraic equations (called difference equations) on grid points within solution region. 3) Solving this set of algebraic equations.

CHAPTER 3

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

3.1

Overview of numerical method

Numerical methods solve Maxwells equations exactly and the results the provide are often regarded as benchmarks. Integrated waveguides, by contrast, are usually rectangular structures which confine the light in both directions. Because they do not have planar or cylindrical symmetry, the eigenmodes of these structures cannot be computed analytically. Instead, numerical techniques must be used to solve the eigenvalue equations. There are many different numerical techniques for solving partial differential equations such as the Finite Difference (FD), Finite Elements (FE) and Finite Difference Beam Propagation (FDBPM) methods which are robust, versatile and applicable to a wide variety of structures. Unfortunately, this is often achieved at the expense of long computational times and large memory requirements, both of which can become critical issues especially when structures with large dimensions are considered or when used within an iterative design environment.

20 3.2 Finite Difference Methods (FDM)

The FD method is one of the most frequently used numerical techniques [6].Its application to the modeling of optical waveguides dates from early eighties, originally evolving from previous FD models for metal waveguides [8]. The FD method discretisizes the cross-section of the device being analyzed and is therefore suitable for modeling arbitrarily shaped optical waveguides which could be made out of isotropic homogeneous, inhomogeneous, anisotropic or lossy material. In the finite difference technique, differential operators are replaced by the difference equations, as example, the first derivative of a function f (x) could be approximated as

f '( x)

f ( x + x) f ( x) x

(1)

This is a very intuitive approximation and mostly elementary calculus define the fist derivative of a function to be just such a finite difference in the limit that
x 0 .This equation (44) fails entirely if the function f (x) is discontinuous in the

interval x x  x .Maxwell equations predict that the normal component of the electric field are discontinuous across abrupt dielectric interfaces. Therefore in order to develop an accurate model for eigenmodes of an optical waveguide, it must construct a finite difference scheme which accounts for the discontinuities in the eigenmodes [7].

The essence of the FD is to map the structure onto a rectangular mesh [8] [9] as example shown in Figure 3.3illustrates a typical finite difference mesh for ridge waveguide, allowing for the material discontinuities only along mesh lines. The refractive index profile has been broken up into small rectangular elements or pixels, of size x y .Over each of these elements, the refractive index is constant. Thus, discontinuities in the refractive index profile occur only at the boundaries between adjacent pixels. Because of the index profile is symmetry about the y -axis, only half of the waveguide needs to be included in the computational domain [7].

21 The computational window must extend far enough outside of the waveguide core in order to completely encompass the optical mode. The finite difference grid points, which the discrete points at fields are sampled, are located at the centre of each cell. Some finite difference schemes instead choose to locate at the grid points at the vertices of the each cell rather than at the centre. This approach works well for finite difference schemes involving the magnetic field H which is continuous across all the dielectric interfaces. However, the normal component of the electric field E is discontinuous across an abrupt dielectric interface, may leads to an ambiguity if the grid points are placed at cell vertices. Figure 3.4 shows that the possible ways of placing nodes on the mesh with a constant refractive index [10] and that node can be associated to maximum of four different refractive indices [9].

Figure 3.1: A typical finite difference mesh for an integrated waveguide.

The

refractive index profile n(x, y) has been divided into small rectangular cells over which n(x, y) is taken to be constant.

Figure 3.2: Locating nodes (a) on centre of a mesh cell or (b) on mesh points.

22 We will begin by deriving the finite difference equations for the scalar eigenmode approximation. Recall in this approximation nave been replaced by a single scalar eigenmode equation for one of the transverse field components denoted
(x, y) as equation (49).This approximation is valid for weakly-guiding

waveguides in which the refractive index contrast is small.

2 2 2 2 2 + 2 + k0 = 0 x y

(2)

Or

2 2 + 2 2 x y

2 + k T = 0

(3)

The parameter kT determines the propagation constant

through,

k 2T = 2 2 In order to translate this partial differential equation into a set of

finite difference equations, we must approximate the second derivatives in terms the values of (x, y) at surrounding grid points as

f '' ( x )

f ( x + x) 2 f (x) + f ( x x) x2

(4)

This approximation can be derived by performing a second order Taylor expansion of field about the grid point under consideration, P. With this notation, the central difference approximations of the derivatives of at the ( i, j ) th node are

xx i, j

(i + 1, j ) 2 (i, j ) + (i 1, j ) ( x 2 )

(5)

tt i, j

(i, j + 1) 2 (i, j ) + (i, j 1) ( t 2 )

(6)

23 The differential of scalar, semivectorial or vector polarized wave equation is then approximated, usually with a five point FD form in terms of the fields at the nodes of the mesh point. For improved convergence more accurate difference forms can be used [6].Taking into account the continuity and discontinuity conditions of the electric and magnetic field components at the grid interface the eigenvalue problem becomes of the form

[ A] = 2
where

(7)

>A@

is a band matrix which is symmetric for scalar modes [6] or non

symmetric for semivectorial[10][13] and vector modes. , the modal propagation eigenvalue and is the eigenvector representing the modal field profile. Whilst FD method is in principle straightforward to implement, numerical modeling of the open boundaries, typical of optical waveguides needs care. The problem is overcome by either (a) enclosing a structure in a sufficiently large rectangular box which does not disturb the penetration of the field and on which the zero field condition is imposed or (b) imposing an open boundary or matched boundary condition on the box sides for example by assuming exponential decay of the field in the outward normal direction. However when the device operates near cut-off the size of the box for both cases has to be sufficiently large to allow for substantial penetration of the field into the substrate. The accuracy of the method therefore depends on the mesh size, the assumed nature of the electromagnetic field and the order of the FD scheme used. In this projects work open boundary or matched boundary condition and non-uniform meshes have been proposed such that a finer mesh is applied in the region where the field changes rapidly and a coarser mesh for regions where field is stationary to make the FD method more flexible for modeling of large and complex geometries The variational method is used to establish the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors and the successive over relaxation method (SOR)[11]]has been considered as the acceleration factor as an improvement that speed the convergence process.

24
3.3 Numerical methods solve Maxwells equation exactly

The basic formulation that governs the propagation of light in the optical waveguide isa Maxwells equations that consist of the following [10]:

X E =

d B dt dD dt

X H = J + .B = 0 .D = V

(8)

Where:
E H

: Electric field intensity : Magnetic field intensity

D : Electric field B

: Magnetic field density

V : Electric charge density

J

: Current density

Assuming that the waveguide is made of isotropic, homogeneous and free of source medium, Equation (8) will become:

dB dt dD X H = dt .B = 0 X E = .D = 0
(9)

25 Manipulating Equation (9) will produce a so-called Helmholtz wave equation that adequately describes the propagation of electromagnetic wave. The wave equation for the electric field can be presented as:

d2E E = dt 2
2

(10)

Considering a y-polarized TE mode which propagates in the z-direction and as a propagation constant in longitudinal direction will then yield:

d 2 Ey d 2Ey 2 + Ey = Ey 2 2 dx dy

(11)

Taking k 2 as the total propagation constant which combine the horizontal and vertical part will then produce:

2 d 2 Ey d E y 2 2 k + + ( )Ey = 0 2 2 dx dy

(12)

Knowing that k is a multiplication of free space propagation constant, k0 and refractive index, n for respective layer, Equation (12) can be written in the form of:

2 d 2 Ey d Ey + 2 + (k02n2 2 )Ey = 0 2 dx dy

(13)

Equation (6) is the eigenfunction that need to be solved for determining the eigenvalue of and TE field distribution throughout the medium of interest.

26 In the application of finite difference method to solve Equation (6), the E field and the refractive index, n, is considered to be a discrete value at respective xand y coordinate and bounded in a box, which represent the waveguide cross section. The box is divided into smaller rectangular area with a dimension of

x and

y in

x- and y- directions respectively [8]. Brief description is given in Figure 1, where the
waveguide cross section area is divided into M N grid lines, which corresponds to the mesh size of x and y .

Considering the Ey having component in x and y direction E(x,y), Taylors expansion is applied to Equation (13) where the differential components are obtained as follows:

d 2 E E (i + 1, j ) + E (i 1, j ) 2 E (i , j ) = dx 2 x 2 d 2 E E (i , j + 1) + E (i , j 1) 2 E (i , j ) = dy 2 y 2

(14)

27 Combining Equations (6) and (7) will produce a basic equation for obtaining the electric field:

x2 E(i + 1, j ) + (i 1, j) + 2 ( E(i, j + 1) + E(i, j 1)) y E(i, j ) = x2 2 2 1 + 2 x2 (k02 n2 (i, j) 2 ) y

(15)

Where i and j represent the mesh point corresponding to x and y directions respectively. If Equation (13) is multiplied with y E and operating double integration towards x and y, it will yield:

d 2 Ey d 2 Ey 2 2 + 2 + k0 n Ey dxdy Ey dx2 dy 2 = 2 Ey dxdy

Equation (9) is called Rayleigh Quotient. Further application of finite difference method and trapezoidal rule to Equation (16) shall then produce:

(16)

(17)

Equation (17) is obtained by applying Dirichlet boundary condition which states the

E (i, j) = 0 at the boundary. Initial value of E (i, j) = 1 is set for other points. In order
to speed up the process, a successive over relaxation (SOR) parameter [8, 9], C introduced to Equation (15), which states that the iteration will converge faster for C

28 between 1 and 2. According to [9], taking SOR parameter into consideration will modify Equation (15) to be:

(18)

Alternate usage of Equations (17) and (18) for the decided tolerance will produce the final value of and the TE field distribution for the entire waveguide cross section.

neff of the fundamental mode is related to the propagation constant by

. Due to 2

difficulties in interpreting small differences of effective index values, a more sensitive comparison is made by introducing a normalized propagation constant [4],

b=

n 2 eff n 2 substrate n 2 guide n 2 substrate

(19)

This mathematical calculation will be developed into computer programming using Matlab R2006a and the result can be used to plot graph.

CHAPTER 4

MATLAB AND GUI DEVELOPMENT

4.1

Introduction of MATLAB software

MATLAB was mainly designed to solve any type level of mathematical problem for analysis purpose. Beside that, good capability of the software to deal with various useful problems concerned with the modeling, evaluation and optimization of the 3D waveguide structure performance. The Figure 4.1 shows that how the MATLAB works to develop software for optical waveguide simulation and the overall methodology of project will be given by flow chart in Figure 4.1.

4.1.1 Basic MATLAB features

MATLAB provides a logical solution to evaluate a number of commands or wish to change value of one or more variables in one prompt. It allows placing MATLAB commands in a simple text file and then telling MATLAB to open the file and evaluate commands exactly. These files are called script files or simply M-files. The term M-files recognizes the fact that script file name must end with the extension.m example, amp1.m to create a script M-files on a personal computer, choose New from the File menu and select M-File. This procedure brings up a text editor window where you enter MATLB commands. On other platforms, it is convenient to open a separate terminal window and use your favorite text editor in that window to generate script M-File. Script files are also convenient for entering

30 large arrays that may, for example, come from laboratory measurements. By using a text editor to enter one or more arrays, the editing capabilities of the editor make it is easy to correct mistakes without having to type the whole array in again.

The utility of MATLAB comments is readily apparent when using script files as show in M-file.m file. Comments allow you to document the command found in script file so that they are not forgotten when viewed in future. After running script files, the results of the command are displayed in the Command Window with variable identified. The plotting result for responses of command script files will be display on Figure. waveguides. An example of computational and software development step is as shows in Figure 4.4.You can see the MATLAB source code simulation propagation APPENDIX A.

31

Figure 4.1: The flow chart show that how MATLAB work

32

Preliminary studies Topic research and info gathering Mathematical equations for derivation and numerical method

TASK: Development program MATLAB in 3 D and simulation-model waveguide structure (buried) Test and run

Success?
YES NO

Trouble-shoot and reprogramming

Developed with Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Update and upgrade

End

Figure 4.2: The flow chart of the programming process

33 4.2 Basic Graphic User Interface (GUI)

The MATLAB programming environment is flexible and there are many ways to achieve the same functionality, especially in GUI programs. There are many advantages when we use the GUI programs, as an example, we can develop a simple graphical application, demogui. This application will display a window with an editable text field containing a number (initially "1") and two buttons which will allow us to increment or decrement this number by 1. The design of the user interface and the functionality of the application are often the most difficult aspects of GUI programming; the programming itself is not that hard. All functionality is programmed into a single m-file with a single argument which serves as a function selector. The various operations are to be implemented by calling this m-file with different values for the selector. The initialization of the application is achieved by calling demogui with no arguments. In Matlab, GUI can be designed using GUIDE. GUIDE is the MATLAB graphical user interface development environment. It provides a set of tools for creating graphical user interfaces (GUIs). It use to simplify the process of designing and building GUIs.

4.2.1

User of GUIDE

1)

Lay out the GUI

It can lay out a GUI easily by clicking and dragging GUI components such as panels, buttons, text fields, sliders, menus and so on. The GUIDE stores the GUI lay out in a FIG-file.

2)

Program the GUI

GUIDE automatically generates an M-file that controls how the GUI operates. M-file initializes the GUI and contains a framework for the most commonly used callbacks for each component (the commands that execute

34 when a user clicks a GUI component). We can edit the code of callbacks in M-file Editor.

4.2.2

Starting GUIDE

The GUIDE can be start by typing guide at the MATLAB command window. Then, GUIDE Quick Start dialog box will be displayed. In Matlab, there are 10 styles of Matlab Uicontrol objects. As example, Push Buttons, Toggle Buttons, Check Box, Radio Button, Editable text, List Box, Pop-up Menu, Slider, Frame and Static Text.

4.3

My GUI Concept

My GUI name will be given of this project. From main page,user can explore many section of Buried optical waveguide with just click the button. The EXAMPLE section have 3 subsection which waveguide 3x3, waveguide 5x5, waveguide 7x7.The objective to build this section to show the 3D figure of refractive index, optical normalized power and e-field profile with influence of air and larger thickness and width value.Next section is CALCULATION section, user just put the parameter of core thickness and core width,the result of effective index and normalized propagation constant will out. ANALYSIS section show the graph of effective index and normalized propagation from CALCULATION section.Last section is APPLICATION which it will give briefing and idea to the user about generally application and data sheet of optical waveguide.In APPLICATION section have 4 subsection such as optical concept, mathematical equation, material/substrate application and optical devices (APD Preamplifier, PIN Photo Diode, Optical fiber, Fiber Spec Corning, Laser Diode and Fabrication Process). Figure 4.3 shows the overview plan of My GUI concept and figure 4.4 figure 4.33 shows the My GUI output and pop up with friendly user.

35

Figure 4.3: Overview plan of My GUI

36

Figure 4.4: Main Page of My GUI

37

Figure 4.5: Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (3 x 3)

Figure 4.6: Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44),n cladding (3.34) and n air (1)

38

Figure 4.7: Optical Normalized Power button - 0.7010

Figure 4.8: E-field profile button

39

Figure 4.9: Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (5 x 5)

Figure 4.10: Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44),n cladding (3.34) and n air (1)

40

Figure 4.11: Optical Normalized Power button - 0.6500

Figure 4.12: E-field profile button

41

Figure 4.13: Main page for EXAMPLE section- waveguide (7 x 7)

Figure 4.14: Refractive index profile button- n core (3.44), n cladding (3.34) and n air (1)

42

Figure 4.15: Optical Normalized Power button - 0.6110

Figure 4.16: E-field profile button

43

Figure 4.17: Calculation part in My GUI

44

Figure 4.18: Analysis section in My GUI

Figure 4.19: neff graph (left) and b Graph (right)

45

Figure 4.20: Main page of application in My GUI

46

Figure 4.21: Optical concept button

Figure 4.22: Symmetry waveguide (left) and ray transmission (right) button

47

Figure 4.23: Mathematical Equation button

48

Figure 4.24: Material application button

Figure 4.25: figure 1 (left) and figure 2 (right) from material application button

49

Figure 4.26: Main pages of optical devices application button

50

Figure 4.27: APD Preamplifier application button

Figure 4.28: Photo diode application button

51

Figure 4.29: Optical fiber application button

Figure 4.30: Fiber Spec Corning application button

52

Figure 4.31: Laser diode application button

Figure 4.32: Fabrication Process button

CHAPTER 5

RESULT, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1

Result Process

Using MATLAB software it will be design 3D dimensional structure of buried waveguide channel and it will be user friendly for waveguide analysis on computer modeling. In This project to get the finally result must have two stage, first stage is MATLAB M-file result and second stage is GUI result.

5.1.1 First stage

The software consists of three main components which are inputs parameters, processing data and output. The input parameters for the software can be divided into two categories as shown in table 4.1. First categories of inputs are required by the algorithm of the Finite Difference Method. Second categories of inputs are used to control the sequence of the application. Data from input parameters will be used for calculating the output or to be transformed to other form of data.

54 Table 5.1: Categories of input Categories Of Inputs Types of Inputs Control Input 1)Rectangular waveguide dimension = Tolerance = 0.0001 wxt 2)Refractive index , n core = 3.44, n clad = 3.34 3)Mesh Size, dx = 0.01,dy =0.01 4)Wavelength = 1550 nm

Table 5.2: Processing Data Input 1)Waveguide dimension: thickness of cladding, guiding and core layer Processing data Index = width / mesh size Output Size of mesh index Such as N x M

2) Mesh size

Table 5.3: Final Output Input 1)Electric field distribution 2)Propagation constant, Output 1)Effective Index, neff 2)Normalized Constant 3)Three Graph: i) Refractive Index Distribution ii) 3D field distribution iii) Contour plot of field distribution

55 5.1.2 Second stage

After done with debugging and testing the code in M-file editor, graphical user interface (GUI) was applied to the code.GUI Builder is used for this purpose. The GUI has three sections as shown in the Figure 4.7.The Buried structure figure is used as a reference for the user to put the input parameters for the simulation. The input parameters are divided into three section; Waveguide dimension, Refractive index and Analysis setting. CALCULATE button on the below right of the GUI need to be pushed to start the simulation. The output for the simulation; Effective index and Normalized Propagation Constant will be shown on the same GUI. A window containing three figures; 3D plot contour, refractive index profile and field distribution profile also will pop up after the simulation.

5.2

Calculation result and Buried optical waveguide figure presentation

Figure 5.1 - 5.9 shows the waveguide structure of buried waveguide channel.n1 is the refractive index upper cladding, n2 is the refractive index core and n3 is the refractive index lower cladding. Meanwhile t1 represent of upper cladding thickness and w stand for core width. This project focused on buried square channel that symmetrical and straight waveguide. Have a little bit assumption for the calculation which assumes no air at the waveguide, t1 and t3 was fixed at 2 micrometer and assume n upper cladding (n1) and n lower cladding (n3) equal to 3.34. Beside that n core (n2) equal to 3.44 also assume lambda wavelength is 1.55 micrometer.

Meanwhile, the figure also shows the refractive Index profile, E-field contour plot with difference thickness. The value of E-field profile not constant and not proportional because the value depends on core thickness and core width. Its mean difference thickness and width influencing the optical normalized power and light propagation in the waveguide. Contour plot shows where light wave propagate and E-field radiated in waveguide either in core region or outside core region. The small

56 difference refractive index among core and cladding can give better performance of electromagnetic field pattern so electric field energy will radiate into core region and the single mode can propagate inside the waveguide. It will make contour plot located at the centre (core region) of waveguide which prove it is a buried channel.

n1 10m

t1=2m 10m

t2 n3

n2 w t3= 2m

Figure 5.1: Buried optical waveguide structure plan view

57

Figure 5.2 (a): The result of effective index, neff and normalized propagation, b at 3 x 3 waveguide

Figure 5.2 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 3 x3 from calculation section

58

Figure 5.3 (a): The result of effective index, neff and normalized propagation, b at 3.5 x 3.5 waveguide

Figure 5.3 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 3.5 x 3.5 from calculation section

59

Figure 5.4 (a): The result of effective index, neff and normalized propagation, b at 4 x 4 waveguide

Figure 5.4 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 4 x4 from calculation section

60

Figure 5.5 (a): The result of effective index,neff and normalized propagation,b at 4.5 x 4.5 waveguide

Figure 5.5 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 4.5 x 4.5 from calculation section

61

Figure 5.5 (a): The result of effective index,neff and normalized propagation,b at 5x5 waveguide

Figure 5.6 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 5 x 5 from calculation section

62

Figure 5.7 (a): The result of effective index,neff and normalized propagation,b at 5.5 x 5.5 waveguide

Figure 5.7 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 5.5 x 5.5 from calculation section

63

Figure 5.8 (a): The result of effective index, neff and normalized propagation, b at 6 x 6 waveguide

Figure 5.8 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 6 x 6 from calculation section

64

Figure 5.9 (a): The result of effective index,neff and normalized propagation,b at 6.5 x 6.5 waveguide

Figure 5.9 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 6.5 x 6.5 from calculation section

65

Figure 5.10 (a): The result of effective index,neff and normalized propagation,b at 7 x 7 waveguide

Figure 5.10 (b): The figure of refractive index profile, E-field profile and E-field contour plot output at waveguide 7 x 7 from calculation section

66 5.3 Effective index, neff and Normalized propagation constant, b analysis: In order to determine the accuracy light intensity trapped inside the core area within the structure, the effective index profile, neff should be in range between core refractive index, ncore (n2) and cladding refractive index, n cladding (n1 and n3) , ncladding neff ncore. neff of the fundamental mode is related to the propagation constant by

. From the table 1(a) have 9 sample data neff that calculate from GUI which 2

from 3m thickness to 7 m thickness with rectangular channel. The range neff,3.4281neff3.4294. From the data show that the neff in range between n core and n cladding and it suitable with theory. The increasing of thickness will produce the increasing of neff (figure 5.10 (a)). Therefore the value of also increase and it make the propagation light within the structure fully trapped into core active region also propagation loss was decreased.

Due to difficulties in interpreting small differences of effective index values, a more sensitive comparison is made by introducing a normalize propagation

constant,

b=

n 2 eff n 2 sub stra te n 2 gu ide n 2 substrate

The range of b from 3m to 7 m thicknesses was 0.3776 b 0.0241 as shown at table 5.4. From the graph 5.10 (b), b was decreasing when thickness increasing.

Table 5.4: 9 samples of data from GUI calculation (refer section 5.2) t2(m) neff b t2(m) neff b 3 3.4281 0.3776 5.5 3.4375 0.0796 3.5 3.4314 0.2720 6 3.4382 0.0568 4 3.4337 0.1994 6.5 3.4387 0.0387 4.5 3.4357 0.1474 7 3.4392 0.0241 5 3.4365 0.1089

67

Effective Index (neff) Graph 3.442

3.44

Effective Index x (neff)

3.438

3.436

3.434

3.432

3.43

3.428

3 4 Thickness(um)

Figure 5.11 (a): Effective Index, neff graph

Normalized propagation constant Graph 0.4 0.35 Normalized propagation constant 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

3 4 Thickness(um)

Figure 5.11 (b): Normalized propagation constant, b graph

68 5.4 Comparison with previous analysis

The analysis of Buried rectangular waveguide is similar to that of the dielectric guide in air. We study in this case the effect of anisotropy by considering a buried guide of the same aspect ratio as the dielectric guide studied (t x w ,with w = 2t).From reference [14], the core has an anisotropic relative permittivity tensor with components nx2=nz2=2.31 and ny2=2.19 and buried in a cladding of permittivity n22 = 2.05.

Figure 5.11 shows the dispersion characteristics for the lowest four modes of propagation in the waveguide. Computed results agree very well with those obtained by Ohtaka [15], Using a variational method and cylindrical harmonic function expansions. His results have been used frequently as a standard for comparison. Similarly to what was observed for the former example of a microwave dielectric guide with isotropic core, the use of finite elements rather than simple truncation greatly improves the accuracy of the solution in the low frequency range (kot < 3.5).The aspect ratio of the region divided into finite elements, the relative extent of finite elements outside the core and indeed the mesh quadrilaterals.

Compare with this project result, although use difference refractive index as a sample, but consider from effective index graph (see figure 5.10(a)) look neff proportional with thickness. When thickness increase cause neff increase and it is same with reference [14] and Ohtaka [15]. These project results are agreeable with theory.

69

kot Figure 5.12: Dispersion characteristic for the lowest four modes of an anisotropic Rectangular dielectric waveguide

70 5.5 DISCUSSION

From the point of view of the electromagnetic analysis, Buried optical waveguides can be characterized for not having closed boundaries, allowing the fields to extend to infinity in the transverse direction. The wave guiding effect is not produced by the presence of metallic walls but instead, being dielectric waveguides, this is produced only by differences in the refractive index of materials involved. Metal can be present, and indeed they are used in some optical guides, but their behavior differs substantially to that observed at microwave frequencies where the assumption of perfect conductivity is usually made. At optical wavelengths metals show strong absorption, this can be represented by a complex permittivity or refractive index. A dielectric material used in these guides often anisotropic and some degree of absorption (loss) is common and unavoidable. Additionally, optical waveguide frequently include active regions, effectively introducing a distributed gain in the structure which can be represented in the same form as losses are treated, that is, by a complex value of permittivity over those regions, this time with a positive imaginary part. Also, leakage into the substrate is not uncommon. This can occur in some optical wave guiding structures where the substrate or surrounding material has a high refractive index. Leaky modes do not show an evanescent behavior in the exterior region. They have complex propagation constants due to the radiation loss and consequently they need a special treatment for their calculation.

Although increasing core thickness is another option theoretically, on a practical level changing the core thickness is not desirable. A thick core has a lot of side effects, such as higher thresholds for lasers, and introduces poorer saturation characteristics for a semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA)[12].

The outputs for the simulation waveguide are influences by several factors such as mesh size which mesh size are important factor in determine the accuracy of the simulation process. Smaller mesh size will increase the accuracy of the Effective Index and Normalized Propagation Constant. The mesh size also determine the sharpness of the plotting either more accurate or not. But if the mesh size is too small, the simulating will take a longer computational time. Another factor is

71 tolerance where tolerance input will determine the number of iteration that will be process by the program. It is also contributing to the accuracy of the simulation because the used to calculate Effective Index and Normalized Propagation Constant need to be converging. The smaller value of the tolerance will also increase computational time. To determine the accuracy of this program, comparison was made to other existing method. Results were compared to Finite Element Method.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1

Conclusion

A good design of the buried optical waveguide is intended to limit propagation loss and the transition losses. So, in the integrated optical circuit, the optimum design of the buried channel waveguide should support with low loss and strongly optical confinement for practical implementation.

The propagation loss on straight waveguide dependence on the declaration value of refractive index used between core and cladding waveguide. Besides that, it wills dependence on value changers of lateral refractive index different whether it can propagates in fully energy or not within the structure waveguide. Therefore, the performance of buried waveguide will performed when refractive index different is high. This lateral index different is produced by the dispersion of material refractive indices and the electromagnetic different. So, the increased or refractive index difference will produces strong an optical confinement. Besides that, core thickness and core width influence the value of E-field, effective index and normalized propagation constant. In conclusion, the simulation software in this project can helps application of designed modeling performance especially aims for educational field and industries. It also economical to user with cheaper price than available optical software for example software from oversea that money exchange requirement.

73 6.2 Recommendation

There are two suitable recommendations to purpose in future works. In this project, the implement of waveguide simulation was used in a symmetrical planar waveguide. Firstly, I will recommend investigating an asymmetrical buried bend waveguide as a medium used to further my simulation programmed. In order to determine the accuracy of modeling techniques for calculating the result of integrated optical waveguides, we should compare for other techniques such as Finite Element Method (FEM) and Effective Index Method (EIM). The others software can be used beside MATLAB, such as AUTO CAD and Beam Propagation Method (BPM) and Bitline software, JAVA programming and Visual Basic programming.

74

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waveguides-Rib waveguides. Jurnal Teknologi,36(1) 129-143. 2) Palais J.C 1992, Fiber Optic Communication. Prentice Hall, Inc. A Simon& Schuster, Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 3) Ruth A.Jarvis, November 2002, Photosensitive optical waveguides devices and materials. Research School of Physical Sciences and engineering, Australia National University, Thesis. 4) E.A Marcatili, Dielectric rectangular waveguide and directional coupler for integrated optics,the Bell System Technical Journal September 1969, pp.2071-2101. 5) Koshiba Masanori 1992.Optical Waveguide analysis. Publisher: New York .Mac Graw-Hill 1992. 6) P.Sewell T.M Benson, M.Reed, P.C Kendell, Transcendental equation for the vectorial modes of buried waveguide, IEEE photonics. 7) Miller,SE 1969,Integrated Optics: An introduction, Bell System Technical Journal,U8(7) 2059-2069. 8) Wikimedia Foundation, Inca, US. Registered 501(3) tax

deduction.www.wikipedia.com. 9) Matthew N.O Sadiku-2001. Numerical techniques in electromagnetic. Second Edition .CRC Press, London, Washington DC. 10) Norazan Kassim, Abu Bakar Mohammad, Mohd Haniff Ibrahim, Optical waveguide modeling based on scalar finite difference scheme. Journal Teknologi,42(D) Jun 2005;41-54 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 11) J.B Davies, C.A.Muliwyk.1996.Numerical solution of uniform hollow waveguides with boundaries of arbitrary shape.

75 12) M.S Stern.1998.Semivectorial polarized finite difference method for optical waveguides with arbitrary index profiles.IEEE Proc Vol.135, Pt J.pp.56-63. 13) K.Bierwitrth, N.Schulz, F.arndt.1986.Finite difference analysis of rectangular dielectric waveguide structure.IEEE Trans.Microwave Theory Tech.Vol.34,P.P 1104-1114. 14) F. Anibal Fernandez, Yilong Lu.1996 Microwave and optical waveguide analysis.Research studies press LTD, Somerset, England. 15) M. Ohtaka, Analysis of the guided modes in the anisotropic dielectric rectangular waveguide, (in Japanese) Trans. Ins. Electron. Commun. Eng.Japan, vol. J64-C, pp. 674-681, October 1981

APPENDIX A

Source Code for Buried waveguide modeling by using MATLAB

77
function varargout = main page(varargin) % main page M-file for main page.fig % GUIJ, by itself, creates a new GUIJ or raises the existing % singleton*. % % H = GUIJ returns the handle to a new GUIJ or the handle to % the existing singleton*. % % GUIJ('CALLBACK',hObject,eventData,handles,...) calls the local % function named CALLBACK in GUIJ.M with the given input arguments. % % GUIJ('Property','Value',...) creates a new GUIJ or raises the % existing singleton*. Starting from the left, property value pairs are % applied to the GUI before guij_OpeningFunction gets called. An % unrecognized property name or invalid value makes property application % stop. All inputs are passed to guij_OpeningFcn via varargin. % % *See GUI Options on GUIDE's Tools menu. Choose "GUI allows only one % instance to run (singleton)". % % See also: GUIDE, GUIDATA, GUIHANDLES % Edit the above text to modify the response to help guij % Last Modified by GUIDE v2.5 18-Mar-2008 00:07:44 % Begin initialization code - DO NOT EDIT gui_Singleton = 1; gui_State = struct('gui_Name', mfilename, ... 'gui_Singleton', gui_Singleton, ... 'gui_OpeningFcn', @guij_OpeningFcn, ... 'gui_OutputFcn', @guij_OutputFcn, ... 'gui_LayoutFcn', [] , ... 'gui_Callback', []); if nargin && ischar(varargin{1}) gui_State.gui_Callback = str2func(varargin{1}); end if nargout [varargout{1:nargout}] = gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:}); else gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:}); end % End initialization code - DO NOT EDIT

% --- Executes just before guij is made visible. function guij_OpeningFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles, varargin) % This function has no output args, see OutputFcn. % hObject handle to figure % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % varargin command line arguments to guij (see VARARGIN) % Choose default command line output for guij handles.output = hObject; [x,map]=imread('officialutmslide.jpg'); image(x) colormap(map) axis off % Update handles structure guidata(hObject, handles); % UIWAIT makes main page wait for user response (see UIRESUME) % uiwait(handles.figure1);

78
% --- Outputs from this function are returned to the command line. function varargout = main page_OutputFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % varargout cell array for returning output args (see VARARGOUT); % hObject handle to figure % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Get default command line output from handles structure varargout{1} = handles.output; % --- Executes on button press in pushbutton1. function pushbutton1_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton1]=wg3x3(); % --- Executes on button press in pushbutton2. function pushbutton2_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton2 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton2]=wg5x5(); % --- Executes on button press in pushbutton3. function pushbutton3_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton3 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton3]=wg7x7(); % --- Executes on button press in pushbutton4. function pushbutton4_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton4 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton4]=CALCULATION(); % --- Executes on selection change in popupmenu1. function popupmenu1_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: contents = get(hObject,'String') returns popupmenu1 contents as cell array % contents{get(hObject,'Value')} returns selected item from popupmenu1

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function popupmenu1_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: popupmenu controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

% --- Executes on selection change in popupmenu3. function popupmenu3_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu3 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB

79
% handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA)

% Hints: contents = get(hObject,'String') returns popupmenu3 contents as cell array % contents{get(hObject,'Value')} returns selected item from popupmenu3

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function popupmenu3_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu3 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: popupmenu controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

function edit1_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to edit1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of edit1 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of edit1 as a double

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function edit1_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to edit1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

% --- Executes on selection change in popupmenu4. function popupmenu4_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu4 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: contents = get(hObject,'String') returns popupmenu4 contents as cell array % contents{get(hObject,'Value')} returns selected item from popupmenu4

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function popupmenu4_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to popupmenu4 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: popupmenu controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor'))

80
set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

% --- Executes on button press in pushbutton5. function pushbutton5_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton5 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton5]=aplication() % --- Executes on button press in pushbutton6. function pushbutton6_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to pushbutton6 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [pushbutton6]=ANALYSIS2() CALCULATION PART

function varargout = CALCULATION(varargin) % CALCULATION M-file for CALCULATION.fig % CALCULATION, by itself, creates a new CALCULATION or raises the existing % singleton*. % % H = CALCULATION returns the handle to a new CALCULATION or the handle to % the existing singleton*. % % CALCULATION('CALLBACK',hObject,eventData,handles,...) calls the local % function named CALLBACK in CALCULATION.M with the given input arguments. % % CALCULATION('Property','Value',...) creates a new CALCULATION or raises the % existing singleton*. Starting from the left, property value pairs are % applied to the GUI before CALCULATION_OpeningFunction gets called. An % unrecognized property name or invalid value makes property application % stop. All inputs are passed to CALCULATION_OpeningFcn via varargin. % % *See GUI Options on GUIDE's Tools menu. Choose "GUI allows only one % instance to run (singleton)". % % See also: GUIDE, GUIDATA, GUIHANDLES % Copyright 2002-2003 The MathWorks, Inc. % Edit the above text to modify the response to help CALCULATION % Last Modified by GUIDE v2.5 06-Apr-2008 15:02:22 % Begin initialization code - DO NOT EDIT gui_Singleton = 1; gui_State = struct('gui_Name', mfilename, ... 'gui_Singleton', gui_Singleton, ... 'gui_OpeningFcn', @CALCULATION_OpeningFcn, ... 'gui_OutputFcn', @CALCULATION_OutputFcn, ... 'gui_LayoutFcn', [] , ... 'gui_Callback', []); if nargin && ischar(varargin{1}) gui_State.gui_Callback = str2func(varargin{1}); end

81
if nargout [varargout{1:nargout}] = gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:}); else gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:}); end % End initialization code - DO NOT EDIT

% --- Executes just before CALCULATION is made visible. function CALCULATION_OpeningFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles, varargin) % This function has no output args, see OutputFcn. % hObject handle to figure % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % varargin command line arguments to CALCULATION (see VARARGIN) % Choose default command line output for CALCULATION handles.output = hObject; % Update handles structure guidata(hObject, handles); [x,map]=imread('structure.JPG'); image(x) colormap(map) axis off % Update handles structure guidata(hObject, handles); % UIWAIT makes CALCULATION wait for user response (see UIRESUME) % uiwait(handles.figure1);

% --- Outputs from this function are returned to the command line. function varargout = CALCULATION_OutputFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % varargout cell array for returning output args (see VARARGOUT); % hObject handle to figure % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Get default command line output from handles structure varargout{1} = handles.output;

function t2_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to t2 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of t2 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of t2 as a double t2= str2double(get(hObject, 'String')); if isnan(t2) set(hObject, 'String', 0); errordlg('Input must be a number','Error'); end % Save the new volume value handles.metricdata.t2=t2; guidata(hObject,handles) % --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function t2_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to t2 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB

82
% handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called

% Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

function W_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to W (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of W as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of W as a double W= str2double(get(hObject, 'String')); if isnan(W) set(hObject, 'String', 0); errordlg('Input must be a number','Error'); end % Save the new volume value handles.metricdata.W=W; guidata(hObject,handles)

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function W_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to W (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

function n1_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of n1 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of n1 as a double n1= str2double(get(hObject, 'String')); if isnan(n1) set(hObject, 'String', 0); errordlg('Input must be a number','Error'); end % Save the new volume value handles.metricdata.n1=n1; guidata(hObject,handles) % --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function n1_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n1 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called

83
% Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

function n2_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n2 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of n2 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of n2 as a double n2= str2double(get(hObject, 'String')); if isnan(n2) set(hObject, 'String', 0); errordlg('Input must be a number','Error'); end % Save the new volume value handles.metricdata.n2=n2; guidata(hObject,handles) % --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function n2_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n2 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

function n3_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n3 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of n3 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of n3 as a double n3= str2double(get(hObject, 'String')); if isnan(n3) set(hObject, 'String', 0); errordlg('Input must be a number','Error'); end % Save the new volume value handles.metricdata.n3=n3; guidata(hObject,handles) % --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function n3_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to n3 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called % Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor'))

84
set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end

% --- Executes on button press in CALCULATE. function CALCULATE_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to CALCULATE (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) dx1=0.1; %handles.metricdata.dx; dy1=0.1; %handles.metricdata.dy; t2=handles.metricdata.t2; t3=2; %handles.metricdata.t3; w=handles.metricdata.W; h=2;%handles.metricdata.h; lamda=1.55; %handles.metricdata.lamda; a=10;%handles.metricdata.a; n1=handles.metricdata.n1; n2=handles.metricdata.n2; n3=handles.metricdata.n3; Iteration1=500; %handles.metricdata.Iteration; lamda=lamda*10^(-6); miu=4*pi*10^(-7); heks=8.854*10^(-12); C=3*10^8; kiraan=1; T=h+t2+t3; L=a+a+w; mT=round(T/dy1); mh=round(h/dy1); mt2=round(t2/dy1); mt3=round(t3/dy1); mL=round(L/dx1); mw=round(w/dx1); ma=round(a/dx1); r=sqrt((dy1^2)/(dx1^2)); N=ones((mT+1),(mL+1)); %***************************************** %Buried Optical waveguide modeling %***************************************** for i=(mT+1):-1:(mh+mt2+2) for j=1:1:(mL+1) N(i,j)=n4; end end for i=(mh+mt2+1):-1:(mh+2) for j=(ma+1):1:(ma+mw+2) N(i,j)=n2; end end for i=(mh+mt2+1):-1:(mh+2) for j=1:1:ma N(i,j)=n3; end end for i=(mh+mt2+1):-1:(mh+2) for j=(ma+mw+1):1:(mL+1) N(i,j)=n3; end

85
end for i=mh:-1:1 for j=1:1:(mL+1) N(i,j)=n1; end end f=C/lamda; omega=2*pi*f; ko=sqrt((omega^2)*miu*heks); beta=ko*n4; ddx=dx1*10^(-6); E=ones((mT+1),(mL+1)); E(:,1)=0; E(:,(mL+1))=0; E(1,:)=0; E((mT+1),:)=0; %****************************************** %calculation start %***************************************** while kiraan<Iteration1 for i=mT:-1:2 for j=2:1:mL E(i,j)=(E((i+1),j) + E((i-1),j) + (E(i,(j+1)) + E(i,(j1)))*r^2)/(2*(1+r^2) - (ddx^2)*((ko^2)*(N(i,j)^2)-beta^2)); end end kiraan = kiraan + 1; ddy=dy1*10^(-6); %****************************************** % neff calculation %****************************************** %Calculate num and den for Raleigh Equation num=0; den=0; for i=mT:-1:2 for j=2:1:mL d2Ex=(E((i+1),j)+E((i-1),j)-2*E(i,j))/(ddx*ddx); d2Ey=(E(i,(j+1))+E(i,(j-1))-2*E(i,j))/(ddy*ddy); num=num+dy1*dx1*(E(i,j)*(d2Ex+d2Ey+E(i,j)*N(i,j)*N(i,j)*ko*ko)); den=den+dy1*dx1*E(i,j)*E(i,j); %calculate new beta beta=sqrt(num/den); %effective index calculation Neff=beta*lamda/(2*pi); %normalized calculation constant calculation b=((Neff*Neff-n2*n2)/(n3*n3-n2*n2))*pi; end end %normalization equation Etotal=0; for j=1:1:mL for i=1:1:mT Etotal=Etotal + E(i,j);% Larger value E(i,j) end end for j=1:1:mL for i=1:1:mT E(i,j)=E(i,j)/Etotal;% normalize equation

86
end end end set(handles.Neff,'String',Neff); set(handles.b,'String', b); x=0:dx1:L; y=T:-dy1:0; figure subplot(2,2,2); mesh(x,y,E) xlabel('X-axis,mikrometer') ylabel('Y-axis,mikrometer') zlabel('E distribution') title('E-field Profile') subplot(2,2,1); mesh(x,y,N) title('Refractive Index Profile') subplot(2,2,3); contour(x,y,E) xlabel('Waveguide width (um)') ylabel('Waveguide heigth (um)') title('E-field Contour Plot') hold on x=[0 L L 0 0]; y=[0 0 T T 0]; line(x,y,'linewidth',1); hold on x=[0 L]; y=[t3 t3]; line(x,y,'linewidth',1); hold on x=[0 a a a+w a+w L]; y=[t2+h t2+h t3 t3 t2+h t2+h]; line(x,y,'linewidth',1); hold on % --- Executes on button press in MENU. function MENU_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to MENU (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) [MENU]=main page(); main

function edit11_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to edit11 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA) % Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of edit11 as text % str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of edit11 as a double

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties. function edit11_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles) % hObject handle to edit11 (see GCBO) % eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB % handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called

87
% Hint: edit controls usually have a white background on Windows. % See ISPC and COMPUTER. if ispc && isequal(get(hObject,'BackgroundColor'), get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor')) set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white'); end